OVE Everything You Need To Know About Electric Car

May
The OVE books
Everything
you need to
know about
electric car
www.observatoire-vehicule-entreprise.com
Everything you need to
know about electric cars
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Electric vehicles set to boost mobility
Consumers’ and manufacturers’ decision makers’ expectations and behaviour are
changing rapidly under the combined influence of several factors, including:
- The rise in energy prices in 2008, which has made people realise that the
world’s reserves of oil will be exhausted sooner or later, and that this form of
energy will inevitably become more expensive.
- The rising cost of raw materials and awareness these too are not in inex-
haustible supply.
- Growing awareness that global warming is a real threat, and that we cannot
go on doing nothing about it.
- Urban traffic congestion and the increasing frustration of just getting
around town.
- Awareness campaigns organised by persuasive and charismatic speakers like
Al Gore and Yann Arthus Bertrand.
Although we are still far from seeing 100% of decision makers wanting to
Philippe BRENDEL
convert their companies into producing less harmful forms of transport, the-
re is already a huge groundswell of environmental issues within the public
opinion and some manufacturers and public authorities are already planning
changes.
For example easy availability of multiple purpose vehicles for use on a short-
term basis (e.g. a van used for moving furniture or for other family needs a
few weeks a year) would leave more room for smaller, less polluting cars that
meet drivers’ daily needs. For family holidays, or for driving longer distances,
drivers could resort then to short-term vehicle hire, to car sharing or to com-
binations of various forms of transport (e.g. train + car).
Electric vehicles are well suited to meeting the needs of our now largely
urban or suburban population, and considering all the other advantages at-
tached to this type of vehicle this is likely to accelerate change. An electric
vehicle means silence, no pollution, flexibility and an answer to daily travel,
which mostly involves journeys of less than 40 km. Naturally all this will mean
changing our habits, we will have to remember to recharge our cars more
often that we used to refill them with petrol, but how satisfying!
It is safe to bet that in twenty years time we will be wondering how we ever
managed to put up with the noise and stench of today’s internal combustion
powered traffic.
Philippe Brendel
Director
Observatoire du Véhicule d’Entreprise
philippe.brendel@observatoire-vehicule-entreprise.com
Table of contents
Introduction – Background 6
Electric power – a profound change in the automotive industry 7
Short history of developments in the 1990s 9
Categories of hybrid and electric vehicles 13
Micro hybrids – the stop-start function 15
Mild hybrids – a powerful electric motor 17
Parallel hybrids 19
Rechargeable, or plug-in hybrids 21
“All electric” vehicles 23
Electric cars – ideally suited to urban life 29
Electric quadricycles, with or without a driver’s license 31
Electric commercial vehicles, a segment in its own right 35
Powertrain technology 37
Electric currents, from socket to engine 43
“Filling up” 45
Carbon emission figures for electric and hybrid vehicles 47
Short and medium-term prospects 49
Vehicles available in spring 2009 51
5 www.observatoire-vehicule-entreprise.com
Everything you need to know about electric cars
Introduction – Background
Internal combustion cars in the light of rising petrol prices and pollution
A rapid change in the automobile market is underway. Increasing economic and environmental pressure is leading
drivers to use less polluting, less petrol-hungry cars with lower running costs.
This revolution in the market is due to several factors:
• First factor: the inexorable rise in the price of fossil fuels linked with dwindling supplies. As the French minister
Thierry Breton said in the autumn of 2005, “We have entered the age of scarce and expensive oil”. Whereas there was
a sudden decrease in demand linked to the global economic crisis, this situation will not last. Fossil fuel prices will
begin their inexorable rise again.
• Second factor: climate change. Emissions of polluting gases and the greenhouse effect are changing the atmosphere’s
self-protection system.
• Third factor: the consequences of this pollution on human health. Particles of pollutants from the combustion of
fossil fuels are a danger to man.
Restrictive measures for motorists
We have entered a critical era, a turning point with profound changes to come. We will have to take restrictive or
even drastic measures in response to the dangers we face.
Our economic and political decision makers are aware of the drawbacks and polluting nature of internal combustion
engine emissions, and have begun to make decisions.
These include limits on exhaust emissions (air pollution law of 30th December 1996), traffic restrictions in towns,
speed limits, congestion charges and bonus/malus coefficients.
Solutions for urban traffic: electric and hybrid cars
Today, given current technical and economic realities, to provide a sustainable answer to environmental problems, the
most efficient vehicle for short journeys and for urban and suburban traffic is the electric car.
Electric propulsion is gaining rapid ground in the car industry. Following years of R&D the automotive industry is
now making use of the advantages of electric propulsion. These advantages include energy efficiency, high levels of
efficiency of engines, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, reliability and silence.
www.observatoire-vehicule-entreprise.com 66
Electric power,
a profound change in the
automotive industry
All categories and all segments of the market are being

transformed. A multitude of new players in the electric
vehicle industry are appearing, including large investors,
specialised research departments, new battery start-up
companies and innovative small manufacturers.
All this activity has extended the range of supply and

accelerated the demand for existing models. Every few
months sees a batch of new products on the market, from
micro urban vehicles to standard saloon cars, and from
light commercial vans to medium-weight goods vehicles.
Since the 1990s, following increased environmental and
economic pressure, we have seen a significant change: elec- Electric power is transforming the current difficulties of
tric motors have become more and more common in cars, an industrial sector into change for the better.
not only to drive luxury features like sunroofs, seats, rear
view mirrors and air-conditioning, but to propel the cars. The rapid spread of electric engines
We are no longer surprised to see saloon cars such as the The trend towards electrification has accelerated since
Toyota Prius gliding silently through town. Several thousand the year 2000, with the search for more efficient internal
drivers, mainly institution and company employees, have combustion engines with a view to reducing emissions
been driving more than 5,000 “all electric” 106, Saxo and of greenhouse gases and lowering fuel consumption. To
Berlingo cars produced by PSA between 1995 and 2002. lower fuel consumption electric motors were added to
“assist” the internal combustion engine, giving rise to
People in La Rochelle, France are familiar with “EVs” the first “hybrid” cars.
(Electic Vehicles). For the past ten years the town has had
a pool of about 50 self-service electric cars available at The Toyota Prius I in 1997 and Honda Insight in 1999,
seven centres. All over Europe, Asia and the USA, bold and followed by the IMA Civic, were the pioneers of this new
innovative development programmes are turning experi- technology on the global market. These hybrid cars, like
ments into practical applications. “Concept cars” and pro- the electric cars produced by small manufacturers, have
totypes give rise to mass-produced models, and electric one of the main advantages of electric motors, which
power is being standardised and extended. is high energy efficiency. It is an undeniable fact that
modern electric motors perform much more efficiently Moreover, electric motors have other advantages: they
than internal combustion engines, whether the latter are reliable, cheap, need little maintenance and are light.
be petrol or diesel driven, or use gas (such as LPG and They produce tremendous torque as soon as the engine
CNG). is started and have a very wide range of speeds, which
in most cases makes transmission simpler. Electric motors
Energy efficiency to speed up change are fed by high-performance batteries. These are the ve-
hicle’s “energy reservoir” and have given rise to profound
In optimal conditions, internal combustion engines have technological and economic changes.
a maximum efficiency* of around 35% for petrol driven
cars and around 40% for diesels. The automotive industry, aware of these changes, is manu-
facturing an increasing number of electric motors to drive
As a general rule, cars are used for short journeys in urban a new generation of vehicles available on the market.
areas in far from optimal running conditions, which further
reduce energy efficiency to levels of only 15% to 20%.
By contrast, the efficiency of electric motors is over 80% *The energy efficiency of an engine is calculated as a percen-
and may reach 90%. The power electronics that control tage of energy produced.
them are also highly efficient (nearly 100%). In any engine, varying amounts of the energy used is transfor-
med into heat.
An efficiency of 15 to 20% means that 80 to 85% of the energy
consumed by the engine is wasted and is not used to propel
the vehicle.
In terms of fuel consumption this means that out of a 50 litre
tank of fuel only eight to ten litres are used to propel the ve-
hicle. The rest is turned into heat and wasted in the internal
running of the engine.
Short history of developments
in the 1990s
Electric vehicles of all times USA – General Motors’ EV1
The history of electric vehicles is as old as the history of the In the early 1990s the State of California set up the California
car itself. Ever since the beginning of the last century, elec- Air Resources Board and brought in a range of laws intended to
tricity has been used to drive vehicles. Now EVs are hot news reduce air pollution. One of the measures adopted stated that
after a period of neglect, but they are not entirely new. In from 1998 on, 2% of vehicles marketed in the State should be
the 1990s much attention was given to the possible future emission-free, rising to 5% in 2001 and 10% by 2003.
of electric vehicles, both by manufacturers and users.
This objective forced manufacturers to start production of
Some major car manufacturers claimed to show an electric vehicles. Ford built 1,500 electric Ranger pick-up
interest in EVs and studied ways of marketing them on a trucks intended for commercial use and bought up a small
large scale as well as strategic concepts. The true inten- Norwegian manufacturer of electric town cars, Think. A
tions of these large manufacturers were revealed when few hundred two-seater cars, called Think 1, were sold
those projects were suddenly abandoned for somewhat then. Toyota transformed 4x4 RAV4s into RAV4 EV, and
obscure and confused reasons. GM suddenly launched a superb electric car, the EV1.
EV1 reserved to California France - Next, a prototype hybrid car designed

by Renault
EV1 was a highly aerodynamic two-seater aluminum
coupé that had a range of 160 km on a single charge In 1995, in other words two years before Toyota laun-
at a maximum speed of 130 km/h, which was quite ched its Prius I, Renault unveiled a highly innovative
remarkable in 1998. The EV1, which had many of the “concept car” named Next.
features of a standard American saloon car such as air- Next is a prototype hybrid vehicle, a research tool. The
conditioning and stereo system was not sold but rented vehicle is a five-door, five-seater saloon car with three
for three years to customers selected by GM’s marke- front seats and two back seats. Its body design foresha-
ting department. More than 5,000 Californians applied dowed that of the Avantime and the Scenic. Driven by a
for a car, but only 800 contracts were honoured. The three cylinder 750 cm3 petrol engine, pollution-free and
signatories undertook, in spite of laws in force at the equipped with a catalytic converter and regulated fuel
time, to return their EV1 at the end of the three-year injection. Next is a clean vehicle ahead of its time.
contract, with no possibility of buying the car from the The small internal combustion engine with a capacity
manufacturer when the contract expired. In this way similar to a 1980s motorbike engine, is coupled with
GM’s bosses reserved the right to take the EV1s off the two permanent magnet DC electric motors requiring
road, which they did in 2001. The team that had worked no maintenance that run on three-phase current. A
on the project was disbanded and all EV1s returned at computer controls it all. The vehicle loads 120 kg of
the end of the contracts were stored temporarily in the nickel-cadmium batteries lying flat under the floor of
Arizona desert. the car boot. Next is both safe and very light; the car on
the road weighs 875 kg. Shock absorption is provided by
Pressed by a group of drivers who wanted another EV1, aluminum structures at the front and back. The central
the GM management decided to destroy the cars. All structure of the car, made of carbon, has exceptional
the EV1s were crushed instead of being recycled as had mechanical resistance.
originally been announced. Only a few rare EV1s remain, When starting and up to 40 km/h, NEXT runs in electric
in museums or owned by associations who managed to mode. Then the internal combustion engine takes over,
keep them. The reasons given by GM for withdrawing its at the same time recharging the batteries. When acce-
electric cars from circulation were the same that were lerating or going uphill the electric motors assist the
given by Ford and Toyota who simultaneously stopped internal combustion engine.
marketing the Ranger EV and RAV4 EV: the law in Cali-
fornia had changed, and with it the necessity to market Why the Next programme was stopped: an
emission-free cars. unsolved mystery
2001: The USA gives up electric cars Renault argued at the time that a standard car produces
80% of its emissions during the first kilometre over a
The California Air Resources Board had indeed changed four-kilometre journey. Next is one of Renault’s answers
its policies as a result of intense lobbying by oil producers to the problems of urban traffic. A half baked answer if
and car manufacturers. In 2004, governor Schwarzenegger ever there was one, for Next was never marketed by the
launched the “California Hydrogen Highways Network“ French manufacturer. Adopting a very different strategy
project. Now the priority of the State of California is the than the Japanese manufacturers Toyota and Honda,
building of a network of hydrogen highways and experi- who foresaw the popularity of hybrid cars, Renault stop-
ments with hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles, a project ped developing along that line.
that cannot become a commercial reality for many years The Next project was abandoned, shelved in the filing
to come. In this way American car manufacturers and oil cabinets of the Guyancourt Technocentre, leaving the
producers have managed to delay the advent of electric field open to more farsighted manufacturers.
cars on their market for a few years.
More than five thousand cars belonging to one of these
four models, the 106, Saxo, Berlingo and Partner, were
produced and sold mostly to large companies and ins-
titutions. EDF bought 1,500 of them, the French Post
Office 530; other major customers were French Railways,
ports, airports, oil refineries and town councils. In 1999,
the town of La Rochelle opened the Liselec service, a
pool of 106 self service hire cars. In the same year Paris
opened a network of recharging points for EVs, and many
other French towns followed suit.
• What suddenly made electric cars so popular?
- French laws on air pollution have since 1999 forced

some bodies such as territorial associations and public
corporations to replace 20% of their pools with clean
PSA Peugeot-Citroën – the leading European vehicles, whether they be electric, CNG or LPG. ADEME*
manufacturer of electric vehicles in the 1990s subsidises the purchase of EVs, and the cars are exempt
from tax.
The Sochaux based group claims to be the leading European
manufacturer of electric vehicles. They are right: the figu- - The performance of EVs was attractive for daily use
res are there to prove it. More than 5,000 electric vehicles over short distances. With a maximum speed of 90 km/h,
left the Peugeot and Citroën assembly lines between1990 a range of 60 to 90 km without recharging, good ac-
and 2001. celeration (0 to 50 km/h in under 9 seconds), the EVs
produced by PSA were perceived to be real cars. The
• Sequence of events that enabled PSA to achieve this vehicles were silent, comfortable, and required little
first place maintenance and users found little fault with them.
- As early as 1990, 250 electric C15 and C25 cars were pro- - The high performance technology of the batteries used
duced for the car pools of companies and organisations. in these cars were a direct product of the aerospace in-
- In 1991, the electric Citella prototype was presented dustry. The batteries, produced by the equipment ma-
as a fun light (790 kg) modular and high performance nufacturer SAFT, built of 6v – 100 Ah nickel-cadmium
(110 km/h) car. monobloc cells have proven to be very reliable.
This prototype, which was intended to give the vehicle a The theoretical life span of 1, 500 cycles of these batte-
dynamic and pleasing image, was never marketed. ries has been confirmed, and many vehicles are still on
- In 1993, an experiment was launched in La Rochelle. the road equipped with their original batteries.
Fifty local citizens were invited to be guinea pigs by dri-
ving electric Ax cars around the town. • Why did the PSA group decide to stop production
- 1995, the electric Ax car was marketed to private in 2002?
individuals. More than 500 of the cars were produced
between 1995 and 1997. The then president of PSA, Jean-Marie Folz, said: ”We are
- 1997, launch of the electric Peugeot 106 and its stopping because the all electric saloon car is not the best
Citroën twin, the electric Saxo. product, or the best example of an electric vehicle”. This
- 1998, launch of the electric Peugeot Partner and statement was not very convincing at a time when
Citroën Berlingo, both designed on an identical basis. demand was rising, and just as manufacturers were
stop production of EVs, the PSA Peugeot Citroën managers

had decided to built a giant factory at Kolin in the Czech
Republic to produce urban micro cars in partnership with
Toyota. This factory now produces 107 as well as Citroën
C1 and Toyota Aygo cars which have been marketed since
2005. All three cars are driven by engines supplied by Toyota.
These are admittedly modern internal combustion engines,
but they still require standard after sales services.
Citella © Citroën * French agency for environment and energy control

** VEDELIC programme: 1995- 2000 Development of new battery
and traction chain technology
promising new technologies for producing even more

efficient batteries.
Other reasons seem more likely:

- The manufacturers’ distribution network was not
geared to taking on an entirely new technology like all
electric cars. Servicing a 106 or a Berlingo only involves
checking the batteries and maybe topping up the water
level or checking the brakes and tyres. An electric motor
requires no maintenance, no adjustments, no oil changes,
no replacement of air, oil or gas-oil filters, injectors or spar-
king plugs, not to mention occasional changes of exhaust
pipes or belts. Reduced after sales services means less busi-
ness turnover for the manufacturer and his network.
- The technology of the NiCd (nickel-cadmium) batteries

used at the time were subjected to strict European legisla-
tion in 2002. The use of cadmium, which is highly toxic in
all forms, is strictly regulated. Peugeot had been working
on alternative solutions together with SAFT in the context
of the VEDELIC programme**. As early as 2002 the P4 pro-
totype, an electric Peugeot 106, had a range of 210 km
without a recharge in normal conditions and a maximum
speed of 120 km/h. The P4 uses lithium-ion (Li-ion) type
batteries instead of nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries. The
reason for which PSA gave up research in this very strategic
area remains unexplained.
- There is a real risk of fierce competition for a major

manufacturer between internal combustion and electric ve-
hicles even within the manufacturers’ own range. In 2001,
in other words shortly before announcing their decision to
Categories of
hybrid and electric vehicles
Honda Insight 2009 © Honda Motors
Micro hybrids
The micro hybrid, or stop-start solution is the lowest produced in generator mode is stored in specific batteries.
level of hybridisation. It is a reversible system that fills Mild hybrids are also able to store energy during braking.
the role of starter and generator in a standard car. The In this case the system works in generator mode and
internal combustion engine is turned off automatically develops resistance which adds to the engine brake.
when the car stops, and is started again automatically
when the driver moves on. Parallel hybrids
Mild hybrids Parallel hybrids are the best known of hybrid vehicles
because they are the most common. The power of the
Mild hybrids are a step up in hybridisation from micro internal combustion engine and electric motor is joint,
hybrids. The stop-start function is of course still there, as in mild hybrids. Moreover, these cars are able to run
but with the addition of joint internal combustion and entirely on electricity when starting, at low speeds and
electric propulsion, both engines working together to when parking. The batteries have enough capacity to
drive the vehicle. The electric motor delivers its torque to cover short journeys of a few kilometres without using
help starting and restarting, and the electricity generated the internal combustion engine.
Rechargeable, or plug-in hybrids
Plug-in hybrids are an improved version of parallel The development of these vehicles is closely linked to
hybrids using more powerful batteries. Plug-in or the progress made in the last ten years in methods of
rechargeable hybrids are ones that can be recharged storage of electric energy. There are great expectations
from an electrical mains supply, enabling it to be used of these vehicles from consumers who wish to reduce
on a daily basis in the same way as an electric car. their dependence on CO2 emitting energy. They are now
reaching technological maturity, and are becoming
“All electric” vehicles available on a wide scale.
The category of all electric vehicles includes many diffe-

rent designs from micro urban cars to vans. Their energy
source is electricity, and they work on rechargeable
batteries, like laptop computers, portable electric tools,
wireless telephone handsets, etc..
Prototype QUICC © DuraCar
Micro hybrids -
the stop-start function
Système micro hybrid Stars de Valeo © Valeo
How they work
Micro hybrids are standard cars powered by an internal The more sophisticated systems can store energy during
combustion engine equipped with a stop-start function. deceleration in a new type of capacitor called super-
The stop-start function temporarily turns the engine off capacitor. This new generation will not only store energy
whenever the car stops. This system reduces fuel consump- when braking, but will provide extra torque to the engine.
tion in urban traffic (during stops at traffic lights, traffic The Citroën C3 was the first car fitted with this innovation
jams, etc.) by about 10% in urban traffic, by 6% in nor- in 2004, followed by the C2. This technological advance
mal mixed conditions, and up to 16% in dense traffic. The was the achievement of the equipment manufacturer
technology involved is quite simple: an alternator acting Valeo, which first developed the stop-start system.
as starter, an electronic command system and a battery.
Micro hybrids in 2009 The road ahead is clear: we are now heading for
mass micro hybridisation
Other car manufacturers now produce vehicles equipped
with similar systems developed by the major equipment Alice de Bauer, Renault’s environmental policy manager,
manufacturers. Bosch supplies the BMW group for their has declared the company’s intention of incorporating
Mini and BMW 1 series, as well as the South Korean the stop-start system in all cars in the Renault range
manufacturer Kia for its Cee’d. The MHD (Micro Hybrid by about 2010. Speaking on behalf of his own compa-
Diesel) Smart, and Mercedes A Class are fitted, like ny, Pascal Hénault, research manager at PSA, has an-
Citroën’s cars, with Valeo’s Stars micro hybrid system. Fiat nounced that the stop-start system will be included in
relies on its usual supplier Magneti Marelli for the stop- all Peugeot and Citroën cars as soon as possible. The PSA
start system on its 500. The firm has announced that its group plans to sell one million vehicles fitted with the
Panda and Punto models will be marketed soon. Toyota stop-start system in 2011 and over 1.6 million vehicles
has added a micro Auris to its range, and Renault, which of this kind in 2012.
had for a while opted out of the competition, is now
focussing its strategy on micro hybrids.
Mild hybrids -
a powerful electric motor
Mild Hybrid Honda Civic © Honda Motors
How they work
This category, also known as semi hybrids, first appeared cars were not as popular as the Toyota models. However,
in cars produced by Honda, who pioneered the techno- Honda hopes to catch up with its main rival with the 2009
logy. Two engines, an internal combustion engine and an launch of two more competitive cars in terms of price and
electric motor, work jointly. The electric motor provides performance: the IMA Civic and IMA Insight.
extra power when starting and accelerating, but does not Other manufacturers followed Honda’s lead in mild
power the car on its own. The electric energy, which is hybrids. The German giant Daimler is going to market a
produced continuously or during deceleration, is stored prestige car in mid 2009, the Mercedes-Benz S400 Blue-
in a more powerful battery pack than the simple batteries HYBRID.
used for starting in micro hybrids. A computer coupled Several new cars in the Mercedes range using this tech-
to many sensors controls the distribution of power of nology developed by a partnership between BMW and
the two engines and torque in real time. When driving in Daimler have been announced.
urban traffic the system works in the same way as stop- For its part, BMW presented two prototypes in 2008 which
start. The amount of fuel saved in comparison with stan- will be marketed in mid 2009. One of these is based on
dard cars naturally varies according to driving conditions, the 4x4 X5 and the other on a top of the range 7 series
but ranges between 10 and 20% in urban traffic. saloon - BMW’s mild hybrid technology is called Active-
Hybrid Technology.
Three generations since 1999 The supplier of both the German manufacturers is the
equipment manufacture Continental for the electric
Honda has marketed three successive generations of motors and command electronics, in association with the
hybrid cars fitted with its IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) battery producer Johnson Controls Saft.
technology in Europe since 1999. Seldom seen, these
Mild hybrid Honda Insight 2009 © Honda Motors

Parallel hybrids
Toyota Prius II © Toyota
How they work Reduction of fuel consumption and emissions of

pollutants
Parallel hybrids are the best known and most common
hybrid vehicles, mainly thanks to the world’s first manu- Fuel consumption is greatly reduced in these, by between
facturer of these cars, Toyota. As in mild hybrids, an inter- 10 and 50% according to driving conditions, with the
nal combustion engine is linked to an electric motor. The most spectacular gains being made in urban traffic.
difference lies in the greater power of the electric motor The reduction in CO2 emissions is proportional with
which is able to power the car on its own with the inter- the reduction in fuel consumption thanks to the high
nal combustion engine switched off over short distances. energy efficiency of parallel hybrids. A hybrid saloon car
Parallel hybrids run in electric mode when starting, at low of the M2 segment (Laguna, 406, C5, Avensis, etc.), like
speeds, in traffic jams and while parking. the Prius, emits as much CO2 as a very small urban car
This involves a more powerful battery than those of mild such as the C1, 107 or Aygo, and performs better than
hybrids, a special kind of transmission and a very efficient the cleanest Clio.
command computer. If one compares the emissions of saloon cars of the same
The transmission systems used in vehicles marketed so far category as the Prius over 20,000 km, the latter emits
are of the “CVT” (Continuous Variable Transmission) type, one ton less CO2 into the atmosphere. As to other pol-
a system that enables both motors to run at the most lutants such as nitrogen oxide (Nox) and hydrocarbons
efficient speeds. (HC), emissions are lower than in any other petrol powe-
The engineers who design this type of car seek above all red car. Emissions of solid particles, a major drawback of
to increase the torque, which means increased flexibility diesel engines, are reduced to zero.
and acceleration of a small, low emission engine instead This is where the superiority of hybrid propulsion really
of the usual engine/gearbox assembly. shows.
Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive: the reference car in • Prius II – over a million cars sold
hybridisation The Prius II began its career in 2003 in the USA and in
early 2004 in Europe, and was better received than the
The first hybrid car marketed to the general public, and first version. Its advantages, highlighted by increasing
that in a few short years became THE absolute reference awareness of the threat caused by global warming, won
car, owed its success to a technological innovation, the this new car real interest by the general public.
Toyota “Hybrid Synergy Drive“. To reassure potential buyers and remove doubts about
This exclusive system, which comes in several versions, is the car’s reliability, Toyota issued a specific eight-year or
used first in Toyota cars: the Prius all over the world, and 160,000-km guarantee for the whole hybrid part.
in Highlander and Camry cars in North America. It was voted Car of the Year in 2005 by the 58 motoring
It is also used in cars made by the Japanese manufactu- journalists (from 22 countries) on the Car of the Year
rer’s subsidiaries, including Lexus, which markets the RX jury. That is how the Prius went from being a technolo-
400 h, GS 450 h and LS 600 h. gical curiosity to commercial phenomenon. More than a
Other manufacturers use Toyota technology to produ- million Prius were sold in five years, making it by far the
ce hybrid cars under licence. This is the case of Nissan, most widely sold electric/hybrid car of all time.
which sells Altima hybrids in North America.
Ford uses Toyota patents for its Escape 4x4 hybrid, as • Prius III - Confirmation of Toyota’s technological advance
does FAW (First Automotive Works) in the framework of The Prius III, first shown at the Detroit Auto Show in
a joint venture in the Chinese market. January 2009, takes the hybrid technology of its forerun-
The strategy adopted by Toyota, which protected its ners to new heights. While Toyota’s competitors plan to
inventions with over 1,000 patents, is paying off. enter the market starting in 2010, Toyota has entrenched
More than ten years after the commercial launch of the itself as world leader and has brought yet another major
first parallel hybrid car, no other manufacturer has ma- change. As in the past, the manufacturer’s research de-
naged to overcome the barriers set up by the Japanese partment has protected its new inventions with a whole
giant. Yet this considerable technological advance was lot of new patents and hopes to produce a million hybrid
not recognised as such when the Prius I was launched vehicles a year between 2010 and 2013. The car inclu-
in 1997. des many improvements aimed at further reducing fuel
consumption and CO2 emissions, with more torque for
From Prius I to Prius III – a worldwide success the engines, an improved air penetration coefficient, extra
weight, optimised battery management, low consumption
• Prius I – the pioneer air-conditioning and ventilation powered by solar panels
It is a remarkable fact that except for a very few specia- on the roof.
lists monitoring technological advances, the launch of
the Prius I in 1997 went almost completely unnoticed.
At its commercial launches in Europe and in the USA,
the car received a very tepid welcome in the specialised
press and in the automotive world in general.
Journalists found its body design old fashioned and
clumsy, its performances inadequate and its reduced
fuel consumption did not appear to interest anyone but
a few well informed users.
This did not deter Toyota from producing 124,000 of
these cars in the next five years and to go on investing
in the technical developments needed for the second
generation.
Rechargeable,
or plug-in hybrids
Plug- In Hybrid prototype as viewed on Toyota Prius realised by EnergyCS, USA
Prototypes as early as 2004
The first modern plug-in hybrids were thought up in It is true that the autonomy of a Prius in purely electric
the R&D department of a start-up company based in mode is rather low, being only about three or four km.
California. The next step had to be to demonstrate that The American designers exploited this weak point, taking
the technology was now mature enough and the time advantage of Toyota’s lack of initiative in the matter.
was ripe for production by producing a prototype that They transformed two Prius cars, equipping them with
would get the whole world talking. That was done back a lithium battery pack of their own design, and created
in 2004 by engineers at EnergyCS in association with Va- quite a stir when they presented them at the EVS 21* in
lence Technology, a Texan producer of lithium batteries. Monaco in May 2005.
EnergyCS (Energy Control Systems Engineering Inc.) had
already developed a very specific know-how in the field The concept gains ground
of electronics for the running of Li-ion battery packs
for cars. They began with a simple question: how to in- Three factors thrust plug-in hybrids to centre stage:
crease the performance of the electric power of a Toyota - a strong demand from consumers dissatisfied with the
Prius? The answer was to replace the original batteries performance of existing hybrids;
by much more powerful ones and thus gives the car a - the reduced cost of batteries, increased performance
range of 50 km without a recharge. and proof of their reliability;
- the advent of major manufacturers on the market – In China the manufacturer BYD, which makes its own
General Motors with its Volt, Toyota with its own plug- batteries, markets models called “Dual Mode“, the F3
in Prius, Ford, VW and others, which promised a rapid and F6 DM. BYD thus became the first manufacturer in
rise in battery production capacity. the world to supply mass-produced plug-in hybrid cars
under the very nose of the world’s leading companies.
To meet a strong demand in North America, some
companies turned to providing approved kits ready to
*EVS (Electric Vehicle Symposium ) are yearly international fo-
be installed. These have been marketed since 2008 by rums for researchers and specialists in the electric car industry.
Hymotion, a subsidiary of the battery manufacturer They are organised by the World Electric Vehicle Association
A123Systems who also produce the integrators for the (WEVA). EVS 24 was held in Norway in May 2009.
system developed by EnergyCS. www.evs24.org
In Europe, EDF - in partnership with Toyota - became

the promoter of plug-in hybrids. Tests have been car-
ried out on a few plug-in Prius cars in France and in
England. General Motors announced the launch of its
Volt concept car starting in 2011 in several versions all
over the world.
© EDF
“All electric” vehicles
Nissan FEV-II - Li-ion batteries © Nissan
How they work
In electric vehicles the parts making up the powertrain This mechanical simplicity leaves developers free to de-
are arranged in the same way as in internal combus- vote all their time to optimising energy consumption
tion vehicles. The energy stored on board is transformed and ease of use. Many options are being studied with
by an engine and then used to power the wheels. The this in mind.*
main difference lies in the simplicity of this powertrain
compared with its internal combustion counterpart. It Electric “concept cars” are hot news
consists only of:
- an energy reservoir consisting of a set of batteries; Emission free cars are certainly drawing crowds to the
- one or more electric engines; world’s automobile trade fairs. The major manufacturers
- an electronic/IT command unit; have understood this, and are using ZEVs (Zero Emis-
- cables to connect them all. sion Vehicle) to show off their designers’ and engineers’
ingenuity.
The “peripheral” parts of an internal combustion engine Since the 1990s, many electric concept cars have exci-
have all gone, including water, fuel and oil and injection ted the imaginations of potential consumers and taken
pumps. There is no filter, no exhaust system or sparking up much space in the motoring press. But showing cars
plugs. Turbo-compressor? Not needed. The transmission that cannot yet be bought by drivers inevitably causes
is simplified: no clutch or gearbox. The electric motors them to be perceived as products of the future, rather
that power modern vehicles were derived from indus- like unrealistic dreams, which is far from the truth, as
trial motors. They are very simple to use and incompara- many of these products are much more accessible than
bly reliable. These engines, designed to run continuously the major manufacturers would have one believe. It is
for years without any maintenance, only require occasio- true that some advanced concept cars never went into
nal checks. production.
• 1995 – Nissan’s FEV-II Concept

When it was first shown at the Tokyo Motor Show in
1995 the FEV-II was already equipped with experimental
Li-ion batteries which gave the car a range three times
greater than cars fitted with lead accumulators at the
time. This was one of the very first public appearances
of a car equipped with this type of high performance
accumulator.
• 1996 – Peugeot’s Tulip

Tulip is an acronym of “Transport Urbain Libre Individuel
et Public” (“individual and public free urban transport”).
The system was presented PSA Peugeot Citroën, VIA GTI
and Cegelec in 1996. Tulip provides its members with self-
Z.E. Concept Renault © Renault
service two-seater vehicles at a number of centres around
the city. Members are given a personal remote-control
handset that enables them to borrow a vehicle for as long
as they choose by entering a confidential personal code.
• 2008 - Renault’s Z.E. Concept
Another advantage of Tulip is that the cars are equipped At the Paris Motor Show in 2008 the fluorescent Z.E.
with an interactive guiding system that gives the driver (“zero emission”) concept car drew quite a lot of atten-
useful information about routes and traffic conditions, a tion. An “all electric” car featuring as the main exhibit on
forerunner of today’s GPS. This 2.20 m long and 1.40 m Renault’s stand was a novelty but not much of a surprise.
wide car has the handling qualities and liveliness (0 to Since 1997 the Renault/Nissan group has made frequent
50 km/h in 8 seconds with a maximum speed of 75 km/h) announcements and set up partnerships to build an elec-
that make it a pleasure to drive in town. It is built of an tric car, as in the case of Israel, Portugal and Norway in
assemblage of five main parts that ensures strength and the context of agreements with the Better Place project.
safety. The Tulip’s parts and materials can be recycled. Renault/Nissan has undertaken to supply electric cars to
Better Place customers starting in 2011. Whereas eve-
• 2007 – Nissan’s Mixim ryone expected to see a real, high performance electric
The Mixim is clearly targeted at young drivers. Nissan’s car that would soon be available, Renault chose to show
engineers started from the premise that the young today an unavailable “concept car”. True, the Z.E. Concept has
are less and less interested in cars. Mixim is lighter than a some attractive technical features such as an insulated
Micra or a Twingo, and the interior design is inspired by the body with heat-absorbing paint and solar panels on the
world of video games. The car is a lively three-seater, but roof, but the car remains a study project and is not in-
has four driving wheels powered by two engines, one at the tended for production.
front and the other at the back. The Mixim is an interactive
car with a top speed of 180 km/h and and a range of 250 Experimental fleets
km thanks to its lamellar lithium-ion batteries.
It is a clear sign that we are rapidly moving towards sales
The Mixim was shown all over the world after its first on a much greater scale that some manufacturers are
official presentation at the Frankfurt motor show in 2007. undertaking experiments using several hundred vehicles.
Practically all the media commented on its futuristic ima-
ge without mentioning the fact that the car will never be
marketed. *See the chapter on powertrain technology.
Smart EV © Smart - Groupe Daimler
The aim is to test consumers’ reactions and the techno- Japan proved conclusive Mitsubishi extended them in
logy in real conditions. These experiments, in most cases the USA in 2008. There, Southern California Edison (SCE)
undertaken in partnership with energy providers, are and Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) have been
carried out in limited geographical areas. entrusted with testing about thirty vehicles. These tests
will enable Mitsubishi to gather a wealth of informa-
• Mitsubishi’s “i MiEV“ tested since 2007 in Japan tion about the cars in real conditions and also to decide
The Mitsubishi “i“ is a town car intended exclusively for whether to market them in the United States. The car is
the Japanese market. It is a small car, 3.4 m long, with to be launched on the Japanese market in 2009, with a
four doors and four seats. The “i“ is versatile, designed production of 2,000 MiEVs.
with an adaptable chassis to enable it to be converted
into an electric car. Its engine is in the centre of the • The Smart EV in Europe
car, lying flat under the passenger space in the raised The Smart EV is in some ways a return to basics. The de-
floor. The electric version of the “i”, the MiEV (Mitsu- signers of the Smart, previously called Swatchmobile, had
bishi innovative Electric Vehicle) weighs 1,080 kg and originally designed an electric version of the micro town
has a top speed of 130 km/h. According to the manu- car in 1996. The vehicle was judged too futuristic, and was
facturer it has a range of 130 or 160 km depending not retained by the Smart management for mass produc-
on the batteries fitted. Mitsubishi has developed a ra- tion. It was not until 2005 that the first electric Smart
pid charger (20 minutes) at a specific charging point made its appearance. A British company, Zytek, made the
in addition to the onboard charger. This development conversion and presented its prototypes at many motor
was made in partnership with the energy providers who shows before they managed to interest Daimler group,
tested the MiEVs. About 20 cars are owned by Chugoku the owners of Smart. The electric version develops 30 kW,
Electric Power and Kyushu Electric Power, the Japanese enabling it to accelerate from 0 to 50 km/h in 6.5 seconds,
companies involved in the project. When the tests in with a top speed of 110 km/h. It has a range of about
120 km without a recharge. About one hundred Smart market them in the usual way by appealing to a market
cars were produced and delivered to companies in Britain of rich buyers. The main appeal of these electric sports
for a first phase of tests begun in late 2007. Another batch cars already on the market is the many innovations in
of one hundred cars is being built for a second series of their designs, such as advanced aerodynamics, computer
tests in Berlin. For this venture Daimler has gone into par- driven energy management, wheel motors, etc.. The cars
tnership with the energy producer RWE AG. In the fra- are produced on a small scale, with care, almost like cus-
mework of the “e-mobility Berlin”, 500 recharging points tom-built items, with long waiting lists and high rates.
will be installed in company premises, on private property These cars have a special image, being made by small
and in public parking lots. The initiative is supported by the manufacturers or start-up companies.
German federal government. Smart EV is also the subject
of a similar project in Italy. The cities of Rome, Milan and • The Venturi Fetish
Pisa are all involved. The energy partner there is Enel Spa; Venturi was a small manufacturer of sports cars specialised
more than 400 recharging points will be installed in the in the GT category. Following successes at the 24 hours race
three cities to feed about 100 Smart EVs. at Le Mans and in Formula 1 racing, the company got into
severe financial difficulty. Faced with closure, the com-
• An electric Mini in the USA pany was bought by an industrialist from Monaco, Gildo
In the United States one category of EV is quite popular: Pallanca Pastor. The new owner switched to the production
converted vehicles. It’s very simple: just take an internal of electric cars and thus gave the company a new lease
combustion car in good condition, or better still a new of life. In 2004, Venturi exhibited an entirely new car, the
one, take out everything that is not needed to convert it Fetish, and with it a new segment of the car market: elec-
to electricity, and replace the engine by a high efficiency tric sports cars. The Fetish concept is completely different
electric motor and new generation batteries. The rules of from that of other sports cars, as it is the batteries and
approval and registration being simpler than in Europe not the engine that are the focus of the car’s technological
makes these conversions easy, and hundreds of converted value and its performance. The Fetish is built entirely of
electric cars are now on the road in America. Businesses carbon fibre. Its unique hull and chassis contains the batte-
have entered this field, and one of them, EV Innovations ries within the structure itself. The motor, ideally placed in
(formerly Hybrid Technologies), has gradually established the centre of the back, powers the car from 0 to 100 km/h
itself as a specialist. The founders of this company pro- in less than five seconds. Fetish can run for 250 km before
duced a fleet of electric PT Cruisers (made by Chrysler) a rapid complete recharge in one hour (under three-phase
used as taxis in New York and have also made a spectacu- 30 kW) or in three hours from a standard socket. This su-
lar conversion of a Mini car. This Mini, powered by Li-ion perb car can be purchased to order in Tokyo, Los Angeles,
batteries has achieved high performances; it has a range Monte Carlo, Paris, London and Dubai for 297,000 € VAT
of 150 km and has a top speed of 130 km/h. excluded. It takes four months to build.
In response to the interest shown in EV Innovation’s
Mini E, BMW the USA decided to start production of 500 • Tesla Motors - California
cars to be let to volunteer experimenters. The states invol- Nikola Tesla was a Serbian inventor and engineer specia-
ved are New York, New Jersey and California. lised in electrics who settled in the United States. When
he died in 1943 he was regarded as one of the grea-
Top of the range EVs test scientist in the history of technology. He took out
more than 900 patents (most of which were taken up by
These cars are way out of most people’s reach and one Thomas Edison) in new methods of energy conversion.
seldom sees them on the road. Nevertheless there are His theories of electric energy led him to design alterna-
such things as top of the range electric cars, and they ting current, of which he was one of the pioneers. The
receive a lot of media attention. Their manufacturers makers of a new high performance electric car together
Loremo EV © Loremo AG
with marketing and new technology experts chose the • The Loremo - light and aerodynamic
name Tesla Motors in honour of one of the founding The Loremo (“Low resistance mobile”) was designed in
fathers of electric power. Tesla Motors was founded by Germany with the simple aim of consuming as little as
a group of wealthy entrepreneurs in Silicon Valley in possible while still delivering a reasonable performance.
California. Elon and Kimbal Musk had earlier foun- Eight years after the first designs shown at the Frankfurt
ded Zip2 and Paypal, while their partner Steve Westly Motor Show in 2001 and a remarkable industrial story,
was one of the creators of eBay. They appointed Lotus Loremo AG is launching the first commercial version of its
Engineering in England to design and produce a mo- electric 2+2 coupé.
dern electric sports roadster. The car has been in pro-
duction in Britain since 2007 on Tesla’s behalf, and the This little sports car, that uses previously known tech-
final assembly of the electrical components is done in nology and standard materials, is very light at less than
California. 600 kg, and has an extremely low air penetration coef-
ficient with a Cx of 0.20. To achieve this result the
The entire production in 2008 (700 cars) was soled, and Loremo is very low slung, only 1.14 m high, and 3.80 m
orders are pouring in for cars in 2009. The batteries de- long. The car is said to have a range of 150 km and a top
signed by Tesla use the lithium-ion technology and are speed of 170 km/h. The Loremo is a fine example of in-
housed between the motor and the passenger space. novation from newcomers in the automotive world. The
They give the car a range of 300 km. The Tesla is availa- Loremo EV is priced very reasonably compared with other
ble in Europe, where one has to pay 99,000 € VAT exclu- electric sports cars at under 30,000 €.
ded to become the proud owner of this car that powers
its 1,150 kg from 0 to 100 km/h in four seconds.
Venturi Fetish © Venturi
Electric cars -
ideally suited to urban life
Traffic movement restrictions, which used to be limited

to historic city centres and targeted heavy vehicles, are
now increasingly widespread in most European towns.
Driving and parking space, taken up by vehicles unsuited
to urban use such as large 4x4s, has reached saturation
point.
Aware of this problem, local councils are adopting poli-

cies aimed at encouraging the use of vehicles that take
up less space and reduce pollution. Microcars are one
of the obvious solutions to easing traffic flow in towns.
The average distance covered by urban drivers in a day
is only about 20 kilometres. These facts all favour the
use of small electric urban cars, and open up a large
market for them. This new market, which has so far
been ignored by the major car manufacturers, is being
developed by some new enterprising and imaginative
manufacturers.
© Think Norway – a pioneer of small electric urban cars
Scandinavia has a harsh climate with long winters; tem-

peratures remain below freezing for long periods, which
causes problems when using car batteries. It was to meet
the needs of the Scandinavian market that the first com-
mercial electric cars were produced in Norway, and there are
now several hundred of these cars on the road in northern
Europe.
- The first of these manufacturers, Elbil Norge, has been pro-

ducing a two-seater since 1991. Five generations of their
“Buddy“ cars have appeared since then, and more than
1,000 cars have rolled off the assembly lines. This very basic,
VW Up © Volkswagen
2.44 m long microcar is often used as a family’s second car
in Norway. It has a maximum speed of 80 km/h and can run
for 60 to 80 km without a recharge of its lead battery.
Usine Think - Aurskog - Norvège © Planète Verte
A version powered by a Li-ion battery has been available In 2007 Think launched its new model “City”, this time a
since 2008, making it possible to drive for 120 to 140 km proper car, the production process of which was overseen
before a recharge. Elbil Norge does not export cars to the by Porsche Consulting. The Think City’s roadworthiness and
rest of Europe, as its current yearly production capacity of safety specifications are similar to those of internal com-
five to six cars a week is absorbed by the local market. bustion vehicles of the same category, including crash tests,
airbags, ABS brakes, heated windscreen, sun roof, MP3 +
- The second Norwegian manufacturer to market electric USB stereo and Bluetooth. This car has been on the market
cars was Think, a company that is better known because it in Norway since 2008, and is gradually marketed in other
has marketed its products outside Norway. Think is also a European countries in 2009.
larger company, with a factory that can produce 5,000 cars
a year. Think has had a turbulent recent history. Founded in
1990 under the name Pivco, it was bought by Ford in 1999.
Ford had intended it to be a subsidiary specialised in electric
cars. Pivco was renamed Think, and its cars were marketed
in a low-key way in California for two years before Ford
suddenly abandoned the project in 2003. It was a change in
Californian law that put an end to Ford’s ambitions. Think,
with its brand new production unit financed by Ford, was
sold then to a group of investors who decided to restart
production.
Electric quadricycles,
with or without a driver’s license
BB1 © Automobile Peugeot
European legislation allows two categories of four- limit is 80 km/h. Light electric vehicles, which are de-
wheeled vehicles on the roads, both of which are suita- signed for short distance travel, are either adaptations
ble for electric power. of internal combustion powered models or specifically
designed to be electrically powered.
These are light and heavy quadricycles:
Italy – an innovator in this sector
- Light quadricycles are vehicles with an unladen mass of
under 350 kg, powered by an engine that develops a maxi- Another major European player in the development of
mum power of 4 kW and with a maximum speed of 45 km/h. electric cars was Italy, where local regulations ban internal
They come under the same category as mopeds and auto- combustion powered vehicles in some historic city centres.
cycles and may be driven with or without a driver’s license As early as 2004 - 2005 small series of electric cars not re-
according to the laws in different European countries. quiring driving licenses came on the market from some of
the many small-scale production lines in Italy. Start Lab and
- Heavy quadricycles are vehicles with an unladen mass Maranello 4Cycle are two such manufacturers. They sell
of under 400 kg for vehicles used to transport people, or electric quadricycles with a range of 40 to 100 km depen-
550 kg for goods vehicles, with an engine that develops ding on the type of battery used. Ideally suited to towns,
a maximum power of 15 kW. They come into the same these vehicles can dodge in and out of traffic and park in a
category as motor tricycles and motorbikes. Their speed space only 2.70 m long.
Indian competitors
The Indian automotive market offers huge opportuni- models, the City, to electricity. Its range is 60 km with
ties to local manufacturers. After distributing or imi- a top speed of 60 km/h, and has been bought by a few
tating foreign built vehicles, these companies later in- London drivers.
vested in developing vehicles suited to local demand.
This gave rise to the production of many low-cost light Ligier and Microcar, now part of the same group, showed
vehicles, including the Nano, built by Tata, a standard to electric prototypes at the 2008 International Motor
car powered by a small two-cylinder engine of the kind Show. The first of these will be marketed in 2009.
used in the Citroën 2CV.
EVs targeted at vertical applications
Another manufacturer, smaller than Tata, who began
operations in 2002, started production of a mini elec- Research departments are turning their attention to
tric car, the Reva. The car is a two-seater with an ex- vehicles designed for particular purposes. Examples of
tra single smaller seat at the back. About 3,500 Revas these niche cars have been given us by three players
have been produced, both for the Indian market and for specialised in electric cars, the coachbuilder Heuliez,
export. More than a thousand Revas are on the streets Venturi and Matra.
of London, where this small electric vehicle is exempted
from the congestion charge. The basic version, fed by • Heuliez Friendly
lead accumulators and with a range of 50 km, is to be As Heuliez depends on major manufacturers for its
backed up by a Li-ion version which will soon be availa- conversion work on car bodies, the company is affected
ble, and the manufacturers have announced production by the current deep crisis in the automotive industry, as
of a four-seater version in 2009.
The switch of “No driver’s licence” micro cars to

electric power
It was thanks to Mr. Ian Clifford, a Canadian entrepre-

neur, that the first electric version of a micro car for
which no driver’s licence is required was produced in
2005. The car is based on an internal combustion model
produced in France.
Prototype Heuliez Friendly © Planète Verte
Zenn (Zero Emission No Noise), which has been mar-
keted since 2006 in North America Feelgood Cars, is are other equipment manufacturers and sub-contractors.
derived from the Microcar MC1 and MC2 models. The Having had to innovate to obtain new markets and at-
cars are delivered by the French manufacturer* without tract investors, this company, based in Cerisay, France,
motors, which are then assembled in Canada. Five hun- has chosen to go into electric cars. With the support of
dred of these micro cars have been produced so far. The the regional (Poitou-Charentes) authority it is preparing
car is fitted with European standard safety equipment, production of a new little car designed for urban and
including shock absorbing engine support, retracting suburban use, the Friendly. The car’s standard 2.50 m long
seat belts and airbag. version has three seats and a loading capacity of 400 li-
tres. The Friendly is to be produced in two other versions,
Zenn has set the example and French manufacturers of
very small cars are now also turning to electric engines.
At the request of its British distributor for London in *Microcar, after having been a subsidiary of the Beneteau
2007, Aixam/Mega has converted one of its leading group, was bought up by Ligier
a short (2.10 m) and a long (2.90 m) version with loading
capacities of up to 1,650 litres. The Friendly’s simple de-
sign entails minimum maintenance. The onboard energy
is provided by NiMH (Nickel Metal hydride) cell batteries.
The car has a range of 100 km before recharging and a
top speed of 110 km/h. Heuliez is staking its future on this
new electric vehicle business and expects to announce
availability of the Friendly some time in 2009.
• Venturi Eclectic
The know-how acquired by Venturi during the design
and production of its high performance Fetish was used
to diversify its business. Since the company is based in
Monaco, Venturi has naturally designed a new car desi-
gned for use in southern climates. Eclectic seemed almost
as strange as a UFO in the automotive landscape when
it was first shown. The Venturi stand at the International
Motor Show in 2006 exhibited the Eclectic wired to a
Venturi Eclectic © Venturi
solar panel system and a wind turbine. Keen interest by
the public in the first version encouraged Venturi to go
ahead and mass produce the car. The driver’s seat and
controls are in the centre of the passenger space and
the raised seats give the driver and two passengers good • Matra GEM
unobstructed views in all directions. Production is due Matra Manufacturing Services, a subsidiary of the
to begin in October 2009 in a brand new factory near Lagardère group, has decided to switch its business to
the town of Sablé-sur-Sarthe in France. The factory is EVs. Matra MS, which originally designed the Espace
built to advanced environmental standards and will in for Renault, is developing a range of electrically assis-
the long term be able to assemble 3,000 light vehicles ted motorbikes and has turned to an American partner
a year. to produce four-wheeled vehicles. GEM, Global Electric
Motorcars, a subsidiary of Daimler Chrysler, has develo-
ped a range of light and heavy quadricycles designed for
university campuses, leisure parks and the vast Ameri-
can golf courses. GEM vehicles are also used on US army
bases to carry personnel. 30,000 GEMs have come off the
assembly lines since they were first marketed in 2000.
The vehicles are assembled in the Matra MS factory in
Romorantin in France. This is the factory in which the
Espace cars were built until Renault decided to produce
them on its own assembly lines. Matra MS has adap-
ted GEM vehicles to comply with European regulations.
They come in several versions, including two-seaters,
four-seaters and an ultra-light version. All vehicles in
the range can run for about 50 km before a recharge
and the speed is limited to 45 km/h.
Matra GEM © Matra MS
Matra GEM © Matra MS

Electric commercial vehicles,
a segment in its own right
Contemporary milk float in Liverpool © all rights reserved
The full range of electric commercial vehicles covers small Electric delivery vehicles – a British tradition
vehicles that do not require a driver’s license through
all categories up to heavy goods vehicles with payloads The use of new electric goods vehicles follows on from a
of up to 7.5 tons. Many different types of bodywork are practice that has long existed in Great Britain. Ever since
available, from chassis-cabs to vans, microbuses, cages and the 1950s and 60s, the British have been used to seeing
designs for other specific uses. their fresh milk and other dairy produce delivered in the
morning on a uniquely British vehicle, the “milk float”.
The technologies involved are similar to those used in other
EVs, but with different dimensions, such as more power- These vehicles, which were designed to be reliable, very
ful battery packs, high efficiency motors, or electronically long lasting and able to move silently and without pro-
controlled regulation and loads. With few exceptions, all ducing any pollution, are a national institution that have
goods that need to be transported in towns can be carried long made electric delivery vehicles a daily part of life
by electric vehicles. Some small vans can carry pallets, and there. Some of these milk floats that were first put into
fork-lift versions can carry large loads. service 30 years ago are still on the road today, which
shows just how hard wearing EVs can be. The original
There are also electric minibuses, and these can be equip- idea, which was “to produce a virtually indestructible
ped to carry disabled people. Vehicles like these have a vehicle”, has been applied right up to the present, ena-
very positive image, and demonstrate the commitment bling the manufacturers of those milk floats to specialise
of authorities, institutions and corporations to implement in electric power and to expand their range of products.
strategies for sustainable development. Smith Electric Vehicles is one of the British manufac-
turers. The company, founded in 1920, can claim to be

the world’s leading producer of electric goods vehicles.
Several thousand of their four-wheeled vehicles are on
the roads all over the world.
Smith’s current range includes a 7.5 ton payload vehicle
launched in 2006 followed by a 3.5 ton model produced
in 2007, and a third one marketed in 2008, a small 2.3
ton van. All types of bodywork are available.
Electric microbus from

New urban logistics services Gruau © Planète Verte
In urban transport the characteristics of journeys are

well known to users. These data enable them to plan been in progress since 2006. The European post offices
distances and routes and to choose the appropriate risk- intend to convert a large part of their fleets to electric
free type of electric goods vehicle. A vehicle such as the vehicles. This market, which will amount to over 10,000
Modec, which has a range of up to 160 km and carries vehicles by 2011, has given an extra boost to makers of
a payload of two tons, shows that it is quite possible electric vehicles. Moreover, like the post office, many
to replace many diesel vehicles by electric heavy goods other large corporations are planning to equip themsel-
vehicles. Modec was designed in the the United Kin- ves with electric vehicles.
gdom by a company set up for the purpose in 2005. This
small truck was designed from the start to be powered In the last few years new small and medium sized manu-
by electricity. Since production began in the spring of facturers have started producing EVs based on internal
2007, it has been adopted by many British businesses combustion engine models. Platforms are supplied by
for their working fleets. In only one year more than a Fiat or by PSA in some cases, or are imported from Asia
hundred electric goods vehicles have been delivered by for those who aim to produce cheap models. The milea-
Modec to clients such as Tesco, UPS, Network Rail and ge range of vehicles available in 2009 varies from 50 to
Hildon mineral water. 90 km in the case of ones fitted with lead accumulators,
and from 80 to 140 km for those using Li-ion batteries.
People-carriers in town centres To give a few examples of marketed or available models
in 2009: a Fiorino and a Doblo produced by Micro-Vett
The chosen policy of many town councils to limit mo- in Italy; a latest generation Berlingo designed by Venturi
tor traffic and noise and atmospheric pollution in his- in Monaco; single or double cab chassis vehicles as well
toric town centres has lead to the use of light electric as nine-seater minivans made in the Netherlands by a
people-carriers. Used as shuttles or on regular transport new French firm, Electric-Road.
routes, these vehicles have been an increasing success.
From the tiny Porter manufactured by Piaggio to the
22 seat microbus produced by Gruau, a complete range
of electric passenger vehicles is now available on the
European market.
Electric commercial vehicles in response to inter-

national consultations
At the instrigation of the French Post Office, which is

heading an European project, major consultations have
Powertrain technology
Nanometric particles of Lithium titanate. Such particles coat the anode of batteries produced by Altairnano, a company based in Nevada in the USA.
1 μm = 1micrometre = 0, 001 millimetre
New technologies and industrial investments A vital component of the powertrain: the
energy storage unit
The many new players in the market have created a
strong demand for specific components of powertrains. The energy storage unit has two vital functions, as ener-
Ever since 2004 - 2005 a considerable increase of invest- gy reservoir and as energy recuperator.
ment in R&D has been made in this emerging industrial
sector. These developments preceded pre-industrialisa- - The reservoir function is provided by batteries of dif-
tion phases and since 2008 mass production has been ferent kinds. The basic principle has been the same for
underway in the most advanced industrial units. many years and remains very simple: accumulator cells
are connected and assembled in a sealed container – the
New components have entered the fray, including nano- battery. To provide the necessary power, batteries are
metric scale materials for battery electrodes, supercon- grouped in one or more packs housed in various parts
densers, electronics directly incorporated in motors and of the vehicle.
composite materials to make vehicles lighter. These kinds
of innovation are now in production and are available to - The energy recuperation function is a more recent
designers. development. It consists in storing energy produced by
Maxwell supercondensers
© Maxwell
the engine in “generator” mode during deceleration. For Very powerful and long-lasting batteries
the system to be efficient it must have accumulators
accepting high currents from the engine. Few battery To appreciate the progress made in just a few years in
technologies make this possible. The most efficient com- batteries designed for electric vehicles one must grasp a
ponents for this function are supercondensers. Because few basic technical notions.
they can charge and uncharge in just a few seconds
they play the role of energy buffer between the engine • Power
and the battery. Supercondensers are now out of the The power of a battery is determined by the amount of
research laboratories and are being produced on a large electric energy it contains in one litre or in one kilogram-
scales by firms like Maxwell and Batscap, a subsidiary of me. Two units of measurement are used: Watt hour per
the Bolloré group. litre (Wh/l) and Watt hour per kilogramme (Wh/kg). EV
technicians also use another notion of power, the Watt
Range extenders per kilogramme (W/kg), which determines the maximal
instant power supplied by a battery or battery pack.
The solutions for increasing the mileage range of an electric
vehicle are few but simple: increasing the capacity of the • Lifespan
batteries, recuperating energy during deceleration, careful Another key criterion in comparing battery performance
driving, or recharging the batteries while on the road. The is their lifespan. This is because a battery’s performance
latter option, using a small electric generator, has not recei- decreases with time and some technologies are more
ved much attention from manufacturers until now. long-lasting than others. The criterion used is the num-
ber of cycles, or times they can be recharged and de-
Renault did try out this solution on about thirty Kangoo charged, or in other words the number of times one can
Electro-Road cars in 2002 - 2003. This was an electric “fill up” before having to change the batteries.
Kangoo using NiCd batteries recharged by a small auxi-
liary motor called a “range extender”. The principle can
in theory be used in any electric vehicle providing it has
enough space to house the auxiliary engine.
Comparison chart of existing technologies As a direct result of this the mileage range has leapt
to 100 km per charge in all electric cars and 40 to
Since the first EVs were distributed in the 1990s bat- 60 km in rechargeable hybrids. The lifespan of batte-
teries have undergone considerable technological pro- ries, another vital factor, has reached 1,500 cycles in
gress. Given a similar weight and size, the amount of the case of four of the available technologies. Trans-
electric energy produced has been multiplied by factors lated in terms of practical results for users, this means
of three to five. that battery packs can now deliver considerable mi-
leage before they have to be changed. In the hypo-
thetical case of a battery pack designed to run for
100 km per recharge, a realistic figure for current tech-
nology would be that the pack only needs to be replaced
every 150,000 km.
The various technologies used
The batteries used in electric and hybrid vehicles are

classed as traction batteries, also known as power batte-
ries. Six different technologies are in open competition
to equip electric vehicles. This diversity provides desi-
gners with a wide range of choices.
• Lead/Acid - Pb
These are the simplest in design and the easiest to ma-
nufacture. Production procedures are well known, and
manufacturers are busy improving them to compete
with the other technologies. They are heavy and not
very powerful, but have the advantage of being cheap.
• Nickel-Cadmium - NiCd
Often been used in the last 15 or so years in porta-
ble appliances, they were the type chosen by PSA for
the 106 and other Saxo cars. They have two draw-
backs, a “memory effect” that sometimes requires re-
gular deep decharging, and strict European regulations
governing the use of cadmium. They are very long-
lasting, but are now little used in electric cars.
• Nickel Metal Hydride - NiMH

These batteries were first used in cordless tools and in
telephones. They propelled the General Motors EV1 be-
fore being chosen by Toyota for its hybrid cars. NiMH
batteries are now standard in hybrid cars. They have
been marketed since 1990 and have a large energy den-
sity and low sensitivity to memory effect.
• Lithium and derived products A great increase in battery production capacity

Several technologies are used in the lithium family of
batteries. They are the kind most often used in portable Since the EV1 with its NiMH batteries and since the 106
electronic appliances and are increasingly used in EVs. and Saxo cars with their NiCd batteries at the end of the
Their main advantage is high energy density (twice to five 1990s, the manufacture of battery packs for EVs has mo-
times higher than in NiMH batteries, for instance) and are ved from experimental stages to mass production. The
not subject to memory effect. The different categories of advent of lithium cell technology sparked an enormous
the lithium family of batteries are as follows: growth in production capacity. To meet the demand in
- Lithium-ion - Li-ion – The most commonly used type in batteries for the “personal mobility* ” industry, the elec-
low power mobile communication applications. tronic giants set up automated production chains. Their
- Lithium Polymer - LiPo – Lighter than Li-ion, and also factories produce tens of millions of units a year and their
easier to use. manufacturing processes have been adapted to produce
- Lithium-phosphate- LiFePO4 - One of the major advan- larger and larger batteries of the kind needed to power
ces of the last five years. They combine the advantages of electric vehicles. The world leaders in this sector are in
Li-ion and LiPo batteries and have a long lifespan. Asia, three in South Korea, five in Japan and about ten
- Lithium Metal Polymer - LMP – These run at an inter- in China. All these manufacturers produce batteries for
nal temperature of about 85°C. This technology is in the electric vehicles and they are preparing to increase pro-
process of development promoted by the Bolloré group. duction within the next two years.
Manufacture has already begun. In the USA, 14 companies have united under the banner
“National Alliance for Advanced Transportation Battery
• Zebra batteries Cell Manufacture“. Their aim is to open giant production
This is a rather one-off technology, as it is used by only units to supply the North American market. New produc-
one manufacturer. It uses molten sodium chloroalumi- tion units are also being set up in Europe. One of these,
nate and its internal temperature is 250°C. built in Nersac in France, is the result of a 15 million Euro
investment made by the Franco-American joint venture
• Nickel-Zinc - NiZn Johnson Controls-Saft. The Nersac factory produces Li-
These are considered to be the new generation of bat- ion batteries for electric and hybrid cars made by Ford
teries and are still being developed. They are similar to and Daimler among others.
Li-ion batteries in terms of performance and should be
considerably cheaper.
*Mobile telephones, laptop computers, MP3 players, GPS,
electrically assisted bicycles, etc.
Johnson Controls-Saft , Nersac factory. Quality control during the installation of electrodes. © Saft-Didier Cocatrix
Another major investment in Europe, amounting to over
30 million Euros, was that made in 2008 by the Evonik
group in partnership with Daimler to set up a joint subsi-
diary for the production of Li-Tec batteries.
Alliances in all directions among major manu-

facturers
After years of expectation it looks as though the major car

manufacturers have finally turned their strategy towards
electric cars. To acquire the necessary know-how in batte-
ries, a vital part of any EV, they had to set up partnerships
with those manufacturers who had the skills and capacity
for production, the giants of electronics and new genera-
tion batteries. Indeed now it is the batteries, and not the
engine, that lie at the core of an electric vehicle’s value. To
ensure against any problem with future supplies the major Recycling batteries
car manufacturers formed partnerships with established
electric energy specialists. Problems caused by used batteries are directly linked to
recycling organisation and efficiency. The cost and sup-
- Toyota signed a partnership with the Matsushita group to ply of raw materials also make it absolutely essential to
create Panasonic EV Energy. This new company also supplies recycle worn-out batteries.
Lexus, Honda, Ford and Mercury.
It is the manufacturers and importers who have the res-
- Nissan set up a subsidiary with the NEC group, a giant in ponsibility of informing users and of providing a recy-
the field of networks and micro-electronics, called Automo- cling service. They are assisted in this by organisations
tive Energy Supply Corp. The company’s main business is the set up according to the type of battery to be processed.
production of Li-ion batteries for cars. Companies specialised in collecting and recycling dead
batteries already exist for the following types: Lead,
- GS Yuasa Corp, another specialist in Li-ion batteries, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. The collection of lead batteries
signed two agreements, one with Mitsubishi in 2007 to is done at a national level through salvage specialists,
create Lithium Energy Japan, and the other with Honda in garages, at waste sorting units and at car centres. For
late 2008. the other types of battery, including NiCd, NiMH and
Li-ion, specific organisations have been set up to pro-
- The Volkswagen group chose Sanyo as its partner for the cess accumulators from computers, mobile phones, etc.
production of future Audi hybrids. For their supply of Li-ion The considerable volumes generated, and therefore to
batteries VW signed an agreement with Toshiba. be recycled, have led to the setting up of specialised
companies or services. The specialists in France are SARP
- General Motors made its arrangements for the supply of Industries, a subsidiary of the Veolia group, and SNAM,
batteries for its future Volt car. The supplier is the Korean a subsidiary of the German company F.W. Hempel & Co.
giant LG Chem through its subsidiary US Compact Power. LG Recupyl, a start-up company based in Grenoble, has de-
Chem already supplies packs for the prototypes. Later GM veloped and patented an operational method of pro-
will produce batteries in its own factory using components cessing lithium batteries. Used Zebra batteries are taken
supplied by LG Chem. back and processed directly by the manufacturer.
Salar de Uyuni, the largest salt desert in the world. It lies at the southern edge of the altiplano and contains several million tons of lithium.
© ESA - European Space Agency - Envisat - May 2008
Geographic origin of raw materials
The meteoric growth of means of production of batte- deserts are in South America, in Argentina, Chile and Bo-
ries involves a proportionate increase in the amounts of livia, as well as in China and Tibet. One of these, which has
raw materials needed. Reserves of these materials, in- so far not been mined, is in Bolivia, the “Salar de Uyuni”,
cluding nickel, cobalt, lithium and zinc, among others, the largest salt desert in the world, covering 10,582 km2.
exist in large quantities around the world. The geogra-
phic distribution of sources of these materials, which is Industrial groups such as Mitsubishi and Sumimoto in
quite different from that of fossil fuels such as oil or Japan and the French group Bolloré have approached the
gas, means that the economic maps of the world have Bolivian government with proposals to mine this enor-
to be redrawn. Other states have consequently become mous reserve. The world’s resources of lithium, as estima-
producers of strategic raw materials, which has greatly ted by USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), amount to about
benefitted their balance of trade. Reserves of cobalt are 4.1 million tons, which would make it possible to produce
owned by the Republic of Congo, Australia and Cuba. several tens of millions of battery packs for EVs without
The largest nickel mines are in Australia, Cuba, France any major difficulty in supply.
(New Caledonia), Russia and South Africa. Australia,
China, Peru, Kazakhstan, the United States, Mexico and Source of data: usgs.gov
Canada own the world’s reserves of zinc. At the present
rate of consumption, reserves will last for ± 43 years in
the case of nickel, ± 95 years for cobalt and about 20
years for zinc.
Enough lithium to supply battery producers
Lithium is a special case. Traces of lithium exist in the

world’s oceans, but are hard to exploit profitably. Lithium
is also found in deposits of pegmatites (magmatic rock),
in some clays and in salt deserts. The largest of these salt
Electric currents,
from socket to engine
The technical features of electric vehicles are described Engine power

in terms of electrotechnical units of measurement. The-
se units of measurement, which are different from those The power of an engine is expressed in kW. Figures given
used for internal combustion engines, may be difficult as a general rule express nominal power, for example
to understand. A few points need to be understood in 4 kW for light quadricycles and a range of 8 to 30 kW
order to decipher the technical specifications of EVs. for EVs. In some cases manufacturers also give the engi-
ne’s peak power. This is a maximum value that lasts for
Charging batteries and connecting to a mains a few seconds during starting or when going uphill. In
supply all cases the engine’s power is regulated by an electronic
variator which in turn is commanded by the accelerator
EV batteries can be recharged from European standard pedal.
mains supply sockets. In France mains electricity is 220 Volts
(V) and delivers a maximum intensity of 16 or 32 amperes Consumption per kilometre
(A). 16 A sockets are standard, 32 A sockets being reser-
ved for appliances with heavy consumptions such as ovens The way to compare the electricity consumption of EVs
or electric burners. The maximum power* delivered is ex- of a same category is to calculate the consumption per
pressed in Watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). The duration of kilometre driven. This is expressed in Wh per kilometre
use expressed in hours generates consumption expressed in or kWh per kilometre. Electricity consumption depends
Watts per hour (Wh) or in kiloWatt per hour (kWh). The time of course on the weight of the vehicle, its payload, the
it takes to recharge a battery depends on the way they are nature of the journey and average speed. Consumption
constructed and the technology used. Lead batteries take values are therefore expressed in ranges. These are around
a long time to charge (six to ten hours), whereas the most 0.08 to 0.15 kWh/km for vehicles in the quadricycle cate-
recent types such as NiCd, Li-ion or Zebra batteries can be gory and vary between 0.10 and 0.25 in minicars. A simple
recharged in four to eight hours. Electricity consumption extrapolation for 100 km makes it possible to compare
is calculated according to the type of charger fitted in the the energy consumption of electric vehicles with that of
vehicle. For example a light EV equipped with a 1,500 W internal combustion engine vehicles. Urban electric cars,
charger will consume between 7 and 12 kWh for a complete from the smallest to the highest performers, consume
charge. The variation is determined by the capacity of the 8 to 20 kWh over 100 km. This means that batteries
batteries. charged at the “daylight hours” rate will cost 0.8 to
2 €/100 km. Batteries charged at night during“off hours”
Battery capacity rate will vary between 0.5 and 1.15 €/100 km.
The capacity of a battery is expressed in Ampere-hours * The calculation formula is W = V x A,

i.e. 220 x 16 = 3,520 W or 3.52 kW for a standard 16A socket.
(Ah); this is the amount of electricity the battery can 1 kW = 1,000 W
supply. Depending on the voltage, the energy stored is
measured by the following formula:
Ah x V = Wh (or kWh).
For example, a 210 Ah battery pack under 48 Volts sup-
plies 10 kWh, whereas another 210 Ah pack under 72
Volts supplies 15 kWh.
In practical terms the power loaded determines the ve-
hicle’s mileage range depending on the power of the en-
gine, the vehicle’s weight and the nature of the journey.
“Filling up”
Electricity is available almost everywhere. This fact is a Recharging a vehicle in public areas and at work
major advantage for the development of electric vehi-
cles. Added to that is the fact that an ordinary mains Charging points have been designed to withstand the ha-
socket is all that is needed. Plug in an extension lead and zards entailed by installing them outdoors in public areas.
the car is recharged in just the same way as we already There are more and more of these charging points in areas
recharge everyday appliances such as mobile telepho- reserved for electric cars in parking lots. About 200 public
nes, laptop computers or a cordless electric drill. charging points, each with several sockets, were installed
in France in the late 1990s. There are about one hundred
Recharging times vary according to the type of battery in Paris.
used. Lead batteries take a long time to charge (six to In early 2009 the government launched a vast national
eight hours), whereas the most recent types of battery programme to develop charging points that involves car
can be charged in five to six hours. Rapid recharges, manufacturers, energy suppliers, local authorities, builders
which take one to two hours, partial recharges, top-up and managers of public areas. The objective is to create a
charges are also possible with these technologies. Provi- charging infrastructure (in homes, in workplaces, on public
ded that one has the right sort of charger and access to roads and also rapid charging points) to serve several tens of
industrial type mains sockets. thousands of electric vehicles by 2012.
This infrastructure is fairly simple to build, as the work

required to install the points is light, indeed much lighter
than the work required to build filling stations selling petrol,
diesel or hydrogen.
The Better Place project
In late 2007 Shai Agassi, a wealthy entrepreneur in the

IT sector, announced the creation of Better Place. This
start-up venture has benefited from an investment of Future Better Place charging station © Better Place
over 200 million dollars to organise the setting up of
networks of recharging points for electric cars. His aim
is to remove one of the obstacles to electric cars being
adopted by the general public. - A charging network in Australia exclusively using re-
newable energies.
Shai Agassi is an unusual person. He left his job as ma-
nager of the multinational company SAP to found Bet- - The Irish government plans to have 10% of road vehi-
ter Place (SAP is the largest supplier of inter-corporation cles replaced by electric ones by 2020. To this end it has
software in the world, and the third largest supplier of invested one million dollars in an experimental project
software in general). His assessment is unequivocal: the with Better Place.
automotive industry is undergoing profound change
and is moving from the present model, the 1.0 Car based - In North America, Ontario in Canada and California
on the internal combustion engine to the 2.0 Car that in the USA have chosen Better Place as partner to build
runs on renewable energy. their recharging networks.
By the end of 2008, Better Place had achieved a series of The rapid success of Better Place can be reproduced eve-
impressive results, including: rywhere, because it is based on a simple principle: cars
remain parked on average 23 out of every 24 hours; it
- A partnership with the Israeli government and should be possible to recharge cars wherever they are
Renault-Nissan for the building of a recharging infra- parked.
structure covering the whole of Israel. Israel will thus
be the first country in the world to build a national Scooter Vectrix on an electromotive terminal
© Elektromotive Ltd
network for electric cars.
- The signature of an agreement with Dong Energy in

Denmark and an investment of 103 million Euros for the
installation of a nationwide network.
- Better Place is associated with the Japanese automo-

tive giants and with the ministry of the environment
to develop a network of ultra rapid charging points in
Japan. The system rests on a simple principle: the battery
packs are interchangeable, so it will only take a few mi-
nutes to change batteries before driving off again.
Carbon emission figures
for electric and hybrid vehicles
It is a fact that electric and hybrid vehicles emit less CO2 France’s energy mix (figure 2) consists largely of low emission
into the atmosphere at the local level: zero emissions energy, including both nuclear energy and renewable energy,
in the case of all electric cars and the lowest in each and only 9.9% of fossil fuel energy. France, whose electricity
category for hybrid cars. These are undeniable advan- production releases on average 75 grammes of CO2 per kWh,
tages anyway, but when one adds the the consequences is the leading country in Europe for its low CO2 emissions
of global CO2 emissions from “well-to-wheel” for fuels figure. The calculation of energy efficiency in terms of “well-
derived from oil, the advantage of electric engines over to-wheel” provided by ADEME (figure 3) show the overwhel-
internal combustion engines is much greater still. ming superiority of electrically powered vehicles over ones
using other sources of energy.
Well-to-wheel efficiency
The increase in fleets of electric vehicles and
Global counts of “well-to-wheel” emissions take into account renewable energy sources
the CO2 emitted during energy production, transport (of cru-
de oil from oil wells to storage facilities), during refining etc. The progress achieved in terms of efficiency and profita-
as well as the CO2 emitted by the vehicle itself. bility in the field of renewable energy, particularly wind
turbines and solar panels, have led to an exponential
In the case of electric vehicles it is necessary to quantify the growth of production capacity all over Europe. Europe’s
CO2 emitted during the production of electricity. This varies objectives in developing renewable energy up to 2020
according to the form of initial energy used. Electricity pro- will continue to grow in this sector. For example energy
duced using renewable sources of energy (hydropower, wind production from wind turbines was 56,000 MW in 2007,
turbines, solar panels, biomass fuel, etc.) has low levels of and will rise to 89,000 MW in 2010. The objective set by
emissions. Electricity produced in power stations using gas, the latest European directives is 180,000 MW by 2020.
fuel or coal on the other hand results in high levels of emis- The trend is similar for energy produced by solar pa-
sions of CO2. Electricity produced in nuclear power stations nels. The 4,700 MWc capacity of installations in 2007
occupies a position somewhere in between that produced by is projected to rise to 13,500 MWc in 2010. Expected
renewable energies and fossil fuel energy. Global counts the- increased sales of electric vehicles in the next few years,
refore vary according to country and the form of energy used for example the objective of 100,000 “decarbonised”
to produce electricity. The notion of “energy mix” is used to vehicles by 2012 set by the French government is syn-
compare the CO2 emissions from one country to another. That chronous with the development of low CO2 emissions
for Western Europe (figure 1) shows how much – more than energy production.
51% - electricity is still being produced using fossil fuels.
Figure 1- Eastern Europe (Source EurObserv’ER 2007)

Structure of electricity production - 2007
Geothermal 0,3%
Wind 3,1%
Biomass 2,5%
Solar 0,1%
Non-renewable waste 0,6%
Hydraulic 15,7%
Nuclear 26,2%
Fossil 51,3%
Figure 2 - France (Source EurObserv’ER 2007)

Structure of electricity production - 2007
Wind 0,7%
Biomass 0,7%
Non-renewable waste 0,3%
Hydraulic 11,2%
Marine energies 0,1%
Nuclear 77%
Fossil 9,9%
Figure 3 - "From well-to-wheel" (Source ADEME)
Short and medium-term
prospects
This change in the automotive landscape is set to continue, In Japan, the prime minister’s office announced that
driven by many government programmes and thanks to the by 2020 half the vehicles marketed in the country will
advent on the market of a host of new vehicles in addition to be powered by energy sources other than fossil fuels.
the existing range. Major initiatives involving energy producers, Japan encourages the use of EVs by means of substantial
government authorities, the world of research, consumers and grants and converting the fleets or large corporations
battery and car manufacturers are emerging in many parts of to electricity. The same is to be done with the Japanese
the world. The quantities involved, from a few thousand to a post office’s 21,000 vehicles. The government supports
few million units, show that we are seeing a real change of a programme to install hundreds of recharging points
scale in the market for electric and hybrid vehicles. The impact involving industrial manufacturers, energy producers,
of some state programmes on production capacity is going to builders and battery suppliers.
open the way to new players on the international market.
New players and established manufacturers
Colossal means in Asia
Every year manufacturers, whether new players or old
China plans to supply its internal market with a high per- established corporations, announce more and more new
centage of electric and hybrid vehicles. Following the launch vehicles to go soon into production. For the USA, the
in 2007 of a vast research and development programme cal- world’s single greatest market, the big Detroit manufac-
led “Initiative 863” involving universities, research institutes turers GM, Ford and Chrysler are preparing their switch
and manufacturers, the Chinese government organised a to electric and hybrid cars.
large scale demonstration programme in 2008. This pro-
gramme involves thousands of vehicles and the building • General Motors has attracted the most media attention
of a recharging infrastructure for EVs in the larger Chinese since 2007 with their announcement of the Volt project,
cities. To follow this up large funding has been set aside to plug-in hybrid cars that are to be manufactured on a large
build a vast network of electric recharging points to match scale starting in 2010, first in the USA under the Chevrolet
the scale of the country. brand and then in Europe by their subsidiary Opel.
• Ford’s “electrification” plan centres on three new products: Mass production of a Mégane type saloon and a mo-
- an electric commercial vehicle which will be available del derived from the Kangoo is planned for 2011. A new
in the US in 2010; mass produced all electric car is announced for 2012. It
- a small electric car for the general public designed in might resemble a concept car presented by Nuvu at the
partnership with the Canadian equipment manufacturer Paris Motor Show in Paris in 2008.
Magna;
- a range of new generation hybrid cars (including one • Bolloré
plug-in) from 2012. Electric cars designed by the Bolloré group have been
shown at European motor shows since 2005. These
• Chrysler has come up with a new product in the US, shows and many articles in the press generated a real
the Chrysler ENVI. The group is to launch a new range of interest among the general public. After working with
electric vehicles in the USA in 2010. The technology uses the demonstrator, developed with the help of engi-
the internal combustion engine to recharge the batte- neers at Espace Développement (the designers of the
ries. Four models will be produced, the Patriot EV and Renault Espace), the Bolloré group turned to the Italian
Wrangler EV jeeps, a minivan, the Town & Country EV coachbuilder Pininfarina to produce Bluecar, a five-door
and a sports car, the Dodge Circuit EV. Global Electric five-seater electric saloon car. Production is due to start
Motorcars (GEM), the group’s subsidiary specialised in in late 2009.
leisure vehicles, has announced production at the end
of 2009 of the Peapod, a small urban car. • FAM Automobiles
This French company is a subcontractor to car manufac-
• Still in the USA, a new manufacturer, Fisker Automotive turers. Specialised in the mass production of LPG kits and
has raised more than $ 60 million in capital to build a conversions of mass produced cars to four wheel drive,
top of the range sports car, the Fisker Karma. This is a FAM turned in 2008 to designing an electric urban car,
high performance plug-in hybrid with a top speed of the F-City. F-City was designed to be a self-service urban
200 km/h and an acceleration of 0 to100 km/h in under mobility tool that does not require a driver’s licence. This
six seconds. compact car is only 2.5 m long and 1.6 m wide. Its top
speed will be around 65 km/h, and it will have a range of
In Europe, new players in the industry have set out to 60 to 80 km depending on driving conditions.
compete with the large groups who do not plan to enter
the market before 2011 or 2012. • DuraCar
This start-up venture based in the Netherlands is
• PSA concentrating on a single model, an urban and suburban
The PSA group presented many diesel hybrid prototypes commercial vehicle called Quicc. The aim is to market
from 2006 on, including the 307, 308 and C4, before a fully electric minivan by 2010. Duracar relies for this
deciding not to go ahead with them. The latest of those project on the production facilities of the German group
prototypes, the Peugeot Prologue HYmotion, should Karmann, a German sub-contractor to the automotive
have been the basis for a 3008 Hybrid4 in 2011, but the industry.
date has been postponed to 2013. For all electric cars
PSA approached Mitsubishi with a view to marketing a • Think
model derived from the iMIEV around 2010. In addition to the Think City, production of which began
in Norway, Think’s Scandinavian engineers have desi-
• Renault/Nissan alliance gned an all electric five door saloon car. Think Ox was
The group is planning to produce demonstration vehi- designed to be produced in several different versions.
cles for their validation fleets before the end of 2009.
The first country involved is Israel in the context of the
Better Place project.
Vehicles available in spring 2009
Micro hybrids Mild hybrids

Citroën C2 Stop & Start Honda Civic Hybrid
C3 Stop & Start Insight 2009
Smart Fortwo mhd Mercedes S400
Mini One BMW X5
7 Series
BMW 1 & 3 Series Parallel hybrids

Kia Ceed ISG Toyota Prius
Mercedes A Classe Lexus RX400h
Toyota IQ Optima Drive GS 450h
Yaris Optima Drive LS 600h
Auris Optima Drive
Fiat 500 PUR-O2
Hyundai i10 & i30 Blue
Mazda 3 2.0 DISI
Suzuki Alto
Land Rover TD4e
Volkswagen Passat BlueMotion
Passat BlueTDI
Electric cars Electric commercial vehicles

Venturi Fetish Smith Ampere
Eclectic Edison
Tesla Newton
Motor Roadster Modec Modec Van
Loremo EV Piaggio Porter
Think City Micro-Vett Fiorino

Start Lab Street Doblo
Maranello Electric-Road ZX40 ST
4 Cycle SCE electric AGV Truck
Reva Reva "i" AGV Van
Mega City "e" VEM Gigione
Matra M.S. GEM Orso

Scudel
Movitron Teener
Doblet
Comparison table: weight / power / price
Type of technology Pb NiCd NiMH Li-ion LiPo LiFePO4 Zebra NiZn
Wh/kg (weight) 40 60 80 160 200 200 120 80
Wh/l (volume) 75 150 250 270 300 220 181 140
Number of cycles 400 1,400 1,200 1,250 1,800 1,500 1,100 1,000
Power pack 10kWh
kWh/kg 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.16 0.2 0.2 0.12 0.08
Weight in kg 250 167 125 62,5 50 50 83 125

Lifetime in kilometres
Base 140 km per charge 56,000 196,000 168,000 175,000 252,000 210,000 154,000 140,000
Hypothesis 1 - 2009
Price per kWh 450 1 200 1,400 1,600 1,750 1,600 1,250 n/a
Price pack 10 kWh 4,500 12,000 14,000 16,000 17,500 16,000 12,500 n/a
Price per km 0.080 0.061 0.083 0.091 0.069 0.076 0.081 n/a
Hypothesis 2- Estimation for the end of 2010

Price per kWh 450 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,550 1,500 1,100 n/a
Price pack 10kWh 4,500 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,500 15,000 11,000 n/a
Price per km 0.080 0.061 0.077 0.080 0.062 0.071 0.071 n/a

OVE Everything You Need To Know About Electric Car

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May

The OVE books

This revolution in the market is due to several factors:

Restrictive measures for motorists

Solutions for urban traffic: electric and hybrid cars

All categories and all segments of the market are being

All this activity has extended the range of supply and

Electric vehicles of all times USA – General Motors’ EV1

EV1 reserved to California France - Next, a prototype hybrid car designed

• What suddenly made electric cars so popular?

- French laws on air pollution have since 1999 forced

stop production of EVs, the PSA Peugeot Citroën managers

Citella © Citroën * French agency for environment and energy control

promising new technologies for producing even more

Other reasons seem more likely:

- The technology of the NiCd (nickel-cadmium) batteries

- There is a real risk of fierce competition for a major

Honda Insight 2009 © Honda Motors

Rechargeable, or plug-in hybrids

The category of all electric vehicles includes many diffe-

Prototype QUICC © DuraCar

Système micro hybrid Stars de Valeo © Valeo

How they work

Mild Hybrid Honda Civic © Honda Motors

How they work

Mild hybrid Honda Insight 2009 © Honda Motors

Toyota Prius II © Toyota

How they work Reduction of fuel consumption and emissions of

Plug- In Hybrid prototype as viewed on Toyota Prius realised by EnergyCS, USA

Prototypes as early as 2004

In Europe, EDF - in partnership with Toyota - became

Nissan FEV-II - Li-ion batteries © Nissan

How they work

• 1995 – Nissan’s FEV-II Concept

• 1996 – Peugeot’s Tulip

Traffic movement restrictions, which used to be limited

Aware of this problem, local councils are adopting poli-

© Think Norway – a pioneer of small electric urban cars

Scandinavia has a harsh climate with long winters; tem-

- The first of these manufacturers, Elbil Norge, has been pro-

BB1 © Automobile Peugeot

The switch of “No driver’s licence” micro cars to

It was thanks to Mr. Ian Clifford, a Canadian entrepre-

Matra GEM © Matra MS

Contemporary milk float in Liverpool © all rights reserved

turers. The company, founded in 1920, can claim to be

Electric microbus from

In urban transport the characteristics of journeys are

Electric commercial vehicles in response to inter-

At the instrigation of the French Post Office, which is

The various technologies used

The batteries used in electric and hybrid vehicles are

• Nickel Metal Hydride - NiMH

• Lithium and derived products A great increase in battery production capacity

Alliances in all directions among major manu-

After years of expectation it looks as though the major car

Geographic origin of raw materials

Enough lithium to supply battery producers

Lithium is a special case. Traces of lithium exist in the

The technical features of electric vehicles are described Engine power

The capacity of a battery is expressed in Ampere-hours * The calculation formula is W = V x A,

This infrastructure is fairly simple to build, as the work