CHAPTER 48

Principles of Optical Fibre

Transmission and Manufacture

Optical fibre has moved over a twenty year period from the research phase to now being
employed in the long-haul segments of every major telecommunication network in the
world. There is little doubt that over the next ten years optical fibre transmission will
play a part in every telephone call that the reader of this book makes and every
television picture that the reader watches.
As is explained elsewhere, optical fibre is also an important medium for advanced
sensing systems with new applications in, for example, temperature sensing of power
cables, and, therefore, we expect that most of our readers will have access to optical
fibres in their professional lives. In this chapter a brief introduction to the topic of
optical fibre and optical fibre transmission is given. The reader who requires a detailed
account of the topic is referred to the extensive literature on the subject which is
becoming available, some of which is given in appendix A21.

O P T I C A L FIBRE WAVEGUIDES

An optical fibre is a thin glass strand, usually a fraction of a millimetre in diameter,

which, at its centre, has a region which is able to guide light along its length. This is
achieved by the centre (or core) region having a higher refractive index than its
surroundings. Light is totally reflected at this boundary and thus guided along the
length of the fibre.
In a step index fibre, the refractive index is constant across the core, whereas in a
graded index fibre the refractive index decreases gradually away from the centre of the
core. Simple geometrical optics can be applied effectively to such structures to gain a
good explanation of their waveguiding properties.

Step index fibres

Consider a ray making an angle 0i, with the end of a step index fibre, as shown in
fig. 48.1. Refraction at the air-glass interface causes the ray's path to be deflected

688
 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 689

Fig. 48.1 Ray paths in a step index fibre

towards the normal. Snell's law gives the refracted angle inside the glass, Or, as follows:
no sin 0i = nl sin Or (48.1)
where no and nl are the refractive indices of air and the glass core respectively. This ray
is incident at the core/cladding interface at an angle 7 where
7 + Or = 90 ° (48.2)
n2 is the refractive index of the glass cladding. For angles larger than the critical angle,
7c, defined by

sin 7c =--n2 (48.3)

nl

the ray experiences total internal reflection at the core/cladding interface. This effect
occurs along the length of the fibre and is the basic mechanism by which light is guided
along optical fibres.

Graded index fibres

The refractive index in graded index fibre decreases gradually in approximately
quadratic fashion radially from a maximum value at the fibre centre. Figure 48.2
illustrates the ray paths in such a refractive index profile.
Fibre rays follow a curved path through the fibre core due to the constant variation
in refractive index. The ray is gradually curved with an ever-increasing angle of
incidence onto the next generation of refractive index until the condition for total
internal reflection is met and the ray then begins to travel back towards the core axis.

Multimode fibres
When the diameter of the fibre core is large compared with the wavelength of light, this
simple ray picture is a good approximation and rays can travel within the core of the
fibre at essentially any angle between 0c and 90 °. Rays travelling parallel to the axis of
690 Electric Cables Handbook

Fig. 48.2 Ray paths in a graded index fibre

the fibre have a shorter physical path length than those travelling at higher angles.
In step index fibre these rays travel at the same velocity because the refractive index is
constant. Any practical light source connected to the end of the fibre launches rays at a
range of angles and so a short pulse of light will arrive at the far end extended in time by
virtue of the different paths followed by the light emitted at different angles. This effect
is called modal dispersion and is discussed in more detail later.
In graded index fibre, however, the refractive index is lower at the edge of the core,
and rays travelling here have a higher velocity. In a fibre with a parabolic refractive
index profile light emitted at an angle to the fibre axis will follow a curved oscillatory
path. Light travels faster when its path takes it away from the fibre axis and this
compensates for the longer path length along which it has to travel. It can be shown in
this case that all rays have nearly the same velocity along the fibre axis and thus modal
dispersion and, therefore, pulse broadening is minimised.

Single mode fibres

In the foregoing treatment we have assumed a simple model of light propagation.
Readers familiar with waveguide theory will appreciate immediately that not all angles
of ray propagation can be supported. Angles at which rays are allowed to propagate are
equivalent to the electromagnetic modes of the waveguide which have different group
velocities. When the core diameter of the fibre is reduced to a critical value, typically in
the region of 10~tm for commercial silica fibres, only one mode of propagation is
allowed. Such fibres are termed single mode (or monomode), and constitute the
standard grade of fibre used in long-haul telecommunications applications. Because
pulse spreading is minimised in these fibres they have very large bandwidths, and for
practical purposes the bandwidth of a single mode fibre system is constrained by the
terminal equipment.

OPTICAL FIBRE MANUFACTURE

Optical fibre is normally made by drawing the fibre down from a large diameter ingot or
'preform'. There are three basic manufacturing steps: preform manufacture, sometimes
 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 691

referred to as laydown; fibre drawing, and final measurements. In the case of silica fibre
there are several different processes for making the preforms: Outside Vapour Deposition
(OVD), Vapour Axial Deposition (VAD) and Inside Vapour Deposition (IVD).
The largest proportion of fibre produced worldwide is made using the OVD process,
and an explanation of the process is given below. It should be noted that once the
preform has been completed, the rest of the fibre making process (i.e. drawing,
measurements etc.) is the same for each of the three preform production techniques.

Preform manufacture
The initial stage of fibre manufacture is preform deposition which occurs in enclosed
lathes. Oxides from the combustion of various chemical vapours are deposited as 'soot'
on a rotating mandrel. This process is known as 'Outside Vapour Deposition'.
Regulated lateral movement of the mandrel relative to the burner ensures uniformity
of deposition and concentricity with each successive layer. The vapour mix determines
the composition of each layer, hence the refractive index profile can be established
(see fig. 48.3).
The deposition process occurs simultaneously in a series of lathes, each individually
controlled and monitored by computer in an environmentally controlled clean area.
Typically the soot is formed by a mixture of silica (SiO2) and oxides of dopant materials
which raise (using germanium) or lower (using fluorine) the refractive index of the
material. By varying the level of germanium and the number of passes through
the burner, the refractive index and the ultimate diameter and refractive index profile
of the core is determined and thus whether the fibre is single or multimode and step or
graded index, as discussed previously.

i'---,"'---i'-
I i I
(
I
....
t
,.___),._ _2>.___13,
| I --'

'Soot' preform

Vapour delivery system Fuel gas/oxygen

Silicon Germanium
tetrachloride tetracl'floride
Fig. 48.3 Preform manufacture (Courtesy of Optical Fibres)
692 Electric Cables Handbook

Preforr

glass

idation
,~

Fig. 48.4 Preform consolidation (Courtesy of Optical Fibres)

Preform consolidation
After deposition is completed the porous 'soot' preform is passed through a two-
stage consolidation process. In the first stage drying gas is blown into the furnace
reducing the moisture in the pores of the preform to a residue of a few parts per billion
(see fig. 48.4). The high temperature, second stage induces preform collapse into a solid
glass rod.

Fibre drawing
The drawing facility is constructed as a tower, with the furnace at the top and pulling
wheels at the base. Naturally, in a process demanding extreme dimensional stability, no
vibration can be tolerated. Consequently, the draw towers are mounted on substantial
reinforced concrete foundations.
The glass rod is fed into the furnace, its tip heated until molten and the fibre drawn
from below. Once a fibre has been established the diameter is monitored by laser beam
just below the furnace. Any variation, within fractions of a micron, results in
instantaneous computer controlled adjustment of the pulling speed (see fig. 48.5).
As the fibre is drawn, two polymeric coating layers are applied and the coated fibre
is wound on to drums under controlled tension. The coatings not only protect and
permit easier handling of the fine glass fibre but are essential to ensure ultimate
performance.
 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 693

Fibredrawing
furnace

/'1
l o,Diameter
o,
~ Resincoating
application

Fibrewin,

Fig. 48.5 Fibre drawing process (Courtesy of Optical Fibres)

Fibre measurement
Every fibre drawn is subjected to a series of optical and mechanical measurements.
Prior to measurement the fibre is rewound on to measurement drums under very low
tension and is proof tested at a fixed strain level for a set time. For multimode fibre the
measurements include attenuation, bandwidth at two wavelengths, core diameter, and
numerical aperture (a measure of the range of angles through which a fibre will accept
light and sustain its transmission). For single mode fibre the related measurements
include mode field radius (the effective size of the fibre core in which light is
propagated), core concentricity (how accurately centred the core is relative to the
surrounding cladding layer) and cut-off wavelength (the shortest wavelength at which
694 Electric Cables Handbook

propagation is single mode, and below which multimode propagation is supported) in

addition to attenuation at several wavelengths. Other mechanical and environmental
properties are continuously monitored on a sample basis.
All measurement equipment is designed for accuracy and speed of operation. Once
the fibre is established in the measurement equipment the measurements are controlled
by, and all results stored in, a computer. These measurements can be recalled at any
time for any fibre produced.
Finally, the fibre is wound from the measurement drums on to shipping reels.

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Dispersion

Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both digital and
analogue transmission along optical fibre and arises from a number of causes.
Intramodal or chromatic dispersion may occur in all types of optical fibre and results
from the intrinsic variation of the refractive index of the material with wavelength,
together with the finite spectral linewidth of the optical source. As different wave-
lengths travel with different speeds in the fibre core, a propagation delay difference
occurs between the different spectral components of the transmitted signal. More
accurately, intramodal dispersion may be caused by material dispersion resulting from
the different group velocities of the various spectral components launched into the fibre
from the optical source, and waveguide dispersion due to the variation of the angle of
the ray with the fibre axis with wavelength.
Pulse broadening resulting from the propagation delay difference between different
modes within the multimode fibre is referred to as intermodal dispersion. As has been
discussed, the effect is significant in step index multimode fibres, and much reduced in
graded index fibre.
In purely single mode operation, however, it follows that there is no intermodal
dispersion and pulse broadening is due solely to the intramodal dispersion mechanisms.
As a result, single mode fibre exhibits the least pulse broadening and, therefore, the
greatest bandwidth.

Fibre loss

We have discussed how fibre dispersion limits performance of communication systems.

Fibre loss also limits this as the performance of optical receivers is degraded as the
input signal is reduced. The following sections discuss the various loss mechanisms in
optical fibres.
Generally, the power attenuation inside an optical fibre is governed by
dP
-- c~e (48.4)
dz

where o~ is the attenuation coefficient and P is the optical power; o~ includes several
sources of power attenuation, two important ones being material absorption and
Rayleigh scattering. Table 48.1 illustrates typical optical losses for several different
 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 695

Table 48.1 Typical fibre attenuation values

Fibre type Attenuation at Attenuation at Attenuation at

850nm (dB/km) 1310nm (dB/km) 1550 nm (dB/km)

Single mode (8/125 ~tm)a - 0.35 0.25

Multimode (50/125 I~m) 2.4 0.5 -
Multimode (62.5/125 lam) 2.8 0.6 -

a Dimensions are core/cladding diameter

types of optical fibres. Note that single m o d e fibres are often produced with attenuation
values as low as 0.18 dB/km at a wavelength o f 1550 nm (1.55 ~tm) and this means that
only 4.2% of optical signal is lost per kilometre.

Material absorption

Material absorption can be considered to have two elements. Intrinsic material

absorption arising from the structure of pure silica and extrinsic absorption caused by
the loss due to presence of impurities. F o r silica, electronic and vibrational resonances
occur in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of the optical spectrum respectively. The
main impurity present in modern silica fibres is pure water vapour, albeit reduced to
very low concentrations (typically less than 1 part in 108), causing vibrational harmonics
at 1.39, 1.24 and 09.4 ~tm, which appear as peaks in the loss versus wavelength spectrum

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
g 0.8 ~'~

0.t3 .
"~.,~

i
0.4 Infrared absor )tion / ~
~ ~ ~ J -...
-- ~
0.2 •
Intrinsicscattering ~ ' ~ ]
~ z._~_
0.0 I
~100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700

Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 48.6 Typical spectral attenuation profile of silica single-mode fibre

696 Electric Cables Handbook

as shown in fig. 48.6. Other dopants used in the fabrication process to produce the
desired refractive index profile can give rise to other losses.

Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is caused by small variations in material density which cause local
changes in the refractive index on a scale smaller than the optical wavelength. The
scattering cross-section varies as A-4 and this explains why the fibre attenuation
normally decreases with wavelength up to about 1.6gm (apart from the noticeable
water peak previously mentioned at 1.39 gm).
As Rayleigh scattering reduces beyond 1.6gm, infrared absorption begins to
dominate, explaining why attenuation then starts to increase with wavelength.
Scattering can also be caused by the presence of particulate impurities, but in modern
silica fibre, this is negligible. In commercial silica fibres, fibre loss is at a minimum at a
wavelength of around 1.551am, and this area of the spectrum is termed the third
transmission window. Optical transmission at this wavelength is not always practicable
for every system, and sometimes dispersion constraints lead engineers to use another
wavelength. There are two other low loss regions with the so-called first transmission
window at 0.85 gm (850 nm) and the second transmission window at 1.31 lam (1310 nm).

SOURCES OF FAULTS IN OPTICAL CABLES

Bend losses
A significant power loss mechanism for optical fibre is associated with the fact that the
optical signal propagating in the fibre can be attenuated whenever the fibre encounters
bends which have a radius of curvature below a critical value. These bending losses can
be classified in terms of micro-bending or macro-bending, depending on the nature of
the bend imposed by the fibre. Macro-bending losses arise whenever the fibre axis is
bent by radii of the order of millimetres or more; the attenuation will be localised at the
bend and increases significantly with increasing source wavelength. This type of loss
impacts the third transmission window (1.55p.m) to a greater extent than other
transmission wavelengths and is often introduced by fibre handling upon installation.
Macro-bending losses are, therefore, normally detected directly after installation and
cable jointing.
Micro-bending losses arise whenever the fibre axis is subjected to a small quasi-
periodic perturbation (of the order of tens of microns). This can occur when the fibre
is pressed against a surface that is not perfectly smooth, usually as a result the cabling
process. In order for the attenuation to be significant, the micro-bending mechanism
would normally need to be distributed throughout several kilometres of fibre length.
Micro-bending losses normally increase slowly with increasing source wavelength, and
consequently cable failures caused in this way usually impact on both transmission
windows. This type of loss is related to the design of the optical fibre cable and choice of
fibre/cable materials and may arise only several years after installation and exposure to
harsh environmental conditions.
In addition to bend losses introduced during the cabling process and subsequent
installation, there are several other causes of increased optical attenuation in optical
fibre cables.
 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 697

Ingress of hydrogen
As outlined earlier, hydrogen can impair the optical transmittance of optical fibre by
forming absorption bands. First, molecular hydrogen can permeate into the silica
leading to infrared absorption at 2.421am. Both the 1.311~m and the 1.55~tm
transmission windows can be affected by the flanks of these absorption peaks. The
actual attenuation increase is dependent on the hydrogen pressure, and a saturation level
is reached after about 500 hours exposure. The attenuation saturation level is found to
decrease with increasing temperature. On removal of the hydrogen the attenuation
reduces to its original level, hence this effect is sometimes termed the reversible effect.
A permanent attenuation increase results from OH-ions reacting with germanium
and phosphorous dopants within the fibre. In this case the loss is manifested as a
growth in the already existent OH absorption peak at about 1.4 I~m (Ge-OH), and an
increase at about 1.6 ~tm (P-OH).
For hydrogen concentration to build up in the vicinity of fibres there has to be some
local generator of hydrogen and some means of containing it in the cable. Many
conventional optical cables use a central steel strength member which may corrode with
time thus generating hydrogen. There have been instances when a peripheral metallic
water barrier applied to the cable has prevented hydrogen from escaping allowing it to
build up to levels sufficient to cause measurable losses. The use of non-galvanised steel
wire reduces this risk. In some countries the use of a hydrogen scavenging material in
the interstices of the cable has proved popular, although the absorbing capacity and
longevity of such materials is not well understood.
Non-metallic cable designs, using only polymeric materials, also generate hydrogen
during their natural decomposition process. However, the quantity of the hydro-
gen produced and its retention in the structure is very small compared with that
emanating from metals, and consequently associated optical losses are undetectable.

Material compatibility
Optical fibres are manufactured with a variety of protective coatings to preserve the
integrity of the underlying glass strand. Changes in properties of the fibre coating can
give rise to localised coating delamination resulting in significant microbending losses.
It is, therefore, important that the characteristics of fibre coatings and their adhesion to
the glass surfaces do not change as a result of ageing, contact with other materials, such
as tube filling gel, or materials from the environment in which the cable is installed, such
as water, cleaning fluids or fuels. These concerns are reflected in specifications
addressing issues of mutual compatibility of cable materials and the exposure of the
optical fibre to contaminants (including water).

OPTICAL FIBRE STRENGTH

Contrary to popular perceptions, silica glass is a very strong material which in its pure
form without surface flaws results in strains at break of about 5%; the effect of surface
flaws is that failure of the fibre can occur at much lower strains. Much effort is taken in
fibre manufacture to minimise these flaws and to protect the bare fibre surface from
damage by applying a polymeric surface coating immediately after drawing the fibre on
698 Electric Cables Handbook

the tower. The fibre is then proof-tested by straining it to a pre-determined level for a
short time to screen out any small number of larger flaws which would cause the fibre to
break at low strains.
It is important to appreciate that surface flaws (or cracks) will grow if the fibre is
under strain, a phenomenon known as static fatigue. Eventually the flaws will grow to a
point when growth becomes very rapid and the fibre will break. This is a vitally
important design criterion for optical cables. It must be ensured that the level of strain
which fibres experience over their lifetime through cable manufacture, installation and
service in the field is such that the probability of crack growth is acceptably low.
Much theoretical and experimental work has been done to understand fully the
mechanisms of crack growth leading to usable design rules for the incorporation of
fibre into cables. ~'2 For applications in extremely adverse environments, so-called
'fatigue resistant' and hermetically coated fibres have been developed in which
advanced coatings are applied to the fibre to inhibit crack growth.

MEASUREMENT OF OPTICAL TRANSMISSION FAULTS

Optical time domain reflectometry

Optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) is the most commonly used technique for
testing long and short haul cable links. One of the main practical advantages of the
technique is that it only requires access to one end of the fibre under test. OTDR may be
used to test attenuation (or length) of cable sections or of various joints and demountable
connections. The OTDR operates by launching a fast pulse of laser light into the optical
cable to be measured. The light is scattered by Rayleigh scattering along the length of the
fibre and a small fraction is scattered and guided back toward the OTDR. This
backscattered light is analysed to produce an attenuation profile of the fibre along its
length as illustrated in fig, 48.7. The distance travelled by the transmitted laser pulse to a
certain point along the fibre can be calculated by multiplying half the time taken for the
pulse's back-scattered reflection to be received back at the OTDR by the velocity of light

-2
A End of test fibre

Launch reel
- - ~ _
$ -8
_

(D - 1 4 - Fibre under test

•
-16 -
-18 I I I I I I I I
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
Distance (km)
Measurement wavelength = 1320 nm

Fig. 48.7 A typical OTDR trace

 Principles of Optical Fibre Transmission and Manufacture 699

in the glass core. If the appropriate refractive index is keyed into the OTDR, the time
sampling can be converted into distance and the results observed represent the optical
power level, and, therefore, loss, as a function of distance along the fibre.

Cutback
A more accurate, but more time consuming, method for determining the optical
attenuation of cables is the cutback or insertion loss technique. Here the cable to be
measured is connected between a light source operating at the desired wavelength and an
optical detector. Herein lies a practical drawback to the method - access is required to
both ends of the fibre. The light source should be specified for single mode or multimode
requirements, whichever is required. The method of connecting the cable to the source
will depend on whether a connectorised source is used. If so, then a connectorised pigtail
may be spliced to the launch end of the cable and attached to the source. The output end
of the fibre can be coupled into the detector using a bare fibre adaptor. In this
configuration, the power meter is set at zero, the cable is cut at the launch end and then
the fibre is reinserted into the detector. The resulting change in attenuation equates to the
insertion loss of the cable. Great care must be taken to establish suitable launch
conditions prior to the measurement to represent transmission accurately over
reasonable distances. This may involve ensuring that the cladding is mode stripped
(i.e. higher order modes which may be weakly propagated within the cladding layer,
rather than the fibre core, are eliminated) and that the core is mode scrambled
(artificially evening out the power propagated in the various transmitted modes as they
naturally become over a long length of fibre). Such detail is beyond the scope of this
section and the reader is referred to other texts for a comprehensive explanation.

REFERENCES

(1) Glaesemann, G. S. and Gulati, S. T. (1991) 'Design methodology for the

mechanical reliability of optical fiber'. Optical Engineering 30 (6), 709-715.
(2) Hodge, K. G. et al. (1992) 'Predicting the lifetime of optical fibre cables using
applied stress histories and reliability models'. 41st Proc. lnt. Wire and Cable Symp.,
pp. 713-724.