VTERINARY AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION EDUCATION

UNIT 1. LIVESTOCK BASED LIVELIHOODS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF DOMESTICATION AND THEIR SOCIAL DIMENSIONS

Animal domestication

Animal domestication has been practiced for many centuries and has profoundly affected
the course of civilization. Animal domestication has not only provided a ready supply of
food, clothing and companionship but, in many respects, has changed the way people live
and view the world. An understanding of the domestication process is important in dealing
with issues related to animal welfare. The process of adaption to man and the captive
environment is a major consideration is nearly all studies dealing with domestication.

Defining Domestication

Darwin (1859,1868) suggested that domestication is more than taming, that it

includes breeding animals in captivity , is goal-oriented, may occur without conscious effort
on the part of man, increases fecundity, may bring about the atrophy of certain body organs,
enables animals to achieve greater plasticity and is facilitated by subjugation to man, the
domesticator.

It is difficult to formulate a definition of domestication but in terms of the

evolutionary and biological processes involved, domestication is defined as ‘that process
by which a population of animals becomes adapted to man and to the captive environment
by some combination of genetic changes occurring over generations and environmentally
induced developmental events recurring during each generation’ (Price,1984)

Domestication is rearing animals under human custody so that breeding and other
management take place under human supervision and control. Animals are of three types.
Wild: Animals that live without human control
Tamed: Animals reared under human custody, but breeding not under human control
Domesticated: Animals reared under human custody, but breeding and management take
place under human control

Examples of Animal Domestication

The domestication of the dog’s wolf-like ancestor sometime between 10,000 and 15,000
years ago is believed to be the first example of animal domestication and the only
domestication to have taken place during the hunter-gatherer stage of human cultural
development. The development of large, relatively permanent agriculture-based societies was
the primary event initiating livestock domestication about 10,000 years ago. With the
exception of the pig and Llama families, ungulate domestication e.g. cattle sheep and goats
largely began in the broad area of land stretching from present day Turkey to Iran. Pigs were
domesticated separately in Europe and Asia about 9000 years ago.

Domestication of the Llama (Llama glama) and alpaca (Lama pacos) took place in
South America about 6000 years ago. Ukraine began domesticating horses (Equus caballus)
for meat and transportation. Domestication of ungulate species hunted for meat can be
viewed as an elaboration of the predator-prey relationship whereby herding is used to

Animal Period Purpose

domesticated
Dog 10000-15000 Companion, hunting

Goat 9000-10000 Food, clothing

Pig 9000 Food, sporting

Sheep 7000 Food, clothing

Cattle 7000 Work, religious reasons

Chicken 6000 Food, game, fancy

Horse 4000-5000 Sports, transportation

Camel 4000 Transport

guarantee a dependable and

renewable source of animal protein with minimum risk and expenditure of energy. Rodents
were also exploited for meat and clothing. Guinea pigs (cavia porcellus) have been
domesticated for 3000-4000 years. The indigenous peoples of Peru and surrounding
countries in South America bred guinea pigs for food and religious ceremonies.
Domesticated guinea pigs arrived in Europe in the late 16th century AD. Rabbits
(Oryctolagus cuniculus) were domesticated in southern Europe approximately 2500 years
ago. Domesticated poultry also became an important resource in early agrarian settlements.
 The house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) was used for scientific research as early as
1664, when Robert Hooke used a mouse to study the properties of air, and particularly
oxygen. Chickens (Gallus domesticus) were domesticated from jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) in
Thailand and its adjacent regions and taken north to China about 6000 BC. Wild turkeys
(Meleagris gallopavo) were first found in North America but were domesticated in Europe
starting about 500 years ago.

To sum up,
 About 10,000 years ago the transition from hunting and foraging for food to the
domestication of plants and animals took place.
 It was a shift from food quest or food procurement to food production. It was by no
means a smooth transition and may have been spread over many centuries.
 At first people may have had to supplement the food they produced with food they
procured by hunting and foraging, but gradually the dependence on wild food resources
may have lessened as domesticated plants and animals increased in quantity and
improved in quality.
 Spatial mobility, a basic requisite of the nomadic way of life, may also have given way to
the process of sedentarisation, which is a necessary condition for the domestication of
plants or cultivation. However, the domestication of animals or animal husbandry has
different requirements.
 Spatial mobility, which may have temporarily been given up, became the basic requisite
for animal herding.
 The shift from food quest to food production occurred with the onset of the Neolithic
period, and one of the first regions to undergo this transition was south-west Asia, as is
shown by polynological and archaeo-zoological studies of the remains of domesticated
plants and animals in Israel, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, Iraq and Iran, all from before 5000
BC.
 The first animals to be domesticated, before 6000 BC, were probably sheep and goats
from the arid highlands of Persia and Anatolia, to be followed by cattle (Bos) in the
lowlands of Mesopotamia.
 Gradually diverse animals would have come under human control in other regions also.
In the Indian sub-continent there is evidence from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicating
the domestication of sheep, cattle (even buffaloes) from the animal remains that have
been found and studied.

Pastoralism
Historically, pastoralism is considered an offshoot of mixed agricultural and herding
subsistence patterns, in adaptation to grasslands and marginal areas not suitable for growing
cereal plants. Pastoralism was probably the consequence of new problems in managing
domesticated plant and animal resources.
After about4,000 years of mixed farming and animal husbandry, two different kinds of
people emerged: the peasant, who was completely sedentarised on permanent sites suitable
for agricultural pursuits, and the herdsman or pastoralist, who was almost entirely dependent
on livestock raising. People in remote parts of the world have maintained
nomadic pastoralism as a way of life, but as a cultural system it has Old World origins.
The livestock on which pastoralism is based include sheep, goats, bovines (cattle, yaks),
equines (horses, asses). Buffaloes (Bubalis bubalis domesticus) seem to have come under
human control at a later period about 2000 BC in the Indus Valley and 1000 BC in China.

Social implications
As plants and animals underwent domestication, humans acquired the power to alter their
ecosystem in ways that favored their immediate needs.
1. Arable areas were extended by deforestation and irrigation.
2. Increased local production of food encouraged population growth and the formation
of stable settlements.
3. Through conscious or unconscious selection the anatomy behavior and productivity
of animals like sheep and goats were modified. The selection for production of wool
or milk added further to their societal value.
4. Horses and water buffalo domesticated were not only used for meat or milk, but could
also be ridden or harnessed to ploughs and other devices that eased the physical
burdens of soil preparation planting and harvest. Horse-mounted cavalrymen proved
particularly intimidating the battle.
5. Domestication enriched human society by providing companionship, recreation,
materials needed for clothing, readily available food and power to assist in labor-
intensive tasks.
6. Much of modern medical technology was derived through research with dogs, pigs,
calves and sheep.
7. Porcine cardiac tissue has been used to replace failing valves in the human heart, and
researchers now study transparent pigs as potential organ donors for humans with
terminal organ dysfunction.
8. Unfortunately, the increasing density of human populations has also been associated
with the advent of epidemic disease, some of which had their origins in or was spread
by, domestic animals.
9. Cattle are the most commonly used animals for work throughout the world. Water
buffalo are also used in the humid tropics, and donkeys, horses, mules and camels in
the drier and temperate areas.
10. Animal carts and sledges are used to transport goods and people in rural areas,
especially where roads are unsuitable for motor vehicles. Many of the people owning
and using these animals are landless people, to whom the animal represents the main
way of earning a living.
11. Draft animals are also used in the timber industry and to power stationary equipment
such as water pumps, sugar cane crushers, and grinding mills.
12. Meat, milk, and eggs produced by domestic animals have long represented important
parts of the diets of many people. Animal source foods provide a safe, convenient,
and palatable means of providing a number of essential nutrients and the addition of
such foods to diets composed primarily of cereals has well-documented nutritional
benefits, especially for children. Also, the demand for meat, milk, eggs, and fish is
increasing in developing countries as income increases.
13. The unknown future includes climate change and competing land for bio fuels, which
will affect the allocation of land for food and animals.
14. The higher nutritional value of animal source protein is markedly enhanced by its
higher vitamin and trace element content than plant sources, especially for children.
15. The large generation of by products which are consumed by livestock emphasizes the
role livestock play in sustainable food and fiber system for humans
 CHAPTER 2
EVOLUTION AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY

The primary event initiating livestock domestication was the formation of large
relatively stable agricultural societies some 9000-10,000 years ago when cultivation of plants
began. Agriculture has been a crucible of evolutionary change, thousands of years ago, and
this change permeates agricultural endeavours at all levels of biological organization, ranging
from the individual gene through to whole communities. Agro-ecosystems thus provide one
of the most cogent examples of situations where anthropogenic effects are major
determinants of biotic interactions within and among species and communities, suggesting a
central role for the application of evolutionary principles.

In the development of human society, the shift to a relatively settled way of life from
a nomadic hunter-gatherer life-style was enormously profound, and made possible only by
the development and adoption of early agricultural practices. In turn, this change in human
life-style had major impacts on the environment of agriculture and hence the traits and
characteristics of plants and animals that were favoured both consciously and unconsciously
by humans.
As agriculture developed, the environment of the field and paddock became
increasingly differentiated from that of the natural environments in which plants and animals
originally evolved. For plants, nutrient availability generally rose, plant density and genetic
uniformity increased, and the balance in competition shifted from inter-specific
considerations to intra-specific ones (particularly with the general reduction in species
diversity). Tilling and crop rotation were further agronomic practices that were introduced
partly for fertility reasons but also for control of natural enemies, as rotation causes shifts in
whole fungal pathogen communities. It is interesting to note that another generation of
changes to tilling practices – minimum tillage – is to some extent now altering ecological and
evolutionary interactions at the plant–soil interface towards a different set of fungal control
issues.
 Similarly for animals, domestication created a more predictable environment with
increased resource availability during harsh times and protection from predators, but
increased threats from contagious diseases, all subtly influencing the evolutionary make-up
of our livestock. Over the last few thousand years, domestication, selection and hybridisation,
both unconscious and conscious, has also led to significant changes in the appearance of
plants and animals and their nutritional value. Examples are seen in virtually all plant and
animal species that are farmed.

In horticulture, this diversity is often highly prized in the form of different varieties
that are preserved for subtle variations in flavour, texture or simply appearance (e.g. in
potato, tomato, apple). In a similar way, extensive selection in farmyard fowls (chickens,
ducks, geese and turkeys), and in pigs, sheep and cattle have given rise to very many
distinctive breeds that differ in milk production, flesh texture and flavour, and obvious
appearance, as well as in less obvious traits, such as patterns of social behaviour.

Extensive agriculture has also seen similar major changes that have resulted in
significant increases in yield and productivity. In plants, perhaps one of the most dramatic
changes to have occurred within a species is found in the emergence of modern high-yielding
hybrid maize from its close relative teosinte, and the subsequent application of a number of
induced mutations and the introduction of an F1 hybrid system. Similarly dramatic changes
have occurred in meat and fibre production and quality in selected beef and sheep varieties
respectively.

In essence, throughout the history of agriculture, changes in agronomic and animal

husbandry practices and in the crops and animals being farmed have had collateral effects
that have changed the balance and intensity of different selective forces. This has been
particularly apparent in plants where increasing nutrient status (particularly nitrogen)
generally favours the growth and development of insect and fungal pests.

As selection by humans shifted to a conscious understanding of genetics, the focus

also increasingly centred on accumulating single major gene traits because these could be
more readily manipulated. In the realm of biotic interactions involving pests and pathogens,
these approaches have often precipitated the equivalent of an ‘arms race’ between humans
and these natural enemies of their crops.

Importantly, in contrast to many other evolutionary issues in agro-ecosystems,

interactions between disease causing organisms and our crops and livestock are characterised
by much more dynamic and unpredictable reciprocal evolutionary change. For example,
during the 20th century, breeding for rust resistance in cereals through the deployment of
single major genes for resistance, placed major selection pressure on relevant pathogen
populations leading to the rapid emergence of new pathotypes with novel pathogenicity
profiles capable of overcoming the recently deployed resistance. Indeed, this reciprocal
process became so rapid and predictable that it became known as ‘man-guided evolution of
the rusts’ (Johnson 1961).

Clearly then, developments in our understanding of evolution and genetics have had
unintended effects as well as having a huge impact on the process of conscious plant and
animal improvement. In recent decades, technological advances, particularly in molecular
biology, have further accelerated this process.

Traditionally in the context of agricultural breeding, to understand relationships

between domesticated species we look to the concept of the gene pool to understand the
closeness of relationship between any two species and the potential for utilizing and
combining desirable traits. Those in the primary (landraces and immediate wild progenitors)
and secondary (closely related species) gene pools, because of their sexual compatibility
have been used for some time as sources of beneficial traits. However, until the dawn of the
molecular revolution, access to valuable traits in the tertiary gene pool (more distantly related
species) was exceptionally difficult while access to the quadranary gene pool (organisms
from other kingdoms) was impossible.

The process of domestication is one of the most obvious ways in which human-driven
selection has driven evolution in agriculture. Traits that differentially affect group versus
individual fitness have particular importance in agricultural production where domesticated
plant and animal populations are generally grown at high densities. Aggressive behaviour in
chickens and pigs, for example, can be individually advantageous, but result in reduced yield
overall. Similar conflicts between individual and group yield mediate production in cropping
systems.

GM technologies provide one of the few examples where evolutionary principles

(pyramiding of genes, crop refuges) have been explicitly applied in a pre-emptive fashion to
minimise risks (another is seen in the use of varietal mixtures for disease control in cereals).
The studies presented here represent only a fraction of the diversity of evolutionary issues of
relevance to agro-ecosystems.

With regard to human-driven selection of yield-associated traits in crops there are

many other issues associated with changes in plant structure and architecture, genome
duplication during domestication, and life history traits such as flowering time; tillering rates
etc. that have practical significance. New opportunities for evolutionary analysis also arise
from recent advances in our ability to quickly characterize patterns of soil biodiversity (e.g.
next generation DNA sequencing, microarrays) at multiple spatial scales and with rigorous
replication – the necessary foundation for exposing the cryptic genetic variation that
underpins soil community function.

Agriculture is thus the source of diverse selective forces, and modern agriculture – its
species and practices, is the outcome of a continuous process of change that has dramatically
changed physically and genetically all components of agro-ecosystems. Further advances in
the genetic potential of crops and livestock will continue to be dominated by conventional
breeding strategies made increasingly efficient by advances in marker technologies.

Overall therefore, recognition and application of ecological and evolutionary

principles will be an increasingly important part of the overall development and management
of agriculture, particularly in the context of climate change (new plants and animals), and the
imperative for greater sustainability (shifts in land management). Therefore, biologists need
to consider agro-ecosystems as useful models for the scientific investigation of evolutionary
processes.
 CHAPTER 3
FARMING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FARMING IN INDIA

I. Concept and definitions

1. Farming: Farming is defined as an organized system of management of farm operations.

Farming is an activity that involves the use of land for cultivation of crops, raising of
animals etc. There are several factors, which determine the type of farming undertaken by
an individual / organization and these factors are classified as physical,
economic and social as given below.

2. Factors determining type of farming

Physical factors
 Climate
 Soil
 Topography
Economic factors
 Marketing cost
 Changes in relative value of farm products
 Availability of labour and capital
 Land values
 Cycles of over and under production
 Competition between enterprises
 Miscellaneous – Seasonal availability of raw material, diseases etc.
Social factors
 Type of community
 Cooperative spirit

3. Farming system:
It is a system of farm organization, which denotes a particular method of agriculture and
specific type of ownership of land.
Concept: Farming system is an integrated set of activities that farmers perform in their farms
under their resources and circumstances to maximize the productivity and net farm income
on a sustainable basis. The farming system takes into account the components of soil, water,
crops, livestock, labour, capital, energy and other resources, with the farm family at the
centre managing agriculture and related activities.

The set of elements or components are interrelated which interact among themselves,
with the farmer at the center exercise control and choice regarding the types and results of
interaction. A judicious mix of any one or more of these enterprises with agronomic crops
should complement the farm income and help in recycling the farm residues / wastes. The
selection of enterprises must be based on the cardinal principles of minimizing the
competition and maximizing the complementary between the enterprises.
Defining farming systems
Farming System is defined as a complex inter related matrix of soil, plants, animals,
implements, power, labour capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families and
influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that
operate at many levels. The farming system therefore, refers to the farm as an entity of inter
dependent farming enterprises carried out on the farm”. The farm is viewed in a holistic
manner. The farmers are subjected to many socioeconomic; biophysical, institutional,
administrative and technological constraints.
4. Farming systems strategies
 Agriculture
 Agriculture + livestock
 Agriculture + livestock + poultry
 Agriculture + Horticulture+ Sericulture
 Agro forestry + Silvipasture
 Agriculture (rice) + Fish culture
 Agriculture ( rice) + Fish + Mushroom
 Floriculture + apiary (bee keeping)
 Fishery + duckery + poultry

5. Features / Characteristics of Indian Farming

Characteristics
 Low income
 Low yield
 Subsistence ( no surplus to sell)
 Risk prone
 Rain –fed
 Low external input
 Diversified- range of products
 Small scale in nature
Features
 Agriculture is backbone of Indian economic system
 Provides employment to 65 % of the total workforce on the country
 Source of livelihood- More than two-thirds depend on agriculture
  Contribute to national income- nearly one-half of our total annual income come from
agriculture
 Provider of food/ source of food
 Supports industrial sector
 Plays a vital role in trade: contribute to about 70 % of exports
 Source of state revenue
 Instrumental in economic planning
 Social and political relevance (poverty eradication, inflation, raising agri-livestock
wages, employment generation etc.)

II. Classification of farming:

Farming can be classified based on six broad categories
1. Size of Farm / scale of operation Small scale farming
Large scale farming
2. Factors of production invested Intensive farming
Extensive farming
Semi intensive farming
3. Value of products (or) income Specialized farming
Mixed farming
Diversified farming
Integrated farming
4. Land ownership Co-operative joint farming/Co-operative
Collective farming
Peasant farming
State farming
Capitalistic farming
5. Supply of irrigation Irrigated farming
Dry farming
6. Nature of product Crop farming
Livestock farming

III. Different types of farming

Peasant farming

It refers to the kind of farming in which individual cultivator is the owner, manager and
organizer of the farm. He takes decisions and formulates plan for farm depending upon
available resources. Resource base of peasant farming is essentially poor.
Advantage: Farmer is free to take all type of decisions
Disadvantage: Resources are limited. Peasant farming falls under the category of small
scale farming
Cooperative farming

Cooperative means living and working for a common purpose. Cooperative farming
therefore means a system of farming where a group of people are voluntary associated based
on equality for economic and social benefits.
Eg ) Anand Pattern dairy cooperatives (APDC)
Cooperative farming is based on principles of cooperation and protects farmers from
exploitation. There is an elected management managed under a democratic set up.

Collective farming

It refers to thecCollective management of resources where a large number of families

live in the same village. Members provide their land, livestock and machinery for farming
and work together under a management committee elected by them. Committee manages the
farming activities by proper allocation of work. Resources belong to the entire society and
the individual farmer has only a limited voice. Payment is made on work-day basis. Based on
the principle of communism, this is popular I communist countries. Collective farming
sometime adopts cooperative principles and principle of equality is not maintained.
Dividends (a share of profit) obtained by the members of collective farming are proportionate
rather than equal.

Specialized farming

A specialized farm is one in which 50 per cent or more of the total income are derived
from a single source or enterprise. It is a farming in which only a few enterprises are run by
the farmer, in which he has acquired knowledge. Major income is from single enterprise or
one kind of farm business. A specialized farm specializes in production and marketing of a
single commodity such as dairy farm (milk), poultry farm (egg ad chicken), vegetable farm
(vegetables) etc.. There can also be subsidiary income sources like sale of manure, grains,
extra fodder etc. Generally specialized farming is large scale in operation.
Advantages of specialized farming are
 Best suited to particular soil, climate, topography and other physical conditions like
market type.
  Work easily gets reduced to routine.
 Better marketing.
 Better management.
 Less equipment and labour needed.
 Efficiency and skill of personnel increased.
 Costly and efficient machinery can be kept.
 Farmer can secure complete mastery over the conditions, problems of production,
processing and sale.
 Under favourable and specific conditions extremely profitable.
 eg. Commercial and large scale dairy and poultry farms

Diversified farming
When farming is organized to produce one main product but also has several other
enterprises each of which itself is the direct source of income, it is called diversified farming.
In this system of farming, a number of enterprises are taken up in the farm where no single
enterprise is relatively much more important than the other. Income is derived from several
commodities or sources
But income no single source is more than 50 per cent. The diversified farm and specialized
farm differ in the extent to which different enterprises are undertaken.

Mixed farming
Combining two independent agricultural enterprises on the same farm is called mixed
farming. Eg, crop production is combined with livestock production. Here at least 10 percent
and maximum 49 percent (less than 50 percent) of total income is contributed by minor
component which may be either crop or livestock. This type of farming system need to be
studied as a whole and not in different parts. Mixed farming is one kind of integrated farming
as well as diversified farming.
Advantages
 Proper employment and income round the year
 Regular and quick income
 Efficient utilization of family labour
 Crop residues are better utilized by livestock while livestock provide draft poer and
manure for crop production
  Meets family food requirements
 Helps in maintaining soil fertility
 Reduces risk of losses due to failure, market price etc.
Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and poultry are the most extensively reared species on mixed
farms.

Contract farming
Contract farming refers to contractual arrangements with farmers and companies
whether oral or written, specifying one or more conditions of production and / or marketing
of an agricultural product (Ramesh , 1999)
Egs: commodities requiring mass market, Seed multiplications, organic foods, veg , fruits
and exotic produce, Medicinal / herbal plants
Contract farming allows corporate retailers and food processing companies to enter into an
agreement directly with the farmers to produce their products. This ensures a steady supply
of commodities. Ownership of land and other factors of production remain with the farmer.
Companies can only buy the agricultural produce but at no cost they can buy the land.
Contract farming provides a good framework for flow of credit to marginal and small farmers
at a reduced transaction cost.

Advantages
1. Economic security to farmers/ producers: It provides assured price for agricultural
produce, reduces the risk and uncertainty in price fluctuation. Growers are ensured
stable and sustained market for their produce
1. Effective transfer of technology to farmers
2. Timely input supply: Corporates provide the farmers access to inputs like high
yielding seeds, new plant varieties, quality fertilizers and pesticides
3. Infrastructure facilities like efficient storage and transport facilities will be provided
by corporates with minimum wastage.
4. Efficient and effective national agricultural productive system
Types of contract farming
Based on nature of agreement, contract farming may be classified into three broad categories.
 1. Market specification: Pre harvest agreements that bind both the parties to a particular
set of conditions governing the sale of produce like, specify price, quality, quantity
and timing
2. Resource providing: contracts oblige the contractor to supply inputs, credits etc in
exchange for marketing agreement
3. Production management: Bind the farmer to follow a particular production method or
input regime in exchange for marketing agreement

State Farming

Farm operation and management is done by the government or university. Such

farms are either attached to some institutions or they themselves are institutions.
Supervision is done by the farm manager and labourers are hired on daily or monthly
basis. The farm may be mechanized or non-mechanized depending on the size of the farm.
There is no limitation of resources.
However, because of the lack of personal interest and stake of the individual, this type
of farming is not profitable. They mostly serve the purpose of extension, research or
demonstration.

Corporate farming

Corporate Farming is also known as capitalist or estate farming. Here

a corporate or a syndicate is formed for the purpose of cultivation. The farm
is managed in a modern way with a limited liability. This farming is
characterised by large land holdings, modern methods of agriculture and
hired labour. It is suitable for efficient and large-scale production. Such type of farming was
found in the States of Bombay, Madras and Mysore specifically for the plantation of Coffee,
Tea, Rubber and Sugarcane.

Capitalistic Farming

Management and ownership of the farm remain under rich person or capitalist. Size
of such farm is sufficiently large and management is very efficient. The farm may be owned
by individual, or a group of individuals or share-holders.
 Resources are plenty and latest technologies are used. Hence, they are very efficient.
This type of farming is very common in western countries like USA, Canada, Australia, etc.
In India, tea and coffee estates come under this category. Capitalistic farming falls under the
category of large-scale farming and is specialized in nature.
Small- scale and large scale farming

When farming is operated on a small scale, the system of farming is known as Small
scale farming. Diversified, mixed and integrated farming come under this category.
The main features are
 Minimum losses during calamities
 Operated on a small scale
 Per unit output is high
 Less mechanization
 Not much organized

When farming is operated on a large scale, the system of farming is known as large scale
farming. It has the nature of specialized farming. It is characterized by
 Large factors of production
 More capital and labour required, and the risk is high
 More mechanization
 Less cost of production per unit
 Better marketing (processing, packaging, transportation is economical) is possible
 Ownership is like corporate or capitalistic

Difference between Large scale and small scale farming

Large scale Small scale
1 Labourers are hired Family members act as labourer
2 Manager is appointed Not appointed
3 Production is more Production is less
4 Standard of production is maintained Standard not maintained
5 Production for sale For household consumption
6 Organized operation Not organized
7 Scope of development No scope
8 Scope of research No scope
9 Scope of application of new technologies No scope
Intensive and extensive farming

In intensive farming, land remain fixed while other factors of production ( labour,
capital and organization/ enterprise ) are increased.Example : Multi-tier cage system of
poultry farming
Backyard poultry and rural dairy production system are examples of extensive farming.
Intensive, semi intensive and extensive farming can be differentiated on the basis of
following criteria

CRITERIA INTENSIVE SEMI INTENSIVE

SPEED OF OPERATION High Medium
QUALITY OF RESOURCES Good Medium
RATE OF GENERATION OF INCOME High Medium
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION More Medium

Integrated farming

Integrated means combining two things in such a way that one become fully a part of
the other
Integrated Farming System (IFS) is an interdependent, inter related and interlocking
production system of crop, animal and related subsidiary component in such a way that it
maximizes the utilization of nutrients of each subsystem and minimizes the negative effect of
production on environment. It is a kind of diversified farming.
ie. Waste / by product of one system is utilized as basic input for other system, thus making
them mutually integrated as one unit.
Features
• Enhanced productivity
• Increased profitability
• Increased income
• Reduced cost of production
• Additional employment
• Enhanced efficiency in utilization of resources
• Reduced investment risk through diversification of farming enterprize
Organic farming

According to Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), organic agriculture is a

holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro ecosystem
health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the
use of management practices in reference to the use of off-farm inputs , taking into account
that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using
wherever possible agronomic , biological and mechanical methods ( non- synthetic) as
opposed to using synthetic materials to fulfill any specific function within the system.

Organic agriculture may be defined as a kind of diversified agriculture wherein the crops
and livestock are managed through use of integrated technologies with preference to depend
on resources available either in farm or locality.
Organic animal Husbandry: Defined as a system of livestock production that promotes the
use of organic and biodegradable inputs from the ecosystem in terms of animal nutrition,
health, housing and breeding. It deliberately avoids the use of synthetic inputs like fertilizers,
feed, drugs, additives etc. It is a specialized form of diversified farming. The term organic
refer to the concept of farm as an organism, rather than explicitly the type of inputs.

Organic Farming: Method of farming that works at grass root level , preserving the
reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil , good plant nutrition and sound soil
management , producing nutritious food rich in vitality and resistant to diseases (APEDA,
Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority)

Aim of organic farming is to increase productivity with minimum dependence on chemicals,

while conserving resources without polluting water, soil and air. To claim a product as
organic , necessary certification from a certifying agency is essential and it is required that
the product be produced as part of laid down standards. Internationally, Codex Alimentarius
Commission (CAC) and IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movement) formulate the basic standards for organic production and processing.
(Read reference materials on organic farming)
 Family farming

Farming viewed as individual family affairs is called family farming. Peasant farming
is a common form of family farming. It recognizes family at micro- level emphasizing on
house hold resources, goals and aspirations. The year 2009-10 is observed as international
year of family farming .

Dry farming

Farming of an area which receives a rainfall 20 or less than 20. Crop production mainly
depends as rainfall have to conserve soil moisture < 20 rainfall.
Advantages
a) Timely preparation of land so that on molester can be
b) Proper inter culturing of crops
c) Application of organic resources for providing nutrients

Irrigated Farming: Using artificial resources of water for crop raising

Ranching: Grazing animals on public lands ; Eg: Rajasthan, Chambal

Refer: Problems of Indian farming system & problems faced by Indian farmers.
 CHAPTER 4
ROLE OF ANIMALS IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

1. Animals in draught purpose

Bullocks and buffaloes are the main draught animals used in different agricultural operation
like ploughing, thrashing, transportation and so on. 70 million bullocks and eight million
buffalo generate about 30,000 millions watts of power, assuming the ICAR average of 0.5 hp
output per animal.In the rural areas where rail road service is not available animals drawn
vehicles carry approximately 3000 million tonnes of frieght.
2. Social value
Livestock provides prestige value to the rural family because of the possession of high value
and yield. Livestock is considered as an asset value to rural family as it provides a means of
security at times of crisis.
3. Companion animals
Some animals are identified as companion animals, and others as pleasure animals. A
companion animal is an animal that helps a person enjoy life. For example, dogs, cats, birds,
reptiles, and ornamental fish serve as pets for humans in today’s society. Dogs of various
breeds have been trained to act as guides to blind persons and give assistance in available
manner. Alsatian dogs are used by police for detection purpose. Many households now have
watch dogs. Studies have found out that companion animals reduce the incidence of heart
attacks and cardiac problems with the people. A pleasure animal is an animal used for
recreation or sport. Horses used for riding provide a major source of recreation for many
people. Furthermore, goats and bulls are used in rodeos.
4. Service animals
A service animal is an animal that assists people in living and work. For example,
dogs are used to help persons whose vision or hearing is impaired, to herd sheep, or even to
guard property. In addition, dogs aid in the fight against crime by being an integral force of
police canine units.
5. Laboratory animals
Animals are carefully used in laboratories for discovering new medicines to cure
human diseases.
6. Contribution to soil conservation
The grasses and legumes used to feed livestock are soil-conserving crops. They form
protective covers on the land and help prevent wind and water erosion. Nutrients are
removed from the soil by the crops being grown. When the crops are fed to livestock, about
80 percent of the nutrient value is excreted in the manure. Putting manure back into the soil
decreases the loss of soil fertility.
7. Sport animal
For centuries people have used horses in all manners of sporting pursuits. The trend
has continued into modern times and today people from all walks of life take the opportunity
to indulge in equine activities. The popular part time in horses racing includes show jumping,
eventing, hunting, polo, gymkhana, trekking and hacking. Dogs also participated in sport
activities when people have free time to devote leisure.
Animals are seldom raised with a single objective in mind. Rather the primary reason
for rearing animals is that they serve the material, cultural and recreational needs of the
farmers.

Thus rearing animals has the following advantages.

a. Income.
b. Employment.
c. Security: Source of investment, security and stability.
d. Power: A source of farm power.
e. Food: Valuable animal protein.
f. Fertilizer: Contribution to farm fertility by the return of dung and urine.
g. Fuel: Buffalo and cattle dung are used as fuel.
h. By product utilization: Ruminants enable the economic utilization of non -
marketable crop residues.
i. Social values: Dairy development and ownership of buffaloes have been shown to
increase cohesiveness in village activities.
j. Recreation: Socio–economic impact of animal ownership also includes a recreational
contribution to small farmers.
k. Role in employment generation
l. The livestock sector contributes significantly in supplementing family income and in
generating gainful employment to the small and marginal farmers and landless
labourers in the rural India.

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Prepared by,

Dr.Vidya P,
Assistant Professor,
Directorate of Entrepreneurship