Lectures on

Structural Dynamics and Earthquake

Engineering

by
Dr. K.K Sangle
Professor,
Structural Engineering Department
Dean, Academics, VJTI
 PURPOSE OF STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING

• To plan a structure for it’s geometry,

materials & methods of construction, so
that it performs satisfactory.
 The Simplified Structural System

STRUCTURE
EXCITATION
RESPONSES
Loads Displacements
Vibrations Strains
Settlements
Stress
Thermal pv Stress Resultants
Changes

• Static • Elastic • Linear

• Dynamic • Inelastic • Nonlinear
 Performance Expected from Structure
• Stresses must be within limit
• Deflection must be within limit
• Structure must be stable
• Structure must have adequate life
• Structure must not vibrate dangerously
• Structure must be easy to maintain
• Structure must have pleasing appearance
• Structure must be easy to construct
• Structure must have enough ductility
Types of Loads
 Dead Loads
• Weight of the Structure itself
– floors, beams, roofs, decks, beams/stringers, superstructure

• Loads that are “always there”

 Live Loads
• Live Load •It is very difficult to specify live load for
a) Force of Nature a structural system accurately because.
• Wind
• Seismic/Earthquake •The magnitude of the load itself is
uncertain.
b) Not Permanent
• Snow •The location over which the loading acts
• Thermal at any instant is also uncertain
• Electromagnetic
• Erection
• Pre-stress
c) Associated with intended use
of the area- specified by
various codes
 Dynamic Loads
• Moving loads (e.g. traffic)
• Impact loads
• Gusts of wind
• Loads due to cycling machinery
 Load Example: Water in a dam

Water,
 = density

h
p = gh
 Types of Internal forces in Structural
Members

• Axial force Tension/Compression

• Bending Moment

• Shear Force

• Twisting Moment
 Forces in Structural Elements
100
Kg

100
Kg

Tension Compression
Forces in Structural Elements

100
Kg

Bending

Torsion
Types of Internal stresses developed because of
Internal forces in structural members

• Axial force tension/compression –Direct tensile

stress/ Direct Compressive Stress
• Bending moment - Bending Stress- Bending Tensile
stress and Bending Compressive Stress
• Shear Force- Shear Stress
• Twisting moment - Shear Stress
 Types of the Structures
Types of
Structures

Based on the Based on way

Dimensions they carry load
 Types of the Structures

Based on the Dimensions

One Dimensional

One Dimension say length is very large as compared to other

two dimension.
For example – trusses , beams, frames, grids, arch rib and cable
structures
 Arch

Arch
Arch
Planar Truss
 Planar Truss

Truss
C

T
C C

T
Forces in Truss Members
Planar Truss
Beam/Girder
 Types of the Structures

Two Dimensional or Surface Structures

Here length and breadth are large in comparison to thickness.

For example – Slab, Deep Beam, Shells or walls.
 Types of the Structures

Three Dimensional or Solid Structures

Where all the three dimensions of length, breadth and height

are equally
For example- foundations , retaining walls, gravity dams
 Types of the structures
Based on the way they carry load
Beams – Beams Carry their loads by Developing Bending Moment
and Shear Forces at different section

Trusses- Axial Force- May be Axial Tension/ compression

 Types of the structures
Based on the way they carry load

Frames- Axial Force , Bending Moment and Shear Force

 Types of the structures
Based on the way they carry load

Plane Grid- Bending Moment and Shear and Twisting

 Types of the structures
Based on the way they carry load
Arches - Bending Moment, Radial Shear and Normal Thrust

Cables - Axial Tension

Types of the structures
Based on the way they carry load

Thin Plates – Bending and Twisting

Thin Shells – Mainly by in plane or membrane stresses
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

• Roller Support
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

• Hinge Support
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

• Fixed Support
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

• Elastic Support
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

• Guided Roller Support

 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

Sr. Type Sketch Restrained Reactions

No. displacement
1. Roller Normal to the plane One no normal
on which roller are to plane on
moving which rollers
are moving
2 Hinge Linear Two Nos.
displacement in Rx & Ry
any directions
3 Fixed Linear and angular Three Nos.
displacements in Rx, Ry and Mz
all directions
4 Elastic Partial restraint of One No. Ry
linear displacement Depending on
displacement
5 Guided
 Equations of Equilibrium
• Translational Equilibrium
∑ Fx = 0 , ∑ Fy = 0 , ∑ Fz = 0

• Rotational Equilibrium
∑ Mx = 0 , ∑ My = 0 , ∑ Mz = 0

• In the Vector form they can be expressed as

FR = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = 0
MR = Mx i + My j + Mz k = 0
 Types of materials
•Isotropic – properties same in all directions

i.e Mild structural steel , Aluminum/ Aluminum alloys ,

High strength metal alloys, Glass

•Orthotropic – properties different in mutually

perpendicular directions

i.e Fibre reinforced composites

•Anisotropic – properties different in all directions

i.e Timber
 Types
Typesofofmaterials
materials

•Homogeneous – properties same at all points

i.e Stone

•Heterogeneous - properties different at different points

i.e Concrete , soil

 Material Characteristics

•Linear Elastic •Linear Inelastic

stres
stres s
s

strai strai
n n
 Material Characteristics

•Non-Linear Elastic •Non-Linear Inelastic

stres stres
s s

strai strai
n n
 For structural analysis, we need only few
material properties like

• Young’s modulus E,
• Poisson’s ratio µ,
• coefficient of thermal expansion α,
• density ρ.
 Stress and Strain

• When external forces are applied to objects made of

elastic materials, they produce changes in shape and
size of the object.

•Strain is the relative change in shape or size of an object

due to externally-applied forces.

•Stress is the internal force (per unit area, etc.) associated

with a strain.
 Stress Strain
T T
Stress = Force/Area

Section X DL

Section X Lo

T
T
 Elastic Deformation
• Elastic material deforms under stress but returns to its
original size and shape when the stress is released.
There is no permanent deformation.

stres stres
s s

strai strai
 Viscous Deformation
• The materials which deform steadily under stress is called
viscous deformation.
• Purely viscous materials like liquids deform under even the
smallest stress.
• Rocks may behave like viscous materials under high temperature
and pressure.
• Viscosity is very dependent on temperature.

The viscosity of
glycerine drops from The viscosity of water at 100 C is
6700 at -40 C to 0.63 at only one-third as much as room
30 C, a factor of 10,000 temperature and one sixth what it is
in only 90 degrees. at 0 C.
 Plastic Deformation
• Plastic material does not flow until a threshold
stress has been exceeded.

At the Plastic state

increase in the stress
is very less as
compared to the
strain.
 Young's Modulus/ Modulus of
Elasticity
• Many elastic materials obey Hooke's Law behavior: the
deformation is proportional to the force.
• The constant of proportionality is called the young’s Modulus
or Modulus of Elasticity E=σ/ε

If strain = 1, stress = E. Thus, Young's Modulus can be considered

the stress it would take (theoretically only!) to result in 100 percent
stretching or compression. In reality, most rocks fracture or flow
when deformation exceeds a few percent, that is, at stresses a few
percent of Young's Modulus.

The seismic P- and S-wave velocities in rocks are proportional to

the square root of E.
 Poisson's Ratio

• When a material is Poisson's Ratio is defined at

flattened, it tends to the ratio of the transverse
bulge out at right angles strain (at right angles to the
to the compression stress) compared to the
direction. If it's longitudinal strain (in the
stretched, it tends to direction of the stress).
constrict.

Note that the ratio is that

of strains, not dimensions.
 Poisson's Ratio

• For most rocks, •Many unconsolidated

Poisson's Ratio, materials are dilatant. Rocks
averages about 1/4 to can become dilatant just
1/3. before failure because micro
cracks increase the volume of
• Materials with ratios
the rock.
greater than 1/2
•There are a few material like
actually increase in synthetic foams having
volume when negative Poisson's Ratios.
compressed. Such
materials are called
dilatant.
 Shear Modulus

• It is defined by G = shear stress/shear strain.

• Poisson's Ratio describes transverse strain, so it
obviously has a connection with shear.
• G can be calculated in terms of E and v: G = E/2(1 +
ν).
 Bulk Modulus

• The bulk modulus, K, is the ratio of hydrostatic stress

to the resulting volume change,
or K = pressure/volume change.

Physically, K can be considered the

stress it would take to result in 100 per
cent volume change, except that's
physically impossible and elastic strain
rarely exceeds a few percent anyway.
 Bulk Modulus

• K = E/(3(1 - 2ν))

• If ν = 1/2, then K becomes infinite - the material is

absolutely incompressible. Obviously real solids
cannot be utterly incompressible and therefore cannot
have ν = 1/2.
 Relations Between Elastic Parameters
Known
E= ν= G= K=
:

E, ν E ν (E/2)/(1 + ν) (E/3)/(1 - 2ν))

E, G E (E/2G) - 1 G (E/3)/(3 - E/G))

E, K E (1 - E/3K)/2 E/(3 - E/3K) K

(2/3)G(1 + ν)/
G, ν 2G(1 + ν) ν G
(1 - 2ν)
(2G - 3K)/
G, K 12G2/(3K + 4G) G K
(3K + 4G)
(3/2)K(1 - 2ν)/
K, ν 3K(1 - 2ν) ν K
(1 + ν)
 Different Civil Engineering Material and
MATERIAL
their properties
DENSITY YOUNGS SHEAR BULK POISSON YIELD ULTIMATE %ELONGA
SR kg/mᵌ MODULU MODULU MODULU RATIO STRENGT STRENGTH TION AT
NO S GPa S GPa S GPa H MPa TENSILE FAILURE
MPa

1. CONCRETE 2400 20 8 11 0.16 NIL 3 0.3 (COMP)

2. BRICK 1800 10 1 0.5 0.15 NIL 1 NIL
3. STONE 2500 60 25 30 0.25 NIL 2 NIL
4. TEAKWOOD 650 25 - 7 0.2 NIL 118 NIL
5. GOLD 19320 77 27.2 70 0.42 NIL 120 30
6 SILVER 10500 70 26 64 0.22 3000 300 30
7 PLATINUM 21450 171 62 140 0.39 - 125 35
8 MILD STEEL 7850 210 80 175 0.3 250 400 23
21. HYSD TOR 7850 210 80 175 0.3 NIL 480 14.5
STEEL
22. HIGH TENSION 7850 210 80 175 0.3 NIL 1500 06
STEEL

23. CAST IRON 7870 200 77 166 0.29 NIL 540 NIL
24. HIGH CARBON 7870 230 80 180 0.3 NIL 600 5 to 7
STEEL
 Demands on Structural Engineering -Future
Trends
•Structure should span larger distance.
•Structure should carry larger loads
•Structure should use innovative materials
•Structure should be aesthetically pleasing /unique
•Structure should be built using modern technologies.
•Structure should be built in shortest possible time
•Structure must be energy efficient.
•Structure must be guarded against modern day menaces such as
explosions, tsunamis, strong tremors etc.
•Structures must cater to most unthinkable demands such as
undersea structures ,oversea structures etc
•Structures in space, Structures on other planets
Why to Study Earthquake
Engineering?
How do Earthquake Affect
Structures
2005 NPEEE 107/23
Earthquake Design
117/23
San Francisco are built on sandy soil or fill. Many homes
built on this type of soil were badly damaged during the
1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
2005 NPEEE 126/23
Earthquake Design
 Tsunamis
1957 Aleutian Tsunami
130/23
Earthquake not only Affect
Structures but also
If we continue, designing of the structures
without understanding the earthquake
engineering
133/41
134/41
 What are Earthquakes?
• Vibration of the Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy.
• ….. Massive energy!

Can also be defined as

• The shaking that results from

the movement of rock beneath
Earth’s surface
• Earthquakes occur along plate boundaries at points
called faults.

• Energy is stored in the rocks which produces stress

and strain… until the rock breaks!

Releasing stored energy in the form of seismic waves.

Continuing adjustment of position results in

aftershocks

There are about 8000 earthquakes per day,

worldwide.
Where do Earthquakes Occur?
• Earthquakes occur at tectonic plate
boundaries, and along fracture zones (fault
lines).

The movement between plates and

along faults is not smooth. The plates
move in jerks, giving rise to
earthquakes. The locations of
earthquakes throughout the world
mark the major tectonic boundaries.
The movement of Earth’s plates
creates powerful forces that
Squeeze or Pull the rock in the crust.

Stress
• Stress: A force (push or pull) that acts on rock
to change its shape or volume
 Compression

• Stress that squeezes rock until it

folds or breaks
 Tension

• Tension: Stress that stretches rock so

that it becomes thinner in the middle
 Shearing

• Shearing: Stress that pushes a mass of a rock

in opposite, horizontal directions
 Deformation
• Deformation: A change in the
volume or shape of Earth’s crust
(which causes it to bend, stretch,
break, tilt, fold or slide)

• Most changes in the crust occur so

slowly that they cannot be observed
directly.
Review: How do stress forces
affect rock?
• The three kinds of forces that affect rock are:
• Shearing
– The rocks break and slip apart
• Tension
– The rock stretches and becomes thin in
the middle
• Compression
– The rock squeezes until it folds or breaks
• These stresses work over millions of years to
change the shape and volume of rock
 Faults

Fault
A fracture in the earth along which the
opposite sides have been relatively displaced
parallel to the plane of movement. The Earth’s
crust breaks along surfaces known as faults
which are weak areas in the crust along which
opposite sides have been displaced relative to
each other.
Faults occur when enough stress builds up in
rock to make it move.

Faults occur when stresses within the Earth

build to a point that the elastic properties of
the rock are exceeded causing irreversible
strain or fracturing of the rock. Fault lengths
may range from a few centimeters to
hundreds of kilometers.
 Why do faults form and
where do they occur?
• Faults usually occur along plate
boundaries or at fracture zones,
where the forces of plate motion
compress, pull, or shear the crust so
much that the crust breaks (deforms)

• Rocks on both sides of the fault can

move up or down, or sideways
 Strike-Slip Faults

• A type of fault where rocks on either

side move past each other sideways
with little up or down motion.
• Shearing causes these types of faults
Strike Slip Fault

In these faults the fault

plane is usually vertical,
so there is no hanging
wall or footwall. The
forces creating these
faults are lateral or
horizontal, carrying the
sides past each other.
Strike-slip Fault Example
 Normal Faults
(sometimes called Thrust Faults)

• A type of fault where the hanging

wall slides downward
• Tension forces cause normal faults
Normal Fault
 Normal Fault Example

Dixie Valley-Fairview Peaks, Nevada earthquake

December 16, 1954
 Reverse Faults

• A type of fault where the hanging wall

slides up
• Compression forces cause reverse faults
Reverse Fault
Review: What are the three
types of fault? What force of
deformation produces each type?
• Strike-slip faults
• Produced by shearing
• Normal faults
• Produced by tension
• Reverse faults
• Produced by compression
 Structure of the Earth

Mantle
• The Earth is made
up of 3 main Outer core
layers: Inner core
– Core
– Mantle
– Crust
Crust
• The Earth has an outer silica-rich, solid
crust, a highly viscous mantle, and a
core comprising a liquid outer core that
is much less viscous than the mantle,
and a solid inner core.
The inner core is a primarily solid sphere about 1220
km in radius situated at Earth's center.

The temperature is estimated at 5,000-6,000 degrees

Celsius and the pressure to be about 330 to 360 GPa
(which is over 3,000,000 times that of the
atmosphere!)
•The mantle is approximately 2,900 km thick and
comprises 70% of Earth's volume. (the core makes up
about 30% of Earth's volume, with the outer crust
[where we live] <1%!!).

•In the mantle, temperatures range between 500-900

degrees Celsius at the upper boundary with the crust to
over 4,000 degrees Celsius at the boundary with the
core.
• The outer most layer is the crust - this is the
most familiar to us as it is where we live.

•The distinction between crust and mantle is

based on chemistry, rock types and seismic
characteristics.
 The Crust
• This is where we live!

• The Earth’s crust is made of:

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

- thick (10-70km) - thin (~7 km)
- less dense than - dense (sinks under
oceanic crust continental crust)
- mostly old - young
 Focus
The initial rupture point of an earthquake, where strain
energy is first converted to elastic wave energy; the
point within the Earth which is the center of an
earthquake. The point on the fault where slip starts is
the Focus or Hypocenter.
 Epicenter
• The point on Earth’s surface directly
above an earthquake’s focus
2005 NPEEE 169/23
Earthquake Design
The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as
Focal Depth, is an important parameter in
determining the damaging potential of an
earthquake.

Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow

focus with focal depths less than about 70km.
Earthquakes can occur anywhere between the
Earth's surface and about 700 kilometers below
the surface.

For scientific purposes, this earthquake depth

range of 0 - 700 km is divided into three zones:
shallow, intermediate, and deep.
2005 NPEEE 171/23
Earthquake Design
Shallow earthquakes generally have a more
devastating effect on buildings than deeper
earthquakes.
Distance from epicenter to any point of
interest is called epicentral distance.

173/23
For earthquakes at large distances, sometimes epicentral distance is
measured as an angle subtended at the centre of the Earth

174/23
Detecting Seismic Waves
Seismograph or Seismometer
• A device that records ground
movements caused by seismic waves as
they move through Earth
Seismometers • In the example on the
left, a rotating drum
records a red line on a
sheet of paper. If the
earth moves (in this
case from left to right)
the whole machine will
vibrate too.

• However, the large

mass tends to stay still,
so the drum shakes
beneath the pen,
recording a squiggle!
• A heavy weight attaches
to a frame by spring or
wire

• A pen connected to the

weight rests its point on a
rotating drum

• During an earthquake the

seismic waves cause the
drum to shake while the
pen stays in place

• The pen records lines on

the paper around the
drum
Seismograph
Seismographs record earthquake events
 Seismic Waves
Seismic Deformation

 When an earthquake fault ruptures, it

causes two types of deformation: static;
and dynamic. Static deformation is the
permanent displacement of the ground due
to the event.

 After the earthquake, the formerly

straight line is distorted into a shape
having increasing displacement near the
fault, a process known as elastic rebound.
182/23
Elastic rebound theory
The strain along the
fault exceeds the limit of
the rocks at that point to
store any additional strain.
The fault then ruptures--
that is, it suddenly moves a
comparatively large
distance in a comparatively
short amount of time. The
rocky masses which form
the two sides of the fault
then "snap" back into a new
position. This snapping back
into position, upon the
release of strain, is the
"elastic rebound“.
 Seismic Waves

The second type of deformation, dynamic

motions, are essentially sound waves
radiated from the earthquake as it
ruptures. While most of the plate-tectonic
energy driving fault ruptures is taken up by
static deformation, up to 10% may
dissipate immediately in the form of
seismic waves.
 Seismic Waves: Body Waves
There are two types of body waves

 P-Waves or Primary Waves

 S-Waves or Secondary Waves

 P-Wave Motion
Push-Pull Motion
 P-Wave Motion
P waves are compression waves - the wave
pulse or pulses travels through the rock in a
series of compression pulses. On either side
of the compression the rock is stretched.
The stretching and compression of the rock
is relatively small, allowing the wave to
travel very quickly.
 S-Wave Motion
S-shake or shear wave
 S-Wave Motion
S waves are characterized by a sideways
movement. The rock materials are moved
from side to side as the wave passes.

S waves are like water waves, the wave pulses

travel along by moving the medium from
side to side.
Body Waves: P and S waves
• Body waves
– P or primary waves
• fastest waves
• travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
• compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
– S or secondary waves
• slower than P waves
• travel through solids
only
• shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
 Surface Waves
The surface waves are the slowest earthquake wave.

Two basic types of surface waves

1. Love Waves
2. Rayleigh Waves
 Surface Waves: R and L waves

• Surface Waves
– Travel just below or along the ground’s surface
– Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
– Especially damaging to buildings
L-waves are Complex motion. Up-
and-down and side-to-side. Slowest.
Causes damage to structures during
an earthquake
Rayleigh waves involve orbital motions, like water waves. A
surface particle moves in a circle or ellipse in the direction of
propagation.
Measuring Earthquakes
 Magnitude
• The measurement of an earthquake’s
strength based on seismic waves and
movement along faults

Intensity
• The strength of ground movement in a
given place.
 Mercalli Scale

• A scale that rates earthquakes

according to their intensity and how
much damage they cause

• Developed in the early twentieth

century.
The Mercalli scale has 12 steps
and describes how an earthquake
affects People, Buildings, and the
Land Surface.
 Richter Scale
Richter Comparable Energy Example
• A scale that rates Magnitude (approx.)
-1.5 breaking a rock on a lab table
the amplitude 1.0 large blast at construction site
(height) of seismic 1.5
2.0 large quarry or mine blast
waves measured by a 2.5
seismograph 3.0
3.5
4.0 small nuclear weapon
4.5 average tornado (total energy)
• It is a logarithmic 5.0
scale, which means 5.5 Little Skull Mtn, NV quake, 1992
each level has 10 6.0
6.5
Double Spring Flat, NV quake, 1994
Northridge, CA quake, 1994
times the magnitude 7.0 Haiti Earthquake, Jan.12, 2010
of the level below it. 7.5
8.0
Landers, CA quake 1992
SF, CA quake 1906
8.5 Anchorage, AK quake 1964
9.0 Chilean quake, 1960
10.0 (San-Andreas type fault circling Earth)
12.0 (Fault through center of Earth)
Richter scale measures
total amount of energy
released by an
earthquake; independent
of intensity.

Amplitude of the largest

wave produced by an
event is corrected for
distance and assigned a
value on an open-ended
logarithmic scale.
The Richter Scale
Developed in the 1930’s

All over the world, geologists

used this for about 50 years.

Electric seismographs
eventually replaced the
mechanical ones used in this
scale

Provides accurate
measurements for small,
nearby earthquakes.

Does not work for big, far

ones
 What is a strength of the
Richter scale when measuring
earthquakes? What is a
weakness?
• Strength: Provides accurate
measurements for small, nearby
earthquakes

• Weakness: Does not measure larger

and more distant earthquakes well.
 How are the Mercalli scale
and the Richter scale similar?
How are they different?
• Both measure the strength of an earthquake

• The Mercalli scale measures the strength

in terms of the amount of damage caused
and the amount of shaking that people
experienced

• The Richter scale measures the size of an

earthquake’s seismic waves
 Moment Magnitude Scale

• A scale that rates earthquakes by

estimating the total energy released
by an earthquake.
 The Moment Magnitude Scale
Geologists use this
scale today
It’s a rating system that
estimates the total
energy released by an
earthquake
Can be used for any kind
of earthquakes, near or
far
Some news reports may
mention the Richter
scale, but the magnitude
number they quote is
almost always the
moment magnitude for
that earthquake
Why is the moment magnitude
scale used today by geologists
to measure earthquakes?
• The moment magnitude scale determines
the total energy released by an earthquake
• This scale uses a electronic seismograph
that can measure earthquakes that are big
or small, and near or far
• Geologist examine movement along the fault
and the strength of broken rock
• These two measurements give a more
accurate measurement of an earthquake
 On which scale would an
earthquake’s strength vary
from one place to another?
Explain.
• The Mercalli scale, because the
amount of shaking that people would
feel and the damage to objects would
be greater in a place closer to the
earthquake’s epicenter
Review: What are three scales for
measuring earthquakes? Explain what
each one measures.
• Mercalli Scale
• Measures earthquakes on how much damage they
cause
• Richter Scale
• Measures seismic waves using a seismograph
• Measures small and nearby earthquakes
• Moment Magnitude Scale
• Looks at the total energy released
• Measures large and distant earthquakes
• Helps scientists predict how much fault movement
there was
2005 NPEEE 219/23
Earthquake Design
Earthquake Ground Shaking
The motion of the ground can be described in terms of
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
The variation of ground acceleration with time recorded
at a point on ground during an earthquake is called an
accelerogram.

The nature of accelerograms may vary (As shown in Figure)

depending on
Energy released at source.
Type of slip at fault rupture.
Geology along the travel path from fault rupture to the Earth’s
surface.
Local soil.
They carry distinct information regarding ground shaking; peak
amplitude,

Duration of strong shaking,

Frequency content (e.g., amplitude of shaking associated with

each frequency)

Energy content (i.e., energy carried by ground shaking at each

frequency) are often used to distinguish them.
Peak amplitude (peak ground acceleration, PGA) is physically
intuitive.
For instance, a horizontal PGA value of 0.6g (= 0.6 times the
acceleration due to gravity) suggests that the movement of the
ground can cause a maximum horizontal force on a rigid structure
equal to 60% of its weight.

In a rigid structure, all points in it move with the ground by the

same amount, and hence experience the same maximum
acceleration of PGA.

Horizontal PGA values greater than 1.0g were recorded during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake in USA.
Generally, the maximum amplitudes of horizontal motions in
the two orthogonal directions are about the same.
However, the maximum amplitude in the vertical direction is
usually less than that in the horizontal direction.

In design codes, the vertical design acceleration is taken as a

half to two-thirds of the horizontal design acceleration.
In contrast, the maximum horizontal and vertical ground
accelerations in the vicinity of the fault rupture do not seem to
have such a correlation.

Buildings have proved capable of withstanding vertical

accelerations with the exception of horizontal cantilevers that are
discussed in a later lecture. It is the horizontal accelerations that
cause damage to buildings, and these must be designed for.