Sul

phu
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Aci
d
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

Most of the sulphuric acid manufactured is produced using the Contact Process.

Combustion -- Converter -- Absorption Tower -- Hydration of

Chamber > (conversion of > (sulphur trioxide > Oleum
(combustion of sulphur dioxide) absorbed to produce
sulphur) into the sulphuric sulphuric acid
acid mist

The Contact Process is a process involving the catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide, SO 2, to
sulphur trioxide, SO3.

I. Solid sulphur, S(s), is burned in air to form sulphur dioxide gas, SO 2

S(s) + O2(g) -----> SO2(g)

II. The gases are mixed with more air then cleaned by electrostatic precipitation to remove

any particulate matter

III. The mixture of sulphur dioxide and air is heated to 450oC and subjected to a pressure of

101.3 - 202.6 kPa (1 -2 atmospheres) in the presence of a vanadium catalyst (vanadium

(V) oxide) to produce sulphur trioxide, SO3(g), with a yield of 98%.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2SO3(g)

IV. Any unreacted gases from the above reaction are recycled back into the above reaction
V. Sulphur trioxide, SO3(g) is dissolved in 98% (18M) sulphuric acid, H2SO4, to produce

disulphuric acid or pyrosulfuric acid, also known as fuming sulphuric acid or oleum,
H2S2O7.

SO3(g) + H2SO4 ------> H2S2O7

This is done because when water is added directly to sulphur trioxide to produce
sulphuric acid

SO3(g) + H2O(l) -----> H2SO4(l)

the reaction is slow and tends to form a mist in which the particles refuse to coalesce.

VI. Water is added to the disulphuric acid, H2S2O7, to produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) -----> 2H2SO4(l)

The oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide in step III above is an exothermic reaction
(energy is released), so by Le Chatelier's Principle, higher temperatures will force the
equilibrium position to shift to the left hand side of the equation favouring the production of
sulphur dioxide.
Lower temperatures would favour the production of the product sulphur trioxide and result in a
higher yield.
However, the rate of reaching equilibrium at the lower temperatures is extremely low.
A higher temperature means equilibrium is established more rapidly but the yield of sulphur
trioxide is lower.
A temperature of 450oC is a compromise whereby a faster reaction rate results in a slightly
lower yield.

Similarly, at higher pressures, the equilibrium position shifts to the side of the equation in which
there are the least numbers of gaseous molecules.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2SO3

On the left hand side of the reaction there are 3 moles of gaseous reactants, and the right hand
side there are 2 moles of gaseous products, so higher pressure favours the right hand side, by Le
Chatelier's Principle.
Higher pressure results in a higher yield of sulphur trioxide.

A vanadium catalyst (vanadium (V) oxide) is also used in this reaction in order to speed up the
rate of the reaction.
Uses of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

 Sulphuric acid is the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries (accumulators)

 Sulphuric acid is important in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate

(sulphate of ammonia), (NH4)2SO4, and superphosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, which is formed
when rock phosphate is treated with sulphuric acid.

 Sulphuric acid is used to remove oxides from iron and steel before galvanising or
electroplating

 Concentrated sulphuric acid (18M) is used as a dehydrating agent, that is, to remove
water, since it has a tendency to form hydrates such as H 2SO4.H2O, H2SO4.2H2O, etc.

Sulphuric acid is often used to dry neutral and acidic gases such as N2, O2, CO2 and SO2
Sulphuric acid will "suck" water out of carbohydrates and some other organic
compounds which contain oxygen and hydrogen. For example, sulphuric acid will "suck"
water out of sucrose, C12H22O11(s), (cane sugar) to produce a spongy mass of carbon:
C12H22O11(s) + 11H2SO4 -----> 12C(s) + 11H2SO4.H2O

 Sulphuric acid is used in the production of nitro glycerine, an inorganic ester & organic
nitrate, which is used as an explosive but can also be used as a vasodilator, a substance
that dilates blood vessels and can be used in the treatment of certain types of heart
disease:

CH2ONO2

CHONO2

CH2ONO2

Pollution Caused by Sulphur Dioxide

Health Effects:

High concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2) can result in breathing problems with asthmatic
children and adults who are active outdoors. Short-term exposure has been linked to wheezing,
chest tightness and shortness of breath. Other effects associated with longer-term exposure to
sulphur dioxide, in conjunction with high levels of particulate soot, include respiratory illness,
alterations in the lungs' defences and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease.

Environmental Effects:

Sulphur dioxide can cause acid rain. Natural rainwater has a pH of about 5.4. Acid rain occurs
when pH of the rain is between 2.4 and 5.0. This is due to the reaction of sulphur dioxide with
rainwater.

2SO2(g) + 02(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(aq)

Sources:

Combustion of fuel containing sulphur (mostly coal and oil). Also produced during metal
smelting and other industrial processes.
 Am
mo
nia

Manufacture of Ammonia (NH3)

Ammonia, NH3 is manufactured in industries through Haber Process. This process combines
nitrogen gas, N2 from the air with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly from natural gas to form
ammonia, NH3

The ratio of one volume of nitrogen gas, N2 to three volumes of hydrogen gas, H2 is passed
through the reactor. The mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmosphere at a
temperature of about 450°C. It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst to speed up the
rate of reaction.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) -----> 2NH3(g)

Ammonia, NH3 formed is then liquefied and separated to get a better yield. The production of
ammonia, NH3 gives out heat.

The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are recycled and passed back into the
reactor together with the new source of nitrogen gas, N2 hydrogen gas, H2. About 98% of
nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are converted into ammonia, NH3.
Uses of Ammonia

 Fertiliser

Production of:

Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4

Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Urea, (NH2)2CO, also used in the production of barbiturates (sedatives), is made by the
reaction of ammonia with carbon dioxide

 Chemicals

Synthesis of:

Nitric acid, HNO3, which is used in making explosives such as TNT (2,4,6-
trinitrotoluene), nitro glycerine which is also used as a vasodilator (a substance that
dilates blood vessels) and PETN (pentaerythritol nitrate).

Sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate), NaHCO 3

Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Hydrogen cyanide (hydrocyanic acid), HCN

Hydrazine, N2H4 (used in rocket propulsion systems)

 Explosives

Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

 Fibres and Plastics

Nylon, -[(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO]-,and other polyamides

Ammonium Fertilisers

Ammonia fertilisers are produced from the neutralisation of ammonia with a mineral
acid.

The major plant nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium.
Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared from the reaction between ammonia, NH 3 and an
acid.

Ammonia is used to produce fertilisers because it contains nitrogen. The main fertiliser
is ammonium nitrate.

This is produced by the reaction of ammonia with nitric acid.

Nitric acid +    ammonia     ammonium nitrate.

HNO3(aq) +     NH3(g)   NH4NO3(aq)

The above reaction is an example of neutralisation, giving a neutral salt (but no water).

Ammonia with sulphuric acid would give ammonium sulphate (NH 4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium nitrate has a higher percentage of nitrogen

for the same mass of fertiliser.
All
oys
Introduction of Alloys

Two soft metal can be mixed together to make a stronger metal called alloy. An alloy is a
mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition which the major component
is a metal. Most pure metal are weak and soft. The properties of pure metal can be improved by
making them into alloys.

The aim of making alloys is to make them stronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have a better
furnish and lustre. Alloys such as bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel. duralumin and pewter are
commonly used in our daily lives.
The Composition, Properties and Uses of Alloys

Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Bronze  90% copper  Hard and strong  In the building of
 10% tin  Does not statues or
corrode easily monuments
 Has shiny  In the making of
surface medals, swords
and artistic
materials
Brass  70% copper  Harder than  In the making of
 30% zinc copper musical
instruments and
kitchenware
Steel  99% iron  Hard and strong  In the
 1% carbon construction of
buildings and
bridges
 In the building of
the body of cars
and railway
tracks
Stainless steel  74% iron  Shiny  In the making of
 8% carbon  Strong cutlery
 18% chromium  Does not rust  In the making of
surgical
instrument
Duralumin  93%  Light  In the building of
aluminium  Strong the body of
 3% copper aeroplanes and
 3% magnesium bullet trains
 1% manganese
Pewter  96% tin  Lustre  In the making of
 3% copper  Shiny souvenirs
 1% antimony  Strong
Syn
the
tic
Pol
ym
ers
Introduction of Polymers and Synthetic Polymer

Polymers are large molecules made up of many identical repeating sub-units called monomers
which are joined together by covalent bonds. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of
repeated linking known as polymerisation.

A polymer may consist of thousands of monomers. Some polymers occur naturally. Starch,
cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural rubber are some examples of naturally occurring
polymers.

On the other hand, synthetic polymers are man-made polymers. The monomers used are usually
obtained from petroleum after going through the refining and cracking processes. Examples of
synthetic polymers are polythene, polyvinyl chloride or PVC, polypropene, perspex, nylon and
terylene.
Uses of Synthetic Polymer

Synthetic Polymer Monomer Uses

Polythene Ethene Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic
container and insulation for
electrical wiring.
Polypropene Propene Piping, bottle crates, carpets, car
batteries and ropes
Polyvinyl chloride, Chloroethehe Artificial leather, water pipes and
PVC records
Perspex Methylmethacrylate Safety glass, reflectors, traffic signs
and lens
Terylene Hexane-1, 6-diol Clothing, sails and ropes
Benzene-14, 4-dicarboxylic acid
Nylon Hexane-1, 6-diamine Ropes, clothing and carpets
Hexane-1, 6-dioic acid
Pollution Caused by Synthetic Polymer and Way to Prevent it

Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not corrode or decay. However, this also means that
they are difficult to dispose. They are not easily biodegradable. Hence, they may cause pollution,
blockage of drainage systems and flash floods. When they are burnt, they give out harmful and
poisonous gases which have a pungent smell.

We must use synthetic polymer in a wise manner. We should reduce, reuse and recycle
synthetic polymers as much as possible. The use of biodegradable also should be encouraged.
We must find alternatives to synthetic polymers.
Introduction of Glass and Ceramics

Glass is made from sand. Glass is an amorphous solid that has been around in various forms for
thousands of years and has been manufactured for human use since 12,000 BCE. The status of
glass as a liquid, versus a solid, has been hotly debated. The short story is that glass is a super

Gla
cooled liquid, meaning that it is rigid and static but does not change molecularly between
melting and solidification into a desired shape.

Glass is one the most versatile substances on Earth, used in many applications and in a wide
variety of forms, from plain clear glass to tempered and tinted varieties, and so forth.

Ceramics are made from clay. Pieces of broken ceramics that are more than 6000 years old have

ss
been found by archeologists. A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the
action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly
crystalline structure, or may be amorphous. Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the
definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non-
crystalline glasses.

The earliest ceramics were pottery objects made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other
materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth

An
surface. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the
20th century, new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering;
for example, in semiconductors.

d
Cer
ami
cs
Properties, Uses and Type of Glass

Type of Properties Uses

Glass
Soda lime • Low melting point (700°C) Glass containers, Glass panes,
glass Mirrors, Lamps and bulbs,
• Mouldable into shapes Plates and bowls Bottles
• Cheap
• Breakable
• Can withstand high heat

Lead crystal • High density and refractive index Containers for drinks and fruit
glass • Glittering surface Decorative glass and lamps
• Soft Crystal glassware Lenses for
• Low melting point (600°C) spectacles

Borosilicate • Resistant to high heat and chemical reaction Glass apparatus in

glass (Pyrex) • Does not break easily laboratories
• Allows infra-red rays but not ultra-violet Cooking utensils
rays

Fused silicate • High melting point (1700°C) Scientific apparatus like

glass • Expensive lenses on spectrometer
• Allows ultraviolet light to pass through Optical lenses
• Difficult to melt or mould into shape Laboratory apparatus
Properties and Uses of Ceramics

The properties of ceramics include the following:

1. Hard
2. Strong but brittle
3. Chemically inactive
4. Poor conductor of heat and electricity
5. High melting point – heat resistant
6. Cannot be compressed easily

Ceramic can be used as car engine block :

Presently, car engine blocks are made of metal. Materials for making car engine blocks
must be able to withstand very high temperatures. This is because at high temperature,
the combustion of fuel becomes more efficient and produces more energy with less
pollution.

Clay heated with magnesium oxide produces type of ceramic that has a thermal
resistance. This type of ceramic is used for making car engine blocks because it can
resist high temperature.
Modern Glass and Ceramics

 The latest use of glass is to make photochromic glass and conducting glass while
ceramics is used to produce superconductors and car engine blocks.

Photochromic glass

 Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light. It darkens in the presence of bright light
and lightens when the amount of sunlight lessens.

 The glass is produced by adding silver chloride (or silver bromide) and some copper(II)
chloride to normal glass.

 Silver halides decompose to silver and its halogen when exposed to ultraviolet rays.
Thus we have:

It is the silver which makes the glass become dark.

 When there is a decrease in light, silver chloride is formed again:

Therefore the glass lightens.

Conducting glass

 Conducting glass is a type of glass which can conduct electricity. It is obtained by coating
a thin layer of a conducting material around the glass, usually indium tin(IV) oxide or
ITO.

 Conducting glass can also be obtained by embedding thin gold strips into a piece of
glass. This is used to make the front windows of aeroplanes which tend to mist at very
high heights. By passing an electric current through this glass (containing gold as
conductors), the water of condensation will dry up.

 Superconductors are electrical conductors which have almost zero (0) electrical
resistance. Therefore, this conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy through
heat.

 Perovsite is a type of ceramic superconductor composed of itrium oxide, copper oxide

and barium oxide.

 Superconductors are also used to make magnets which are light but thousands of times
stronger than the normal magnet.

 Car Engine Block--When clay is heated with magnesium oxide, the ceramic that is
produced has a high resistance to heat. This material is used to build the engine blocks
in cars as they can withstand high temperatures.
Co
mp
osit
e
Mat
eri
als
Advantages and Type of Composite Materials

Fibre Optic Cables

A fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass
cladding. Fibre optic is a composite material that is able to transmit data, voice and images in a
digital format. Fibre optic is widely used because of its low material costs, high transmission
capacity, chemical stability and is less susceptible to interference.

Photochromic glass

A photochromic glass can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like silver

chloride, AgCl crystal in glass or transparent polymers. When it is exposed to light, silver
chloride, AgCl is converted to silver and the glass darkens. The photochromic glass becomes
transparent again when silver is converted back to silver chloride, AgCl when the light dims.
Photochromic glass is suitable for making optical lenses, car windshields, smart energy efficient
windows in building, information display panels, lens in cameras, optical switches and light
intensity meters.

Superconductors

Superconductors are capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when
they are cooled to extremely low temperature. Most of them are alloys of metal compounds or
ceramics of metal oxides. However, some of superconductors are made from composite
materials. Superconductors are used in magnetic energy-storage systems, generators,
transformer and computer parts. Devices made from superconductors have low power
dissipation, high-speed operation and high sensitivity.

Fibre glass

When glass fibres are used to reinforce plastic, we get a strong composite material called fibre
glass. Fibre glass has high tensile strength, can be easily coloured and low in density. It can be
made into thin layers, yet very strong. Fibre glass is also easily moulded and shaped. It has been
used to make household products like water storage tanks, badminton rackets, small boats, skis
and helmets.
 Che
mis
Chapter 9

Manu
try
factur
ed
Subst
Name : Bukhari Shafiq Bin Asnain

ances I/C No.

Class
:

:
940215-04-5127

4 Alpha

in
Indus
try