ACTA

UNIVERSITATIS PALACKIANAE OLOMUCENSIS

GYMNICA

Vol. 39
No. 4
Editor in Chief
doc. MUDr. Pavel Stejskal, CSc.
Managing Editor
doc. PhDr. Vlasta Karásková, CSc.
Editorial Board
prof. Dr. Joăo M. S. C. Abrantes
prof. Dr. Herman Van Coppenolle
prof. PhDr. Karel Frömel, DrSc.
prof. MUDr. Dušan Hamár, CSc.
prof. Dr. Peter Hirtz
prof. PhDr. Bohuslav Hodaň, CSc.
prof. RNDr. Miroslav Janura, Dr.
prof. Dr. Bojan Jošt
prof. Dr. hab. Stanisław Kowalik
Dr. Elisabeth Mattos
prof. MUDr. Jaroslav Opavský, CSc.
prof. Dr. hab. Joachim Raczek
prof. RNDr. Jarmila Riegerová, CSc.
prof. PhDr. Antonín Rychtecký, DrSc. Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
prof. James F. Sallis, PhD.
doc. PaedDr. Aleš Suchomel, Ph.D.
prof. PhDr. Hana Válková, CSc.
prof. PhDr. František Vaverka, CSc.
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Human Movement,
Technical University, Lisbon, Portugal
Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy
Katholic University, Leuven, Belgium
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland
University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, Poland
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
San Diego State University, San Diego, USA
Pedagogical Faculty
Technical University, Liberec, Czech Republic
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
Faculty of Physical Culture
Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
 ACTA
UNIVERSITATIS PALACKIANAE OLOMUCENSIS
GYMNICA

Vol. 39
No. 4

PALACKÝ UNIVERSITY OLOMOUC

2009
All contributions were reviewed anonymously.
Všechny příspěvky byly recenzovány anonymně.

The authors take response for contents and correctness of their texts.
Autoři odpovídají za obsah a jazykovou správnost prací.

Electronic form available on address: http://www.gymnica.upol.cz

Elektronická podoba (časopisu) je k dispozici na adrese: http://www.gymnica.upol.cz

© Vlasta Karásková, 2009

ISSN 1212-1185
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 5

CONTENT

Ratio changes of selected components of body composition after lymphatic massage

Jarmila Riegerová, Aleš Gába, Michal Valenta, Ondřej Chromý . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The motor performance progression of future undergraduate students of physical education

Roman Cuberek, Iva Machová. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Pilot study on the application of the NQLS questionnaire in a study

of physical activity in inhabitants of villages and towns
Dagmar Sigmundová, Erik Sigmund, Karel Frömel, Petra Vlková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Differences in rotations between the winning and losing teams

at the youth European volleyball championships for girls
Marko Zadražnik, Nenad Marelić, Tomica Rešetar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

The application of formal concept analysis and the importance of scale selection in the evaluation
of physical activity data in relation to the body mass index
Erik Sigmund, Jiří Zacpal, Dagmar Sigmundová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Coordination skills in 9 to 11 years old pupils at practical elementary schools

in relationship to their degree of intellectual disability
Alena Lejčarová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Effect of the intervention program “Paralympic School Day” on attitudes

of children attending international school towards inclusion of students with disabilities
Georgios Xafopoulos, Martin Kudláček, Christina Evaggelinou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

OBSAH

Změny poměrů vybraných složek tělesného složení po lymfatické masáži

Jarmila Riegerová, Aleš Gába, Michal Valenta, Ondřej Chromý . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Vývoj motorické výkonnosti u uchazečů o vysokoškolské studium tělesné výchovy

Roman Cuberek, Iva Machová. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Pilotní studie využití dotazníku NQLS v kontextu s pohybovým chováním obyvatel vesnice a města
Dagmar Sigmundová, Erik Sigmund, Karel Frömel, Petra Vlková . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Změny v rotacích mezi vyhrávajícími a prohrávajícími týmy

na juniorských mistrovstvích Evropy ve volejbalu dívek
Marko Zadražnik, Nenad Marelić, Tomica Rešetar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Aplikace formální konceptuální analýzy a důležitost výběru škály při hodnocení dat
o pohybové aktivitě ve vztahu k body mass indexu
Erik Sigmund, Jiří Zacpal, Dagmar Sigmundová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Úroveň vybraných koordinačních schopností 9–11letých žáků základních škol praktických

v závislosti na stupni jejich mentálního postižení
Alena Lejčarová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Vliv intervenčního programu „Paralympijský školní den“ na postoje dětí navštěvujících

mezinárodní školu vůči začlenění studentů s postižením
Georgios Xafopoulos, Martin Kudláček, Christina Evaggelinou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 7

RATIO CHANGES OF SELECTED COMPONENTS OF BODY COMPOSITION

AFTER LYMPHATIC MASSAGE

Jarmila Riegerová, Aleš Gába, Michal Valenta, Ondřej Chromý

Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic

Submitted in September, 2009

BACKROUND: The application of lymphatic massages has a highly preventive effect as it reinforces the drainage
and transport functions of the lymph pump and thus activates the lymphatic flow and helps detoxify the body.
OBJECTIVE: This pilot report inquires into the effect of lymphatic massages on selected components of body
composition.
METHODS: We conducted an examination of body composition using the InBody 720 device (multifrequency
bioelectrical impedance analysis) in a population of 30 women before and after having received practical training in
lymphatic massages. Our study has pilot features due to professional selection and the low number of participants. We
have presented a data analysis which defines the population anthropometrically (in terms of body height and weight and
body mass index), waist hip ratio, body fat mass, skeletal muscle mass, rate changes in body water (total body water,
intracellular water, extracellular water), proteins, total minerals, bone mineral content and changes to Edema indexes.
RESULTS: A significant reduction of total body water (p = 0.042, φ = 0.0) and Edema 2 (p = 0.021, φ = 0.1) was
indicated in the massaged area. In the case of Edema 1, significant effects of lymphatic massage were determined
in both the right (p = 0.042, φ = 0.4) and the left (p = 0.012, φ = 0.2) upper extremity, and the left lower extremity
(p = 0.014, φ = 0.2). Significant differences in Edema 2 were found in both the upper and lower extremities (p < 0.05)
between the 1st and 2nd examination. A reduction and equilibration to the standard deviation values was also shown.
CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest the necessity of repeating the experiment in a different time frame.We con-
firm the positive intervention of lymphatic massage on the interstitium and cellular body environment.

Keywords: InBody 720, body water, reconditioning, women.

INTRODUCTION ECW represents on average 16% to 20% of the body

The lymphatic system provides drainage, transporta-
tion and immunological functions to the organism. The
adequate function of the lymphatic system is a princi-
ple of balance preservation between the absorption and
transport capacity of lymphatic circulation and tissue
proteolysis. Lymphatic capillaries originate at the capil-
lary lymphatic pump in the intercellular spaces which
are suffused with extracellular water. Almost every tissue
cell receives oxygen and nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids
and amino acids) from the extracellular water (ECW)
and drains carbon dioxide and metabolism products
within it. Cells, molecules and possibly microorganisms
sized 20 µm pass through the endothelium of the lym-
phatic capillaries. Blood capillaries also continuously
transmit up to 200 mg of blood proteins daily into the
interstitial tissue and lymphatic circulation is essential
for its return to the blood circulation path. An impair-
ment of the given balance results in the congestion of
proteins and other macromolecular substances in the
tissues. Proteins bind water osmotically and thus cause
oedemas to develop (Benda et al., 2007).
weight; approximately 20 litres of ECW is produced
within 24 hours; the absorbed amount in the capillary
blood circulation system presents approximately 80% of
ECW. The residual 20% must be drained by lymphatic
circulation. Lymphokinetic factors (such as muscle con-
tractions, subcutaneous tissue movement, changes in
intraabdominal pressure, respiratory movements of the
thorax, pulse wave, etc.) help the lymph flow. Intracel-
lular water is the principal metabolically active compo-
nent of the cellular cytoplasm (Johnston, 2008).
Hypokinesis presents one of the most serious patho-
logical factors which result in excessive stress on the
lymphatic system. The application of a lymphatic mas-
sage has highly preventive effects as it reinforces the
functions of the lymph pump and thus activates lymph
flow and helps the body detoxify. It is suitable as a pre-
ventative measure for restoring immunity, for faster re-
generation after physical stress and surgical procedures,
for the improvement of skin conditions and cellulitis
and serves to prevent the development of varices. Mas-
sage over lymph nodes can speed recovery from damage
resulting from adhesions, and has been shown to be
particularly effective in relieving postsurgical swelling
8 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
and pain and for enhancing the rate and the quality of
healing (Premkumar, 2003). It has had a positive ef-
fect during the recovery of and physiotherapy treatment
for sportspeople. Sports therapists are concerned with
promoting healing, restoring normal function following
injury and achieving optimum performance from their
clients. Massage can assist with each of these process-
es by acting upon arterial and venous blood flow, the
blood clotting process, oedema, lymphatic drainage and
the properties of connective tissue and muscle (Goats,
1994).
METHODS
Research group
We conducted an examination of body composition
using the InBody 720 device (multifrequency bioelec-
trical impedance analysis) in the second half of two
courses which were dedicated to practical training of
lymphatic massages during which the students should
have mastered stroke technique. Thus we worked with al-
ready partially optimized body environment conditions.
We examined 30 women across a wide age range (22
to 59 years of age); this population was professionally
selected (physiotherapists, masseuses). The examination
was conducted in the morning prior to beginning the
massage teaching and before the end of the teaching
day. The 1st and the 2nd examination were separated by
8 hours. All participants performed mutual lymphatic
massages to the neck and upper extremity. The acquired
data was subsequently processed collectively and by de-
cenniums due to the diverse age range. In the latter case,
the population was divided into 4 sub-populations with
a low number of participants.
Aim and Proceedings
We monitored the effect of lymphatic massages
on body composition and examination stability. We
have presented a data analysis which anthropometri-
cally defines the population (in terms of body height
and weight, body mass index – BMI), waist hip ratio
(WHR), absolute and relative amount of the body fat
mass (BFM), skeletal muscle mass (SMM), rate changes
of body water (total body water – TBW, intracellular
water – ICW, extracellular water – ECW), proteins, total
minerals, bone mineral content (BMC) and changes to
Edema 1 and Edema 2.
Fat is the principal and a highly variable component
of the human body. To diagnose obesity, we used BMI
(a value of 30 kg/m2 and more units was considered to
be a risk margin), fat percentage (a value above 28% was
considered to be the risk margin in women; Heyward
& Wagner, 2004), WHR (a value above 0.85 units was
considered to be a risk margin in women; Riegerová,
Přidalová, & Ulbrichová, 2006), visceral fat area (VFA)
and obesity degree. Visceral fat predicates abdominal
obesity. Accumulation of fat in the visceral region plays
an important role in the ethiopathogenesis of serious
non infectious diseases of collective incidence such as
diabetes mellitus, ischemic heart disease, myocardial in-
farction, hypertension, etc. The abdominal obesity risk
margin is above 100 cm2 (moderate risk: 100–150 cm2,
high risk: > 150 cm2; Biospace, 2008).
Proteins qualify the absolute representation of pro-
teins in the body, whereas minerals qualify the absolute
representation of minerals. They are part of dry body
mass. Minerals can be further divided into bone miner-
als and non bone minerals.
Edema 1 presents information on the amount of wa-
ter in the extracellular environment. Standard values
of Edema 1 (ECW/TBW) range between 0.36–0.40;
the formation of oedema can occur if the index value
exceeds 0.40. Edema 2 relates to the determination of
ECW/TBW ratio with added proteins and minerals in
a 2:1 ratio. Values exceeding 0.36 again predicate the
formation of oedemas.
Statistical processing
The acquired data has been processed collectively
and by decenniums due to the varied age range. In the
latter case, the population was divided into 4 sub popu-
lations with a low number of participants. The data was
analysed using Statistica 8 software (StatSoft, 2008).
The differences were analysed using the pair t-test, Wil-
coxon test, and the effect size. (Cramer’s phi) was used
for the determination of effect size between two vari-
ables. In terms of Cramer’s phi we distinguish among
small (0.10 < φ < 0.29), medium (0.30 < φ < 0.49) and
large effects (φ > 0.50). Our study has pilot features.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Due to pair t-test sensitivity, the whole population
showed significant differences in their small increment
of weight (p = 0.008, φ = 0.0), BMI (p = 0.007, φ = 0.0),
body fat mass (p = 0.008, φ = –0.1) and percent body
fat mass (p = 0.026, φ = –0.1). This phenomenon is
conditioned by the increased intake of liquid during the
day and the short time frame for them to be utilised in
the tissues as well as by the sensitivity of bioimpedancy
measurement. Mean BMI value is located within the
normal weight range and fat fraction percentage was
also under the risk margin. WHR was located just past
the risk margin even though the mean values of the
visceral fat area were by far too close to the risk margin
of 100 cm2.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 9

TABLE 1 This is related to the significance of changes in the

The basic statistical characteristics of selected body reduction of TBW (p = 0.042, φ = 0.0). Intracellular
composition data (InBody 720, n = 30) water passed through greater reduction than extracel-
lular, but those differences did not reach statistical
1st examination 2nd examination significance. The reduction of the standard deviation
Characteristic
M SD M SD values of all body water components also supports the
Age (years) 39.75 11.33 39.75 11.33 claim that lymphatic massages have a positive effect on
Height (cm) 168.00 6.45 168.00 6.45 the interstitium and cellular environment of the body.
Weight (kg) * 68.02 15.81 68.29 15.81 The weight amount of the muscle component, pro-
BMI (kg/m2) * 23.89 4.19 23.98 4.19 teins and total minerals encountered a small reduction
BFM (kg) * 18.82 8.94 19.34 9.51 in relationship to TBW reduction, but without any statis-
BFM (%) * 26.50 6.23 26.98 6.84 tical significance of those differences. Skeletal muscles
WHR 0.86 0.05 0.86 0.05 have a 39.76% share in the total weight.The amount of
VFA (cm2) 79.76 38.98 79.92 38.18 bone minerals remained stable and at a good level. In
SMM (kg) 27.05 4.43 26.88 4.12 terms of quantities which underwent rate reductions, the
Proteins (kg) 9.63 1.47 9.56 1.36 standard deviation value was also reduced. The incre-
Minerals (kg) 3.52 0.61 3.50 0.58
ment of average values was accompanied by stability or
BMC (kg) 2.91 0.52 2.91 0.50
by an increase in standard deviation values (TABLE 1).
Recommended 2.62 0.20 2.62 0.20
The same trend in increments and decrements of
BMC (kg)
monitored quantities was shown even in the division
ICW (l) 22.27 3.41 22.15 3.17
ECW (l) 13.79 2.13 13.75 2.03
into sub populations according to age and therefore we
TBW (l) * 36.06 5.52 35.90 5.18 do not consider this to be a measurement error, but
rather to be the effect of introducing the massage. In
Legend: TABLE 2, the low values of differences serve to present
differences between 1st and the 2nd examination were analysed by only the principal statistical characteristics of the data
pair t-test (* p < 0.05) from the 1st examination. The significance of differences
prior to and after massages was confirmed in the popu-

TABLE 2
The basic statistical characteristics of the selected data concerning body composition (InBody 720) – division accord-
ing to decenniums; women aged 20 to 50 years (n = 30)

20 years old women 30 years old women 40 years old women 50 years old women
Characteristic (n = 7) (n = 8) (n = 10) (n = 5)
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Age (years) 24.33 3.20 33.71 2.29 46.00 3.66 56.25 4.14
Height (cm) 168.67 5.32 165.93 6.22 170.05 7.63 165.00 4.24
Weight (kg) * 63.72 7.14 63.54 8.52 74.64 21.93 64.06 12.26
BMI (kg/m2) * 22.41 2.44 23.01 1.99 25.39 5.74 23.49 4.00
BFM (kg) 15.82 3.87 * 16.31 3.64 22.97 12.46 16.30 6.78
BFM (%) 24.60 3.93 * 25.53 3.50 28.75 8.03 24.83 7.23
WHR 0.80 0.03 0.84 0.01 0.88 0.04 0.92 0.03
VFA (cm2) * 51.37 14.99 62.21 13.58 100.73 49.27 95.36 23.84
SMM (kg) 26.46 2.73 26.03 3.43 28.35 5.85 26.10 4.04
Proteins (kg) 9.43 0.90 9.29 1.14 10.06 1.94 9.33 1.31
Minerals (kg) 3.41 0.31 3.32 0.43 3.73 0.84 3.42 0.46
BMC (kg) 2.85 0.24 2.74 0.35 3.09 0.72 2.81 0.38
Recommended BMC (kg) 2.64 0.17 2.55 0.19 2.68 0.24 2.53 0.13
ICW (l) 21.80 2.10 21.50 2.65 23.27 4.48 21.55 3.12
ECW (l) 13.25 1.20 13.14 1.61 14.60 2.76 13.50 1.97
TBW (l) 35.05 3.25 34.64 4.22 37.87 7.24 35.05 5.09

Legend:
differences between 1st and the 2nd examination in the sub populations were analysed by Wilcoxon test (* p < 0.05)
10
lation of women 20 years of age in case of increased
weight (p = 0.046), BMI (p = 0.042) and amount of
visceral fat (p = 0.028), in the population of women
30 years of age in the case of an increased fat fraction in
both absolute (p = 0.028) and relative values (p = 0.043)
in the population of women 40 years of age in the case
of decrement of Edema 1 (p = 0.005) and Edema 2
(p = 0.007) values on the right upper extremity. The
results correspond with those recorded for the analysis
for the whole population.
The low frequency of sub population and profes-
sional selection of probands underline the pilot nature
of this research. With regard to age changes, we dedi-
cated our attention to TBW value changes, visceral fat
and to estimated changes in minerals representation in
the whole organism and in bones.
Total body water consisted of 55.00%, 54.52%,
50.74% and 54.71% of the body weight in the monitored
panel and 53.01% of the whole population. The ECW
range was rather stable between 19.56% and 21.07%
with the highest mean value in group of women aged
50 years. The ICW ranged from 31.17% to 34.21% with
the highest rate in the group of women aged 20 years
which then decreased with age.
Schoeller (1989) reports an incidence of 49% of
TBW in women aged 30 and 40 years and 48% in wom-
en aged 50 years. Riegerová, Přidalová, Valenta and
Dostálová (2008) present the following values in women
aged 62 years ICW 29.00%, ECW 23.94% and TBW
52.53% (measured using QuadScan 4000); Gába, Rieg-
erová and Přidalová (2008) present the following values
Fig. 1
Percentage formulation of changes of body water fractions with age
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
in seniors aged 64 years ICW 28.92%, ECW 18.36% and
TBW 47.28% (measured using InBody 720). Our highest
ICW values are probably connected with the already
optimized ratio of body fluids after lymphatic massages.
Values of visceral fat increase with age; an extreme
increase in the sub population of 40 year old women
was caused by a proband weighing 111.32 kg with a body
height of 179 cm. The value of her visceral fat was high-
ly risky (200.18 cm2). Women of 50 years of age have
rather a high amount of visceral fat even when weighing
relatively little (95.36 cm2, 64.01 kg). The mean value of
the weight amount of total mineral and bone minerals
did not show a significant regressive trend with increas-
ing age. The recommended level of bone minerals was
always lower than the actual value.
Riegerová, Gába, Přidalová and Langrová (2009)
published a suggestion of risk value for the estimate of
total minerals and bone minerals when measurement
was performed using the InBody 720 – 3.08 kg a lower
and 2.55 kg and lower.
Results of 4 women were found under this risk mar-
gin. Their case reports:
E. K., 50 years, BMC 2.15 kg, minerals 3.16 kg,
height 160 cm, weight 49.15 kg, BMI 19.20;
T. G., 50 years, BMC 2.06 kg, minerals 2.54 kg,
height 158 cm, weight 45.46 kg, BMI 18.21;
L. P., 33 years, BMC 2.23 kg, minerals 2.77 kg,
height 160 cm, weight 53.15 kg, BMI 20.76;
D. H., 22 years, BMC 2.45 kg, minerals 2.97 kg,
height 166 cm, weight 51.42 kg, BMI 18.66.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 11

TABLE 3
The basic statistical characteristics of Edema 1 and Edema 2 (n = 30)

1st examination 2nd examination

Characteristic M SD M SD
Edema 1 0.3354 0.06 0.3361 0.01
Edema 2 * 0.3823 0.07 0.3830 0.01
Right upper extremity Edema 1 * 0.3313 0.04 0.3298 0.01
Left upper extremity Edema 1 * 0.3324 0.04 0.3316 0.01
Trunk Edema 1 0.3356 0.06 0.3364 0.01
Right lower extremity Edema 1 0.3354 0.07 0.3354 0.01
Left lower extremity Edema 1 * 0.3366 0.08 0.3383 0.01
Right upper extremity Edema 2 * 0.3779 0.04 0.3776 0.01
Left upper extremity Edema 2 * 0.3791 0.04 0.3784 0.01
Trunk Edema 2 0.3826 0.06 0.3834 0.01
Right lower extremity Edema 2 * 0.3837 0.08 0.3853 0.01
Left lower extremity Edema 2 * 0.3823 0.08 0.3828 0.01

Legend:
Edema1– information on the amount of water in the extracellular enviroment
Edema 2 – relates to the determination of ECW/TBW ratio added proteins and minerals at a 2:1 ratio
Differences between the 1st and the 2nd examination were analysed by means of the pair t-test (* p < 0.05).

There were women with gracilis skeleton and low
weight. BMI signalized participants to be underweight
in the case of T. G. and D. H. All other probands were of
normal weight. Women were informed about their state
and they were advised to seek a specialist. We received
feedback in three cases. T. G. was diagnosed with oste-
oporosis and a clinical level of osteopenia was found in
E. K. and L. P.
The mean of Edema 1 values was lower than the
lower limit of the standard range 0.36–0.40. They fluc-
tuated evenly within the 0.33–0.34 unit range. The rea-
son for that could be the practical training of lymphatic
massages during the week prior to the examination.
The statistically significant decrease appearing in the
upper extremities (which were massaged) included an
Edema 1 mean value (right upper extremity – p = 0.042,

Fig. 2
A box diagram of means and standard deviations of the right upper extremity Edema 1
12
Fig. 3
A box diagram of means and standard deviations of the right lower extremity Edema 2
φ = 0.4; left upper extremity – p = 0.012, φ = 0.2) and
was found by repeated measurements after carrying out
a lymphatic massage. The reduction and equilibration
of standard deviation values was also shown. A mod-
erate increase in mean values occurred in the case of
the total index, trunk index and lower extremities in-
dex. A significant increase occurred only in the case
of the left lower extremity (p = 0.014, φ = 0.2). Mean
Edema 2 values were higher than the given limit value
by 0.02 units. A statistically significant decrease in the
index was found after massaging the upper extremities
(right upper extremity – p = 0.008, φ = 0.3; left upper
extremity – p = 0.009, φ = 0.2). A significant incre-
ment of both lower extremities and trunk indexes was
reported. Significant differences rise from the figure 2
and 3 past the decimal point, but they do not play an
important role from a general perspective. The medium
effect was confirmed for Edema 1 and Edema 2 for the
right upper extremity based on effect size test results
(φ = 0.4). Low effect size was shown on the left upper
extremity (φ = 0.2) as well as in other Edema indexes
(φ = 0.2–0.1).
Our results confirmed the hypothesis of positive
body composition changes. However, they suggest the
necessity to repeat the experiment following a different
time frame. Currently, we have not registered any stud-
ies that focused on specific changes in body composi-
tion after lymphatic massage intervention. Therefore,
we consider this pilot study, despite some limits (e.g.
small sample size, age variability), beneficial to both
theory and practice.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
CONCLUSION
We confirm the positive intervention of lymphatic
massage on the interstitium and cellular body environ-
ment based on data analysis using InBody 720.
The whole population showed significant differenc-
es in small weight, BMI and body fat mass increments
which were probably conditioned by the increased liquid
intake and short time period after their utilization. This
fact is also related to the significant decrease in TBW
mean values, the decrease in ICW and ECW and the
decrease in standard deviations in the case of all body
water components.
The same increments and decrements trend of moni-
tored quantities was demonstrated even when dividing
the population into sub populations according to age.
Values of visceral fat increase with age, meaning that the
estimated values of the weight amount of total miner-
als and bone minerals did not experience a significant
decrease with age.
Edema 1 indexes values were lower on average (op-
timized) than the lower limit of the standard range and
the values equally fluctuated within the 0.33–0.34 unit
range. After a lymphatic massage of the upper extremi-
ties, we noticed a significant reduction of Edema 1 and
Edema 2 indexes in the massaged area. A reduction
and equilibration of the standard deviation values was
also indicated. A small increment of Edema indexes
occurred in non massaged body areas with significance
in the case of Edema 1 for the left lower extremity and
Edema 2 for both lower extremities. The effect size anal-
ysis confirmed a medium effect in the case of Edema
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
1 and Edema 2 on the right upper extremity and only
a small effect on the left upper extremity.
Our results confirmed the presumption of positive
changes in body composition. This hypothesis comes
from a partially optimized state and it suggests the need
for repeating the experiment repetition using a different
time frame.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study has been supported by the research grant
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of
the Czech Republic (No. MSM 6198959221) “Physical
Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech
Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes”.
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chological Bulletin, 130(1), 3–18.
Premkumar, K. (2003). The massage connection: Anato-
my and physiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins.
Riegerová, J., Gába, A., Přidalová, M., & Langrová,
I. (in press). Hodnocení osteopenie a osteoporózy
13
u žen ve věku senescence pomocí přístroje Dexa
a InBody 720. Slovenská antropológi.
Riegerová, J., Přidalová, M., Valenta, M., & Dostálová,
I. (2008). Analýza složení těla pomocí bioimpedan-
ce a antropometrie u moravských žen ve věku se-
nescence, vliv střednědobého pohybového experi-
mentu. Medicina Sportiva Bohemica et Slovaca, 17(4),
191–196.
Riegerová, J., Přidalová, M., & Ulbrichová, M. (2006).
Aplikace fyzické antropologie v tělesné výchově a sportu
(příručka funkční antropologie). Olomouc: Hanex.
Schoeller, D. A. (1989). Changes in total body water
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ZMĚNY POMĚRŮ VYBRANÝCH SLOŽEK
TĚLESNÉHO SLOŽENÍ
PO LYMFATICKÉ MASÁŽI
(Souhrn anglického textu)
Na dvou výukových kurzech lymfatických masáží
jsme ve druhé polovině kurzu provedli vyšetření složení
těla přístrojem InBody 720. Vyšetření jsme realizovali
ráno před zahájením výuky a před koncem výukového
dne, mezi prvním a druhým vyšetřením uplynula časo-
vá pauza 8 hodin. Vyšetřili jsme 30 žen, nízká četnost
a profesní selekce probandek podtrhují sondážní cha-
rakter výzkumu. V předložené pilotní studii jsme sle-
dovali vliv lymfatické masáže na vybrané složky složení
těla a stabilitu vyšetření. Získaná data jsme zpracovali
souhrnně a vzhledem k věkovému rozpětí i po decéni-
ích programem Statistica 8, diference jsme testovali
párovým t-testem. Věcná významnost byla posuzována
pomocí koeficientu φ (Cramer’s phi).
Potvrzujeme pozitivní intervenci lymfatické masáže
na intersticium a buněčné prostředí těla. U souboru se
projevila signifikance (p < 0,05) rozdílů v malém nárůs-
tu hmotnosti, BMI a tukového podílu, což bylo zřejmě
podmíněno zvýšeným přísunem tekutin a krátkou dobou
pro její utilizaci. S tím souvisí i signifikantní snížení prů-
měrných hodnot TBW (p = 0,042; φ = 0,0), úbytek ICW
i ECW a snížení hodnot směrodatných odchylek u všech
složek tělesné vody.
Stejný trend přírůstků a úbytků sledovaných veličin
se projevil i při rozdělení na subsoubory podle věku.
Hodnoty viscerálního tuku narůstaly s věkem, průměrné
hodnoty váhového množství celkových minerálů a kost-
ních minerálů neprojevily ve věkové řadě výraznější se-
stupný trend.
Hodnoty indexů Edema 1 byly ve svém průměru
nižší (optimalizované) než dolní hranice standardního
rozpětí. Po lymfatické masáži horních končetin se pro-
14
jevilo signifikantní snížení indexu Edema 2 (p = 0,021;
φ = 0,1) pro masírovanou oblast. Projevilo se také sní-
žení a vyrovnání hodnot směrodatných odchylek. Test
věcné významnosti potvrdil účinek malé a střední úrov-
ně u indexu Edema 1 a Edema 2 pro pravou horní kon-
četinu, pro levou horní končetinu pouze efekt malého
účinku. Naše výsledky potvrdily předpoklad pozitivních
změn ve složení těla, vychází však z již částečně opti-
malizovaného stavu v druhé polovině kurzu a nazna-
čují nutnost opakování experimentu v jiném časovém
rozvržení.
Klíčová slova: InBody 720, tělesná voda, rekondice, ženy.
Prof. RNDr. Jarmila Riegerová, CSc.
Palacký University
Faculty of Physical Culture
tř. Míru 115
771 11 Olomouc
Czech Republic
Education and previous work experience
1968–1987 – assistant professor, Department of Zo-
ology and Anthropology, Faculty of Natural Science,
Palacký University, Olomouc.
1987–1990 – associate professor, Department of Zo-
ology and Anthropology, Faculty of Natural Science,
Palacký University, Olomouc.
1991–2000 – associate professor, Department of Func-
tional Anthropology and Physiology, Faculty of Physical
Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc.
Since 2001 – professor, Department of Functional An-
thropology and Physiology, Faculty of Physical Culture,
Palacký University, Olomouc.
Scientific orientation
Functional anthropology, kinesiology, enviromentalism
of human, massage.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
First-line publications
Until now she has published 160 papers and research
studies in Czech as well as in foreign literature, 1 mono-
graph, 7 instructional texts and 2 popular books.
Riegerová, J., Szotkowská, J., Přidalová, J., & Krejčí, J.
(2006). Vliv čínského léčebného cvičení na posturu
a pohybový aparát seniorek. Med Sport Boh Slov,
15(5), 212–216.
Riegerová, J. a kol. (2007). Rekondiční a sportovní
masáže. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého.
Riegerová, J., Sluka, R., & Přidalová, M. (2007).
Determination of body composition by means
of anthropometry and bioimpedance and the
calculation of body adipose tissue in obese children
undergoing a spa treatment. Auksologia a Promocja
Zdrowia, 4, 81–91.
Riegerová, J. (2007). Severská chůze ve výběru pohy-
bových aktivit pro seniory. Česká antropologie, 57,
64–65.
Riegerová, J., & Přidalová, M. (2007). Analýza složení
těla pomocí antropometrie a bioimpedance u senio-
rek České republiky. Slov. Antropol, 10(1), 119–122.
Riegerová, J., Přidalová, M., & Gába, A. (2008). Roz-
bor morfologie nohy u žen ve věku senescence. Med
Sport Boh Slov, 17(1), 2–8.
Riegerová, J., Krejčí, J., Kolisko, P., & Přidalová, M.
(2008). Posture analysis using position detector
DTP-2 in senescent women after the application
of a targeted excercise program. Acta Universitatis
Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 38(1), 27–33.
Riegerová, J., Přidalová, M., Valenta, M., & Dostálová, I.
(2008). Analýza složení těla pomocí bioimpedance
a antropometrie moravských žen ve věku senescen-
ce, vliv střednědobého pohybového experimentu.
Med Sport Boh Slov, 17(4), 191–196.
Riegerová, J., Přidalová, M., Valenta, M., & Dostálová,
I. (2009) The healthy aging program – effect of spe-
cific movement activity on body composition in eld-
erly women. Anthropological Review, (Suppl. 6), 92.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 15

THE MOTOR PERFORMANCE PROGRESSION OF FUTURE UNDERGRADUATE

STUDENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Roman Cuberek, Iva Machová

Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic

Submitted in May, 2009

BACKGROUND: In our opinion, the complex interactions between social change, growing inactivity and obesity,
and further negative processes also contribute to changes in the motor performance level of future undergraduates.
Therefore, long term changes to motor performance need to be considered in order to be a mirror of today’s life style
of the above mentioned population.
OBJECTIVE: The main aim of this study was to describe a long term trend in two chosen motor presumptions in
the population entering university physical education study.
METHODS: The sample comprised 2,012 males and 1,705 females aged Mdn = 19 years. The subjects were future
undergraduate students. The measurements took place by means of entrance exams in the time period from 1991 to
2001 and in the year 2006. Their swimming performance was assessed by means of a 100 m swim test and their dash
performance by means of a 100 m dash.
RESULTS: In all four cases (two motor tests, two genders) our analysis indicated non zero trends of performance
(all the verified between years differences were significant; p < 0.001). Polynomial functions constantly show an initial
convex followed by a concave composition (change taking place during the 1998–1999 period) in cases of the dash
and swimming (male only) performance. The female swimming performance trend increases throughout the whole
period. The concavity of the polynomial functions denotes the possibility of increasing performance, which mostly
decreased during the period 1993–2001 (for the dash) and 1996–1999 (for swimming).
CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of our findings we had to reject our research hypothesis and submit evidence of
change to both swimming and dash performance in a specific population. We found out positive (female) and mostly
positive (male) trends of swimming performance in the observed time period. No purely positive nor purely nega-
tive trend of dash performance was found. After the increase during the initial 3 years of observation; the level of
dash performance mostly decreased. However, the last measurement in 2006 indicates some tendency of increasing
performance as well as concavity of polynomial functions (trend function) at the end of the observed time period.

Keywords: Swimming performance, dash performance, long term trends, physical inactivity, PE study.

INTRODUCTION According to the creation of the basics of one’s life

Our present European society is going through
changes and the speed of these changes has growth
character. It is not only a move in knowledge, but in val-
ues and norms. Value systems and principles in sports
change according to the move from a society with stable
values, a clear hierarchy and the want of basic insur-
ance to a society with allowed differences, changes and
new experiences. Engström (2004) feels a change from
a daily life with a high level of physical life activities to
a more sedentary life as one of the basic social changes.
Blair (2001) can see the solution to growing inactivity
in getting physical activities more deeply into the life-
style of an individual, rather than to perform physical
activities as a logical answer to their absence. For an
individual it means that “I do physical activities, because
I want to, not because I feel that I have to”.
style during one’s childhood (Rychtecký et al., 2006),
the educational system plays an important role in build-
ing a positive relationship to physical activities. From
among the characteristics, forming the basis of the in-
dividual variability of life style (Bouchard et al., 1990),
which are mainly built by the school educational system,
it is possible to name personality, motivation and the
attitudes of the pupil. To a certain point, the role of the
school system is given by the Range Educational Pro-
gram (REP) (Výzkumný ústav pedagogický/Pedagogical
Research Institute, 2009), according to law no.561/2008
giving the mandatory content, range and conditions of
education. REP, in the area of human life and health,
takes on the task (Výzkumný ústav pedagogický, 2009)
of deepening the relationship between pupils and their
health, to strengthen mental and emotional feelings to-
wards these problems, and to give them a chance to
learn practical abilities, which build a healthy life style
16
and the quality of the future adult’s life. The role of an
educator is at the same level as REP for the building of
the basis of a healthy life style during the educational
process. The pedagogue is responsible for the carrying
out of REP.
An active life style naturally goes together with one’s
level of physical fitness and motor performance, which
can be described with the following categories: physical
activity – physical fitness – life style. Everyday life in
today’s modern society has become less and less active
(Engström, 2004), which is true in our homes as well
as at work. This change, together with other factors (re-
lationship to physical activity and sport, values…) logi-
cally leads to a decrease in physical fitness and motor
performance, which is referred to by a number of Czech
authors (Burian, Korvas, & Slonková, 2001; Měkota
& Cuberek, 2002; Měkota & Zahradník, 2003) and
foreign authors (Claessens & Lefevre, 1992; Dawson
et al., 2001; Koštial, Sedláček, & Dremmelová, 1999;
Przewęda & Dobosz, 2003; Martínez-González et al.,
1999; Ekblom, Oddsson, & Ekblom, 2004).
Rychtecký et al. (2006, 85) in agreement with dif-
ferent European studies state: “In most European
countries a small decrease in motor performance and
movement abilities took place during the period of 2–3
decades identified youngsters; strong decrease in endur-
ance performance (boys and girls) and less decrease in
power performance took place; progressive increase in
measurement of stomach muscles (boys and girls) took
place in period more than twenty years.”
As a key point, in building pupil’s life style, ped-
agogue could play a significant role. In our case, PE
teachers. Role of PE teachers, as positive factor (for
sports and physical activities), is important in building
one’s personal qualities, motivations and attitudes of
pupils. Graduated students aren’t entering the role of
pedagogue of physical education with knowledge and
practical abilities only, but entering as a complete per-
sonality – with his/her values, lifestyle, attitudes etc. All
these characteristics, as written before, are very dynamic
and influenced by a lot of factors – society (its develop-
ment), family, educational process etc. The teacher of
physical education is a constant factor, which has an
influence on “one’s lifestyle – one’s physical activity –
one’s physical fitness – one’s motor performance”, but
on the other hand, it is a part of dynamically developing
today’s European society.
As final aspect of showed changes, it is possible to
expect changes in number of characteristics (for ex-
ample personal, movement, social…) of future under-
graduate PE students – population which is every year
entering the University environment to enrich them-
selves with knowledge and abilities necessary for their
teaching profession.
We assume that the complex of social changes, grow-
ing inactivity and obesity, and further negative process-
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
es may change logically the motor performance of the
mentioned population as well. We predicted long term
changes of the motor performance, which is a mirror
of today’s life style of future undergraduate students.
Empirical researches focused at the long term trends
of motor performance, which is a very difficult topic, be-
cause it needs to test a representative sample of popula-
tion in at least a twenty years range (Měkota & Cuberek,
2005) with the same condition and motivation. Impor-
tant roles, during such a research, have a number of
impropriate factors, which influence long time changes
and development. Monitoring of motor performance
trends have tradition in the Czech Republic, but there
are not many publications about the problem.
Population of the future undergraduate PE students
at the Palacký University, which was thanks to the entry
exams easier accessible for our research, helped us to
explain long term changes in the motor performance in
a number of kinetic areas.
The aim of our study was to describe long term trend
in swimming and in dash performance of future under-
graduate students of PE teaching studies, and assessed
influence of possible changes to the profile of graduate
PE teacher. From our literature review and according to
the society changes there is a strong likelihood of nega-
tive changes in human motor performance. We stated
our hypothesis about long term changes in motor per-
formance – two motor tests – 100 m swimming and
100 m dash. These motor tests can be observed during
the entering exams of future undergraduate students of
PE teaching studies. Formally we stated our research
hypothesis as H0 – There are no changes in motor per-
formance of future undergraduates during the period
1991 to 2001 and in the year 2006 (separately in swim-
ming and dash performance).
METHODS
The sample comprised 2,012 males and 1,705 fe-
males aged Mdn = 19 years. The subjects were future
undergraduate students with PE teaching competency in
their study profile who applied for a PE university study
(next only future PE students). Data were obtained at
the Faculty of Physical Culture of Palacký University
in Olomouc during the period 1991 to 2001 and in the
year 2006. Participants were measured by motor tests
used during PE entrance exam. The exams within the
admission procedure were organized by the Department
of Sports. The data were processed anonymously upon
the approval of the Faculty of Physical Culture.
For description of swimming and dash performance
tests we used 100 m swimming and 100 m dash motor
tests. These tests were performed according the methods
that were described in detailed, in the Manual of PE
entrance exams (Měkota, Komeštík, Kovář, & Zháněl,
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 17

1999). 100 m swimming test was measured in the 50 m tral trends exists in swimming and in dash performances
swimming pool according to the free style swimming of future PE students during 15 year period, because at
rule (in seconds, manual time measuring). 100 m dash least one sample (one from years) coming from popula-
test we measured at the track and field track according tion with different mean. Presented polynomial equa-
the IAAF rules (in seconds, electronic time measuring). tions (TABLE 2) denote some systematic changes also
The Kruskal-Wallis test (ANOVA) was used to ver- visible in Fig. 1 to Fig. 4.
ify evidence of neutral trend in swimming and in dash
performance. We verified hypothesis H0 – The factor TABLE 1
“Year of observation” has no effect on the dependant Results of Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance (group
variable (the level of motor performance); p = .05. Four factor “Year of observation”)
cases were verified – two motor tests for two groups (by
gender). The longitudinal trends in swimming and in Motor test
dash performances were described by polynomial equa- 100 m dash 100 m swimming
tions (3rd grade) created from the time series of means
(yearly). Male H = 115.1232 H = 43.64415
p = 0.0000 p = 0.0000

RESULTS AND DISCUSION Female H = 106.4838 H = 56.17988

p = 0.0000 p = 0.0000
We rejected null hypothesis at p = .05 for all cases
(in 100 m dash and in 100 m swimming for both gen- Legend:
ders) (TABLE 1). Therefore we can state, that non neu- H – test criterion
p – p-level
TABLE 2
Equations of polynomial trend

Motor test Equation

Male 100 m dash y = 13.5205 – 0.3198x + 0.0486x2 – 0.0019x3
100 m swimming y = 111.2592 – 6.0309x + 0.721x2 – 0.0257x3
Female 100 m dash y = 16.2468 – 0.4847x + 0.0768x2 – 0.003x3
100 m swimming y = 124.7941 – 1.2918x + 0.0488x2 – 0.0017 x3

Fig. 1
Dash performance (100 m run) of future PE students (male) in time period from 1991 to 2006

Legend:
Years are presented in reduced format (191 instead of 1991, etc.)
18 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

Fig. 2
Dash performance (100 m run) of future PE students (female) in time period from 1991 to 2006

Legend:
Years are presented in reduced format (191 instead of 1991, etc.)

Fig. 3
Swimming performance of future PE students (male) in time period from 1991 to 2006

Legend:
Years are presented in reduced format (191 instead of 1991, etc.)
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Fig. 4
Swimming performance of future PE students (female) in time period from 1991 to 2006
Legend:
Years are presented in reduced format (191 instead of 1991, etc.)
Performance trends in swimming and in dash were
not significantly positive or negative during the fifteen
year period (Fig. 1 to 4), with one exception in female
swimming performance, where it was strongly positive.
In all other cases we could recognized a few often simi-
lar signs for male and female.
Polynomial functions constantly showed initially
convex and then concave composition (during the pe-
riod 1998–1999) in case of dash and swimming per-
formance (male only). The concavity of the polynomial
function showed us the possibility of an increasing per-
formance, decreasing only during the year 1993 (100 m
dash)/1996 (100 m swimming). It is important to say
that assessment of the polynomial trend was figured
from the non equidistant series of the measurements
(during the time period 1991 to 2001 and 2006, after
four year break) – this decreased the accuracy of the
assessment of the trends at the end of the period. There-
fore we couldn’t exclude the fact that the increase of
performance at the end of observed period could be
an effect of a one year deviation from a “real model
trend” only.
Results were not always negative values in a yearly
differences in swimming (male), whole tendency were
decreasing, so for both, male and female, we could con-
clude it as positive trend in swimming performance dur-
ing the time period 1991 to 2006. On the other hand we
19
could mark trend in dash performance as mostly nega-
tive with the sign of a positive change during the time
period 2001 to 2006 (maximum of the concave part of
curve is close to 2003).
In time period 1967–1971 (Měkota & Cuberek,
2002) the level of male sprint performance was 12.74 s,
mean of male swimming performance 112.8 s and the
mean of female swimming performance 138.4 s in ad-
equate population. We compared those values with our
results of measurements (in time period 1991 to 2006)
and found evident decrease in dash performance in
twenty years distance. On the other hand results of our
measurements were greatly improved in 100 m swim-
ming. In almost four decades we could watch increase in
swimming performance and decrease in dash perform-
ance. In the case of swimming performance the decrease
was explained (Měkota & Cuberek, 2002) by increase
of facilities for swimming (number of indoor swimming
pools), swimming lessons at schools (in the past regular
lessons) and by the fact that swimming was at the first
place as a top sport for boys and girls at the grammar
schools (Frömel et al., 1995). In 100 m dash, there was
a more visible forty year decrease at dash performance,
because of the condition changes during the test – from
the cinder track to synthetic track; the use of the spike
shoes – which caused differences (according to estima-
20
tion of the track and field teachers of the Faculty of
Physical Culture it could be from 0.3 to 0.4 s).
The test in 100 m dash and in 100 m swimming
represented the fitness and ability tests during the entry
exams (at the same row). The level of performance in
100 m dash helped to assess motor abilities of future
PE students at the area of speed abilities (area of the
physical condition presumption). This activity showed
the level of explosive power, speed frequency (at begin-
ning and in the middle of the running distance) and
the level of speed endurance (the end of the running
distance). Our showed trend mostly indicate changes in
dash performance (there could be some different factors
too) in mentioned abilities. Although 100 m swimming
performance depended at the level of short time power
endurance, changes in performance were done mostly
by increasing level of the swimming skills.
In our fitness presumption for future PE students we
do not expect positive changes in performance. Foun-
dation for our contention is firstly; negative changes in
the status of free living physical activities of the Czech
youth (Rychtecký et al., 2006; Sak & Saková, 2004), sec-
ondly; change of the character of the physical education
at the collages and grammar schools. This is according
to the Range Education Program (REP) done by the
School Law (MŠMT ČR, 2008). As described in REP,
pupil’s output should be mainly health aspects and aims
to increase one’s physical fitness to the level of keeping
health; the increase of one’s fitness is taken only like
a higher standard (Výzkumný ústav pedagogický/Peda-
gogical Research Institute, 2009). In conjunction with
a general decrease of interest in physical activities (com-
pared to the other free living activities) in Czech youth
(Sak & Saková, 2004) all these factors can negatively
manifest decrease of the level of physical abilities for
the future undergraduate students in the years follows.
If we want to keep the same level of “motor require-
ments for students” in practical classes during the PE
studies, then the decrease of physical condition come
through definitely as negative. The ratio of practical
classes expressed by credits (versus theory) is 64, 38 and
37% (one field studies) and 40, 55 and 30% (two fields
studies) during the first three years of study. Because of
the above suggested percentage decreasing level of physi-
cal fitness involves more time for preparation for “motor
requirements for students” and by this it restricts their
study time – time for theoretical classes. Discovered
increase in swimming performance is a positive finding.
However, for complete assessment of difficulties dur-
ing the training for “motor requirements for students”
we need to analyze also the entrance performance level
of future PE students in the other fundamental skills,
which could be important for a successful study.
We would like to extend above indicated prediction
to highlight the quality of future PE students and to
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
raise the study preparedness of students for their pro-
fession. Prukner (2005), while he was searching rela-
tionship among motor tests of the PE entry exams and
motor performance of PE students during their practi-
cal classes (at the Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký
University in Olomouc), labeled test 100 m dash as only
good predictor. The other tests of the PE entry exams
were not accepted as significant predictors of success-
ful studies.
In a context of the thought relationship future PE
students – quality of students – quality of graduates it
is important to mention the study (Svozil, 2008) that
included the assessment of the quality of PE that was
provided by students after they finished the class “the
pedagogical practice of PE at school”. In most cases
students considered their theoretical and methodi-
cal foundations as “average, sufficient” (third level
out of five). As the biggest failings in existing studies
they named a great number of theoretical classes and
amount of duties, which were not in balance with the
need of pedagogical practice. They felt some subjects
as unimportant. The missing parts felt by students were
not from the area of “motor preparedness”, which could
be considered as positive, but we couldn’t rule it out
wholly objectively.
From suggested associations we think that although
changes in motor quality of the future PE students has
not the straight relation to the teaching profession per-
formance of the individuals, potential decrease of the
level of performance can lead to a decrease of the pro-
fession preparedness of the graduates due to an increase
of the time needed for a preparation for the practical
classes requirements. In this direction the curriculum of
PE studies should be changed, so the level of profession
preparedness – mainly in sense of understanding gradu-
ates as a persons involved in one’s life style (children
and youth) – persists or increases. This change couldn’t
be in decreasing the requirements laying on students to
the extent their study time only, but in whole change of
the school curriculum in accordance with the failings
suggested by students (Svozil, 2008). The changes in
curriculum we understand as an effective step in pre-
vention against inactivity, against diseases which relate
with the decrease of the physical activities and changes
of one’s lifestyle mainly of children and youth.
CONCLUSION
According to our findings we have to reject our re-
search hypothesis and submit evidence of changes in
swimming and in dash performance of a specific popu-
lation.
During the observed period 1991 to 2006 was no-
ticed positive trend only in swimming performance
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
(male and female) of future undergraduate PE students.
This trend lasts already from the seventies of the 20th
century. On the other hand there was none purely posi-
tive or purely negative trend in dash performance pre-
sented by test in 100 m dash – after the initial increase
of performance level it arises significant decrease, how-
ever the last measurements indicated some increasing
tendency. Negative trend predominated in dash perform-
ance in observed fifteen years period. By comparison
with close publications in past (e.g. Měkota & Cuberek,
2005; only man) we have noted a strong decrease in
dash performance.
We consider long term changes in motor perform-
ance of future undergraduate PE students firstly as an in-
dicator of the full social changes in the area of physical
activities, and secondly as the indicator of the changes
in population entering the University studies with spe-
cial motor requirements on the student and population
with the influence on the relation of common popula-
tion and the physical activities in future.
We can suppose more likely decrease (or stagnation)
of physical fitness level according to the social changes
and the concept of the physical education at schools –
as the study presumption of the future undergraduate
students of physical education. Because of those trends
we suggest to prepare more detailed analysis of their
impact to the occupational skills of graduates. In case
of negative impact findings it should lead to modifica-
tion of the study programs, so it would be possible to
educate students with lower level of motor assumptions
and to make them high quality professionals – profes-
sionals ready to change today’s negative trends such as
increasing inactivity, obesity, osteoporosis, diabetes etc.
By modification of the study programs of PE study we
understand as an important step in a prevention of nega-
tive all society health phenomenon and as a reaction
to the changing qualities of future undergraduate PE
student population.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study has been supported by the research grant
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of
the Czech Republic (No. MSM 6198959221) “Physical
Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech
Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes”.
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plavecké a sprintérské výkonnosti kandidátů a kan-
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zita.
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changes in physical fitness in university freshmen
during last forty years. In W. Starosta & W. Osiński
(Eds.), New ideas in sport science: Current issues and
perspectives, sport kinetics (pp. 179–181). Leszno,
22
Poland: Wydawnictwo Państwowej Wyżsej Szkoly
Zawodowej.
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(1999). Manuál talentové přijímací zkoušky na stu-
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cal fitness of Polish youth in two successive decades.
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ve sportu a pohybové aktivitě v České republice. Praha:
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ciologická analýza postavení mládeže ve společnosti
a její úlohy v procesech evropeizace a informatizace.
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přípravy studentů učitelství. In H. Klimková (Ed.),
Sborník referátů z mezinárodního semináře „Peda-
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from the Word Wide Web: http://www.rvp.cz/
sekce/5
VÝVOJ MOTORICKÉ VÝKONNOSTI
U UCHAZEČŮ O VYSOKOŠKOLSKÉ STUDIUM
TĚLESNÉ VÝCHOVY
(Souhrn anglického textu)
VÝCHODISKA: Komplex sociálních změn, vzrůsta-
jící inaktivity a obezity a dalších negativních faktorů se
dle našeho názoru přirozeně projevuje také ve změnách
úrovně motorické výkonnosti budoucích vysokoškol-
ských studentů. Dlouhodobý trend motorické výkon-
nosti proto považujeme za vhodný obraz současného
životního stylu uvažované populace.
CÍL: Hlavním cílem této práce bylo popsat dlouho-
dobý trend dvou vybraných motorických předpokladů
u populace uchazečů o vysokoškolské studium TV.
METODIKA: Soubor tvořilo 2 012 mužů a 1 705
žen (uchazečů o vysokoškolské studium TV) ve věku
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Mdn = 19 let. Úroveň plavecké a sprinterské výkonnosti
byla zjišťována dvěma motorickými testy (plavání 100 m
a běh 100 m) u příležitosti přijímacího řízení v letech
1991 až 2001 a v roce 2006.
VÝSLEDKY: Ve čtyřech případech (dva motorické
testy, dvě pohlaví) analýza ukazuje na nenulový trend
výkonnosti (ve všech případech byl alespoň jeden mezi-
roční rozdíl signifikantní na p = 0,05). V případě sprin-
terské a plavecké (pouze muži) výkonnosti vykazují
polynomické funkce trendu v počátku konvexní, později
konkávní průběh (změna průběhu v letech 1998–1999).
Trend plavecké výkonnosti žen je rostoucí v celé perio-
dě. Konkávnost polynomické funkce naznačuje možnost
opětovného nárůstu výkonnosti, jež byla v období 1993–
2001 (sprint) a 1996–1999 (plavání) převážně klesající.
ZÁVĚRY: Na základě našich zjištění zamítáme
výzkumnou hypotézu a konstatujeme tak existenci vý-
znamných změn v úrovni plavecké a sprinterské výkon-
nosti v průběhu sledované periody. Byl zjištěn pozitivní
(ženy) a převážně pozitivní (muži) trend plavecké vý-
konnosti. Naopak sprinterská výkonnost nevykazuje čis-
tě pozitivní či negativní tendenci. Po nárůstu výkonnosti
v úvodních třech pozorovaných letech tato výkonnost
převážně klesá. Přesto poslední měření v roce 2006 na-
značuje možnou tendenci opětovného růstu sprinterské
výkonnosti, podobně jako konkávnost trendové funkce
v tomto období.
Klíčová slova: plavecká výkonnost, sprinterská výkonnost,
dlouhodobé trendy, tělesná inaktivita, studium TV.
Mgr. Roman Cuberek, Ph.D.
,
Palacký University
Faculty of Physical Culture
tř. Míru 115
771 11 Olomouc
Czech Republic
Education and previous work experience
2000 – graduated in Mathematics and Physical Edu-
cation high school teacher, Palacký University (Mgr.).
2007 – Ph.D. in the field of Kinanthropology, Faculty
of Physical Culture, Palacký University.
2004–2009 – an assistant and academic worker of De-
partment of Anthropomotorics and Sport Training,
Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olo-
mouc, Czech Republic.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 23

Since 2009 – a researcher and academic worker of Cent-

er for Kinanthropology Research, Faculty of Physical
Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
Scientific orientation
Motodiagnostics and data analysis in the field of Hu-
man movement.
First-line publications
Cuberek, R. (2007). Stav a vývoj motorické výkonnos-
ti kandidátů vysokoškolského studia tělovýchovného
zaměření v letech 1991–2001. Disertační práce, Uni-
verzita Palackého, Fakulta tělesné kultury, Olomouc.
Cuberek, R., Měkota, K., & Zahradník, D. (2005).
Secular trend of physical fitness and somatic
development of forthcoming university students in
Czech Republic. In F. Vaverka (Ed.), Proceedings of
4th International Conference Movement and Health
in Olomouc, November 23–25, 2005 (pp. 79–80).
Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého.
Lehnert, M., Cuberek, R., & Spišák, O. (2009). Hodno-
cení herního výkonu volejbalového družstva žen se
zaměřením na útok ve vybraných utkáních bundes-
ligy. In V. Süss, J. Buchtel et al. (Eds.), Hodnocení
herního výkonu ve sportovních hrách (pp. 155–161).
Praha: Karolinum.
Měkota, K., & Cuberek, R. (2002). Změna úrovně
plavecké a sprinterské výkonnosti kandidátů a kan-
didátek studia tělesné výchovy v odstupu 30 let. Tě-
lesná výchova a sport mládeže, 12(2), 2–5.
Měkota, K., & Cuberek, R. (2007). Pohybové dovednos-
ti – činnosti – výkony. Olomouc: Univerzita Palac-
kého.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 25

PILOT STUDY ON THE APPLICATION OF THE NQLS QUESTIONNAIRE IN A STUDY

OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN INHABITANTS OF VILLAGES AND TOWNS

Dagmar Sigmundová, Erik Sigmund, Karel Frömel, Petra Vlková

Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic

Submitted in May, 2009

BACKGROUND: The environment of a neighborhood (the availability of sports facilities, services, and transporta-
tion) can influence physical activity (henceforth PA), however the influence of different environments on PA have not
been clearly described in the Czech Republic yet.
OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study is to identify the relationships between obesity and PA in Olomouc and the
surrounding countryside depending on differences in the neighborhood environment. A further aim of the study is to
form recommendations concerning physical activity enhancement and lifestyle.
METHODS: PA was quantified on the basis of the NQLS (Neighborhood Quality of Life Study) questionnaire,
which includes the internationally standardized IPAQ long questionnaire in its second part. The study involved 241 valid
questionnaires from the respondents from Olomouc (capital of Olomouc region, 100,000 inhabitants) and Prakšice
(village close to Olomouc, less than 1,000 inhabitants) aged 15–60 (102 men and 139 women). The data adjustment
was done in compliance with the international guidelines of the “IPAQ Research Committee” (www.ipaq.ki.se).
RESULTS: Based on individual values, 6% of the inhabitants of Olomouc and 2% of inhabitants of Prakšice show
very low physical activity, 23% of the inhabitants of Olomouc and 11% of inhabitants of Prakšice meet minimal PA
requirements, and 66% of the inhabitants of Olomouc and 87% of inhabitants of Prakšice show higher levels of physi-
cal activity. Both the inhabitants of the town and the village confirm the good availability of services such as grocery
stores, elementary schools and post offices. In both the town and the village, the inhabitants also claim that there is
good availability of pedestrian and cycling paths. The inhabitants of the village show higher physical activity than the
inhabitants of the town.
CONCLUSIONS: The young and middle aged inhabitants of the village show significantly higher PA than the
inhabitants of the town. The majority of the inhabitants of both Olomouc and Prakšice are physically active enough.
In overweight or obese women, we recommend including vigorous PA which does not overstress the muscular skeletal
system or to increase the overall PA to the required level by increasing the volume of walking and moderate PA. We
also advocate for a change of the entire lifestyle.

Keywords: MET-minutes/week, IPAQ, physical activity, obesity, neighborhood.

INTRODUCTION as the most frequent type of PA in adults is essential in

An optimal level of physical activity (hence PA)
is generally considered to be an important part of
a healthy and physically active lifestyle. However, the
conditions for promoting and carrying out physical
activity are not the same in all places. Different envi-
ronments of neighborhoods (the availability of sport
facilities, services, and transportation) can influence PA.
However, the relationships between the environment
and PA have not been thoroughly studied in the Czech
Republic, yet. Studies on the relationships between PA
and the environment have been in the forefront interna-
tionally (Saelens, Sallis, Black, & Chen, 2003). Moreo-
ver, since the individual approach to PA has not been
efficient enough, public health experts require PA to
be studied in the context of the environment where it
is taking place (Badland & Schofield, 2006). Walking
meeting health recommendations (Cerin, Leslie, Toit,
Owen, & Frank, 2007) and is to a great extent influ-
enced by the aesthetics of the surrounding environment,
by the conditions and accessibility of places suited for
walking, the traffic density, and by the combination of
environmental attributes (Owen, Humpel, Leslie, Bau-
man, & Sallis, 2004).
Similarly to walking, also other types of PA are in-
fluenced by the environment (De Bourdeaudhuij, Sallis,
& Saelens, 2003; Saelens, Sallis, Black, & Chen, 2003).
Based on the studies carried out in cities in the Czech
Republic, a positive influence of a physical activity
friendly environment on PA has been confirmed. Moreo-
ver, the environment influences PA more significantly
than biosocial variables (Sigmund, Mitáš, Sigmundová
et al., 2008; Sigmund, Mitáš, Vašíčková et al., 2008).
Further, it has been confirmed that males and females
26
were more likely to be active in towns with less than
100,000 residents (Frömel, Mitáš, & Kerr, 2009). Living
in villages with less than 1,000 inhabitants is essentially
different to living in a town with a hundred thousand
inhabitants, therefore different physical activity behavior
and different related attributes are expected. The aim of
the study is to identify the relationship between obesity
and PA in the town of Olomouc and in the countryside
according to the differing environment of the places.
A further goal is to create recommendations enhancing
a physically active lifestyle.
METHODS
The survey was carried out as a part of nationwide
research on PA, which is involved in the international re-
search Physical Activity Questionnaire Prevalence Study
(Bauman et al., 2009; Guthold, Ono, Strong, Chatterji,
& Morabia, 2008). PA was estimated using the NQLS
(Neighborhood Quality of Life Study) questionnaire,
which in its second part includes the internationally
standardized IPAQ long questionnaire (Craig et al.,
2003; Frömel et al., 2004). The NQLS questionnaire
asks about the neighborhood of a respondent (types of
residence, streets, places suited for walking and cycling,
environment, availability of services and facilities, neigh-
borhood safety). The IPAQ questionnaire asks about
physical activity and inactivity carried out in the last
7 days. The IPAQ questionnaire allows comparison of
PA of vigorous and moderate PA, walking and sitting
in the context with other personal, demographical and
environmental variables. Data were collected in 2005. In
Prakšice, the questionnaires were distributed randomly.
In Olomouc, which is the closest city with one hun-
dred thousand inhabitants, the sample was obtained by
random selection on the basis of age and address. In
TABLE 1
The comparison of total weekly PA (MET-min/week) between men and women in different age categories
Age category n Mdn
men 13 6,067
24–35 years
women 25 5,424
men 23 5,723
36–48 years
women 37 5,047
men 18 6,140
49–60 years
women 20 5,368
Legend:
Mdn – median
IQR – inter-quartile range
n – scope of sub-sample
p – level of statistical significance
H – testing criterion of Kruskal-Wallis test
η2 – effect size coefficient
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
total, 241 valid questionnaires were obtained from the
respondents in Olomouc and Prakšice aged 15–60 (102
men and 139 women). The adjustment of data was car-
ried out in compliance with the international guidelines
for data processing of the “IPAQ Research Committee”
(www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm). The analyses of PA were car-
ried out in 136 respondents aged of 24–35, 36–48, and
49–60. Respondents younger than 24 years were not
included because data on university students could have
been included into these analyses which could lead to
a risk of biased data. In the case of neighborhood char-
acteristics, the entire sample, i.e. including respondents
aged 15–23, was considered.
The assessment of PA in MET values was divided
into 6 METs for vigorous PA, 4 METs for moderate
PA and 3.3 METs for walking. The total average PA
expressed in MET-min/week was calculated using aver-
age minute values for adequate PA (vigorous PA, mod-
erate PA, walking) multiplied by the responding energy
equivalent in METs for the given PA intensity (www.
ipaq.ki.se/scoring.htm).
The groups were divided according to Body Mass
Index in compliance with the categories by Placheta et
al. (1999), which consider gender. To assess the signifi-
cant differences, the variance analysis, nonparametric
Kruskall-Wallis test, and the relevant η2 coefficient (from
the effect size coefficients) were used, where η2 = 0.01
low effect, η2 = 0.06 medium effect and η2 = 0.14 large
effect (Morse, 1999).
RESULTS
According to the Kruskal-Wallis test, we have not
found any differences between PA in men and women
in all age categories (TABLE 1).
IQR H p η2
8,847
0.08 0.770 0.002
4,424
6,381
0.54 0.461 0.009
6,354
9,003
0.17 0.536 0.005
6,434
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 27

Fig. 1
The sample of inhabitants of the village of Prakšice (n = 55) and the town of Olomouc (n = 81) according to BMI
(kg/m2)

Underweight Normal Overweight Obesity

Prakšice 5 17 24 11

Olomouc 4 32 40 5

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Based on the individual values, 6% of the inhabitants
of Olomouc and 2% of inhabitants of Prakšice show very
low physical activity, 23% of the inhabitants of Olomouc
and 11% of inhabitants of Prakšice meet minimal PA
requirements, and 66% of the inhabitants of Olomouc
and 87% of inhabitants of Prakšice show higher levels
of physical activity.
Out of the total sample, 64% inhabitants of Prakšice
and 55% inhabitants of Olomouc are overweight or
obese (Fig. 1). It is difficult to assess the association
between PA and BMI coefficient. A significant correla-
tion was found between BMI and moderate PA r = 0.29.
In walking and vigorous PA a negative correlation in
relations to BMI (r = –0.11; r = –0.05) was found.
In men, no differences in relation to BMI were
identified, whereas in women, we identified both statis-
tically and logically significant differences in moderate
PA (H(3, 82) = 8.11; p = 0.044; η2 = 0.1). Obese and
overweight women have more moderate PA than women
with normal weight and underweight (TABLE 2).
It seems that type of residence (in this case the town
of Olomouc and the village of Prakšice), can play a sig-
nificant role in PA performance, especially in young
people (aged 24–35) and the middle aged generation

TABLE 2
The assessment of PA of different intensity according to BMI – Women 24–60 years old (MET-min/week)

Weight
Activity (according to n Mdn IQR H p η2
BMI)
underweight 7 360 1,080
normal 36 630 1,440
Vigorous PA 3.15 0.369 0.04
overweight 29 0 2,160
obesity 10 0 2,880
underweight 7 270 1,680
normal 36 1,920 2,940
Moderate PA 8.11 0.044 0.10
overweight 29 3,255 2,700
obesity 10 2,020 2,827
underweight 7 1,881 2,789
normal 36 2,492 2,921
Walking 0.29 0.96 0.003
overweight 29 1,848 2,508
obesity 10 1,931 3,366

Legend:
Mdn – median
IQR – inter-quartile range
n – scope of sub sample
p – level of statistical significance
H – testing criterion of Kruskal-Wallis test
η2 –effect size coefficient
28 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

TABLE 3
The assessment of PA according to the size of location and age categories (MET-min/week)

Number
Age category n Mdn IQR H p η2
of inhabitants
> 100,000 17 3,846 4,884
24–35 years 4.04 0.044 0.11
< 1,000 21 6,067 6,300
> 100,000 40 4,831 5,804
36–48 years 4.61 0.031 0.08
< 1,000 20 6,039 8,426
> 100,000 24 3,933 6,257
49–60 years 2.38 0.123 0.06
< 1,000 14 7,377 4,373

Legend:
Mdn – median
IQR – inter-quartile range
n – scope of sub-sample
p – level of statistical significance
H – testing criterion of Kruskal-Wallis test
η2 – effect size coefficient

(36–48 years). These age groups in the village show
higher PA than the inhabitants of the town. In the age
category of 49–60 years, we have not found any differ-
ences between Olomouc and Prakšice (TABLE 3).
Next to the PA analysis regarding intensity, an analy-
sis regarding the type of PA, e.g. job related, transporta-
tion, leisure time and housework PA, was also carried
out. On the basis of the variance analysis, we have found
significant differences in job related PA between both
men and women (F = 9.95; p = 0.002) and between
the inhabitants of Prakšice and Olomouc (F = 7.83;
p = 0.006), their interaction factor was also statistically
significant p = 0.03. On the basis of the post hoc Fischer
LSD test, occupational PA in Olomouc men is signifi-
cantly lower than in men from Prakšice (p = 0.002).
Moreover, men in Prakšice show higher PA than women
in Prakšice (p < 0.001). In transportation PA, no signifi-
cant differences in relation to gender and the size of the
given locations have been found.
The analysis of PA while working in the house and
around the house has shown significant differences
between the inhabitants of Prakšice and Olomouc
(F = 19.27; p < 0.001), when according to the post
hoc Fischer LSD test, men (p < 0.001) and women

Fig. 2
Ratio of physical activities and inactivities per day according to age categories and size of location

HmmH
100%
Vigorous PA

80%
Moderate PA

60%
Walking
40%

Sitting
20%

0%
Olomouc Prakšice Olomouc Prakšice Olomouc Prakšice
24-35 let
years 36-48 let
years 49-60 let
years
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
(p = 0.009) from Prakšice show significantly higher PA
related to housework. In case of leisure time PA, we
have found significant differences between inhabitants
from Prakšice and Olomouc (F = 8.22; p = 0.005), when
according to the post hoc Fischer LSD test, women
(p = 0.01) from the village of Prakšice show a lower level
of leisure time PA than women from Olomouc.
In the comparison of the physical environment of
the studied locations concerning the accessibility of
shops, facilities and different services, the respondents
from both the locations assessed the accessibility ac-
cording to minutes spent walking to the destinations.
In both locations, very good accessibility (up to a 10
minute walk) was found in the case of a grocery store
(> 83%), an elementary school (> 73%), a bus or a train
stop (> 87%), but also in the case of walking to the post
office. Both the locations are also similar in the ratio of
inhabitants who have to walk to their school or work
for more than 30 minutes from their home (32–34%).
The inhabitants of the village of Prakšice have worse
access to supermarkets, to different stores, restaurants,
coffeeshops, etc. However, regarding the accessibility of
facilities for PA such as fitness/wellness studios, gyms
and similar ones, the situation is almost equal, as 53%
of Olomouc inhabitants and 41% of Prakšice inhabitants
confirm accessibility within less than a 10 minute walk.
Both the locations can be considered as highly walk-
able locations which was also confirmed by 85% of the
respondents who completely or somewhat agreed that
there are sidewalks in their neighborhoods. More than
half of the respondents from both the locations agreed
with the statement that there are easily accessible pe-
destrian and cycling paths in their neighborhoods and
their surroundings.
The fact that walking accounts for an extensive part
of daily PA, is shown in Fig. 2. The proportion of sitting
to other daily physical activities is rather unsatisfactory.
In some categories, it reaches over 57% of all daily activi-
ties and inactivities.
DISCUSSION
The aim of the study is to examine the relation-
ship between obesity and PA in Olomouc and in the
countryside in relation to the environment of locations.
Results from foreign studies predominantly show that
men are more active than women. So our results have
not confirmed the expectation (Ammouri, Neuberger,
Nashwan, & Al-Haj, 2007; Caspersen, Pereira, & Cur-
ran, 2000; Googin & Morrow, 2001; Hagströmer, Oja,
& Sjöström, 2007; Troiano, Berrigan, Dodd, Masse,
Tillert, & McDowell, 2008). That men are more physi-
cally active than women. Physical inactivity is crucial to
obesity development in developed countries (Batch &
29
Baur, 2005). In our study, 56% of village inhabitants are
overweight or obese in comparison to 29% of town in-
habitants. Significant differences between the village and
town inhabitants were found only in the relationship of
moderate PA to BMI. However, with an increasing BMI
coefficient, vigorous PA decreases or vanishes complete-
ly. The high percentage of overweight or obese people
in the Czech population was also stated in the Interna-
tional Association for the Study of Obesity (2007a), in
which it was shown that 73.2% of Czech men (thereby
taking second place within the studied European coun-
tries), and 57.6% of Czech women, 57.6%, therefore tak-
ing third place within the studied European countries)
exhibit overweight and obesity. In Czech children aged
5–17 years old, overweight was found in 14.7% of boys
and 13.4% of girls (International Association for the
Study of Obesity, 2007b).
According to the individual data, most of the inhab-
itants of both the town and the village are sufficiently
active, however the criteria seem to be very low. In com-
parison a study, e.g. by Muntner, Gu, Wildman, Chen,
et al. (2005), argues that only 66.3% of the respondents
in the Chinese population are physically active. The lev-
els for sufficient and high PA are based on general PA
recommendations. The recommendations of the “IPAQ
Executive Committee 2003” are based on the short ver-
sion of the IPAQ questionnaire (www.ipaq.ki.se/scoring.
htm). The authors regard a respondent to be sufficiently
physically active if he/she performs vigorous PA at least
3 times week for at least 20 minutes a day, or moder-
ate PA or walking for at least 5 times a week and for at
least 30 minutes a day, or any combination of moder-
ate or vigorous PA reaching the minimal level of 600
MET-min –1·week –1 (Abu-Omar, Rütten, & Robine,
2004).
The inhabitants of the village show higher PA than
the inhabitants of the town in age categories 24–35 and
36–48 years old. We have also found differences in the
case of PA in the house and around the house, which
is higher in the village inhabitants. On the other hand,
the town inhabitants show higher leisure time PA. These
results are in compliance with the study on the leisure
time PA of women aged 40–49 (Wilcox, Castro, King,
Housemann, & Brownson, 2000), when women from vil-
lages showed more sedentary behavior and more barri-
ers to PA than women from towns. Similarly, results are
found in the study by Cole, Leslie, Bauman, Donald and
Owen (2006) which examined walking. Men from towns
showed significantly higher levels of walking in leisure
time or in exercises. In women, more walking was found
in women who were younger, had higher education and
BMI below 25 kg/m2. Moreover, in 14% of respondents,
walking reached health recommendations.
It is a positive finding of this study that both the
locations are of high walkability, which has been also
30
confirmed by the respondents’ answers in which 85% of
the inhabitants agreed completely or somewhat agreed
that there are sidewalks in their neighborhoods and
similarly more than half of the respondents answered
that there are easily accessible pedestrian and cycling
paths. Similarly, in a study by Rütten and Abu-Omar
(2004), 71.8% of the respondents agreed that there are
enough opportunities to carry out PA in their neighbor-
hoods, moreover respondents living in the countryside
or smaller towns were more satisfied with their oppor-
tunities than those living in larger towns. Of the coun-
tries observed, the Germans and the Dutch assessed the
opportunities for PA as being the best, as opposed to
the Italians and the Portuguese, who assessed their op-
portunities as being the worst. In a study of 20 countries
(Bauman et al., 2009), the Czech Republic is among
those countries that show that walking forms an essen-
tial part of high levels of PA amounting to more than
30% of PA. The authors argue that even countries having
an infrastructure that supports walking can reach high
levels of PA without having high levels of vigorous PA:
Describing the environmental attributes that influence
PA can provide resources applicable in regional policies
regarding public health and other matters. It is moreover
important to identify types of environment that enhance
changes in physical activity behavior (Leslie, Saelens,
Frank, Owen, Bauman, Coffee, & Hugo, 2005).
The use of subjective techniques of PA estimation
is a limit of the study since the differences found could
be due to different PA estimations by the respondents.
A small number of participants and the statistical com-
parison of obviously different groups could affect the
results of this study.
CONCLUSIONS
• The village inhabitants of younger and middle age
showed significantly higher PA than other respond-
ents.
• The majority of the inhabitants of Olomouc and
Prakšice meet the IPAQ recommendations for PA.
• The inhabitants of the village show higher PA in the
house and around the house than the inhabitants
of the town.
• Women from the town show higher leisure time PA
and men from the town show higher PA related to
their job than people from the village.
• The inhabitants of Prakšice show a higher percent-
age of moderate PA in the total amount of daily
physical activities and inactivities.
• The inhabitants of Olomouc show a higher percent-
age of walking and vigorous PA as part of the total
daily amount of physical activities and inactivities.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
• A higher percentage of overweight and obese people
are found in the village.
• A lower percentage of sitting in the overall amount
of daily activities and inactivities was found in the
village people.
• Both the inhabitants in Prakšice and Olomouc claim
good accessibility of groceries, elementary schools,
and post offices.
• There was worse access to supermarkets, restaurants,
coffeeshops, and specialized stores identified in the
village.
• Both in the village and town, gyms and fitness clubs
are easily accessible.
• Both the locations have highly walkable environ-
ments with pedestrian and cycling paths.
• PA in men and women was equal, no significant dif-
ferences were found.
• To overweight and obese women, we recommend
including some vigorous PA which is not harmful
to the muscular-skeletal system. Or to increase their
total PA by increasing the amount of walking and
moderate PA. More attention should be paid to an
overall change in lifestyle.
• To improve the physical environment, we recom-
mend conducting a further analysis using Geographi-
cal Information Systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study has been supported by the research grant
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of
the Czech Republic (No. MSM 6198959221) “Physical
Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech
Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes”.
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32
www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm – International Physical Activ-
ity Questionnaire website.
www.ipaq.ki.se/scoring.htm – Scoring protocol of Inter-
national Physical Activity Questionnaire.
PILOTNÍ STUDIE VYUŽITÍ DOTAZNÍKU NQLS
V KONTEXTU S POHYBOVÝM CHOVÁNÍM
OBYVATEL VESNICE A MĚSTA
(Souhrn anglického textu)
VÝCHODISKA: Odlišné prostředí místa bydliště
(dostupnost sportovišť, služeb, dobrá dopravní obsluž-
nost…) může ovlivňovat pohybovou aktivitu (dále PA),
avšak tento vliv ani rozdíly v prostředí nebyly v České
republice dosud detailně zdokumentovány.
CÍLE: Cílem této studie je poukázat na vztah obe-
zity a PA v Olomouci a na venkově v závislosti na od-
lišném prostředí místa bydliště. Dílčím cílem je snaha
o formulaci doporučení podporující pohybově aktivní
životní styl.
METODIKA: PA byla kvantifikována na základě do-
tazníku NQLS (Neighborhood Quality of Life Study),
který ve své druhé části obsahuje mezinárodně standar-
dizovaný dotazník IPAQ long, dlouhou administrativní
verzi. Do studie bylo zahrnuto 241 validních dotazníků
od respondentů z Olomouce a Prakšic ve věku 15–60
let (102 mužů a 139 žen). Úpravy získaných dat byly
provedeny v souladu s mezinárodně stanovenou metodi-
kou vyhodnocování „IPAQ Research Committee“ (www.
ipaq.ki.se).
VÝSLEDKY: Dle individuálních hodnot je 6 %
obyvatel Olomouce a 2 % obyvatel Prakšic velmi málo
aktivních, 23 % obyvatel v Olomouci a 11 % obyvatel
v Prakšicích splňuje minimální požadavky na PA a 66 %
v Olomouci a 87 % v Prakšicích vykazuje vyšší úroveň
pohybové aktivity. Obyvatelé města i vesnice uvádějí
dobrou dostupnost služeb typu malý obchod s potravina-
mi, základní škola a pošta. Stejně pozitivně je ve městě
i na vesnici hodnoceno chodecké prostředí se stezkami
pro chodce a pro cyklisty. Obyvatelé vesnice vykazují
vyšší pohybovou aktivitu, než obyvatelé města.
ZÁVĚRY: Obyvatelé vesnice mladšího a středního
věku vykazovali signifikantně více PA než obyvatelé měs-
ta. Většina obyvatel Olomouce i Prakšic je dostatečně
pohybově aktivních. U žen s nadváhou a obezitou dopo-
ručujeme vyšší zařazení absentující PA intenzivnějšího
charakteru, které nadměrně nezatěžuje pohybový apa-
rát, nebo zvýšit celkovou PA na přijatelnou úroveň vyš-
ším objemem chůze a PA střední intenzity. Pozornost by
měla být zaměřena na celkovou změnu životního stylu.
Klíčová slova: MET-minuty/týden, IPAQ, pohybová aktivita,
obezita, prostředí bydliště.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Mgr. Dagmar Sigmundová, Ph.D.
Palacký University
Faculty of Physical Culture
tř. Míru 115
771 11 Olomouc
Czech Republic
Education and previous work experience
2000–2005 – Ph.D. study program at Faculty of Physi-
cal Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Re-
public.
1996–2000 – Mgr. study program at Faculty of Physical
Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
Scientific orientation
Scientific-explorational activity in the field of kianthro-
pology with orientation on statistical analysis and re-
gional aspects of physical activity.Teaching practise in
floorbal within Faculty undergraduate program. Floor-
bal trainer of elementary school children.
First-line publications
Sigmundová, D., Sigmund, E., Mitáš, J., & Frömel, K.
(2009). The relation between the environment and
daily steps of the residents in Czech regional towns.
European Journal of Public Health, 19 (Supplement
1), 207.
Sigmundová, D., Frömel, K., Havlíková, J., & Janečková,
J. (2005). Qualitative analysis of opinions, condi-
tions and educational environment in relation to
physical behaviour of adolescents. Acta Universitatis
Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 35(2), 27–33.
Sigmundová, D., Frömel, K., & Sigmund, E. (2005).
Age related decline in youth physical activity [CD].
In F. Vaverka (Ed.), Movement and Health (p. 104).
Olomouc: Palacký University.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 33

DIFFERENCES IN ROTATIONS BETWEEN THE WINNING AND LOSING TEAMS

AT THE YOUTH EUROPEAN VOLLEYBALL CHAMPIONSHIPS FOR GIRLS

Marko Zadražnik, Nenad Marelić*, Tomica Rešetar*

Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

* Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Submitted in April, 2009

BACKGROUND: Researchers of the game of volleyball often study the differences that separate the winning and
losing teams. Namely, the volleyball game runs in two complexes (K1 – game after receive of serve: serve – receipt of
serve – setting the attack – attack; K2 – game after own serve: serve – block – defence – counter attack), in addition
the players have to rotate in accordance with the rules of the game of volleyball. Playing situations in six rotations
do not equally correlate to K1 and K2 in their tactical aspect, nor are they of the same difficulty.
OBJECTIVES: The study examined whether there are statistically significant differences in the phases of a volley-
ball game between the winners and losers for each of the six volleyball rotations separately. Differences in individual
rotations between winning and losing teams were examined. For rotations with statistically significant differences
between the teams, the phases that determine those differences the most were also researched.
METHODS: The study was carried out at the European youth volleyball championships for women. Twenty games
were analysed, a five level scale was used to evaluate the successfulness of the game for 98 under 18 years old women
players. Six phases of the volleyball game were analysed: serve, receipt of serve, attack in K1, attack in K2, block and
defence (attack receipt). A criterion variable was represented with each individual rotation. Simple descriptive statistical
parameters were calculated together with six canonical discriminant analyses, one for each of the volleyball rotations.
RESULTS: The results of canonical discriminatory analysis revealed that four out of six volleyball rotations were
statistically significant at the level of p < 0.05 (rotation 1 = 0.02; rotation 2 = 0.00; rotation 3 = 0.00; rotation 6 = 0.04).
It is interesting to notice that different game phases show the largest projection of discriminatory function exactly in
the rotations with statistically significant differences. They were: receipt of serve and attack in K1 and K2 for rota-
tion 1, receipt of serve, block and defence for rotation 2, serve and defence for rotation 3, attack in K1 for rotation 6.
CONCLUSIONS: These results point to the specific characteristics of individual rotations in this age period,
which have to be considered in the organisation of the training process. The results undoubtedly indicate that in the
process of the synchronisation of team play, each of the six rotations require specific attention both in the technical
and tactical sense.

Keywords: Volleyball, women, phases, successfulness of game.

INTRODUCTION women’s volleyball, although attacking female players

After the rules of volleyball game changed in 1999,
the game experienced a complete renovation in the
technical-tactical sense. Changes are obvious, particu-
larly in the attack phase of the game. Analyses of major
international competitions have revealed that attack
combinations have become poorer (Ejem, 2001). Dif-
ferences in the playing concepts of the teams from the
past have become even larger (Frohner & Zimmermann,
2007). The majority of men’s teams use a 5:1 system
with identical positioning of players according to their
playing positions, whereas switching the players in the
attack phase from one zone to another is rare (Golf,
2008a; Yiannis & Panagiotis, 2005). This playing system
and the specialisation of players are also being used in
more often switch playing positions in the attack phase
(Munz, 2008). Most importantly, the differences in the
statistical model of women’s and men’s teams are con-
sistently decreasing (Golf, 2008b).
Researchers have tried in several ways to explain the
differences between winning and losing teams. These ex-
planations have been presented on the basis of morpho-
logical characteristics and motor abilities (Zadražnik,
1999; Stamm, 2004; Morrow, Jackson, Hosler, & Ka-
churik, 1979), whereas some researchers have used
technical and tactical knowledge when interpreting the
differences (Marelić, Rešetar, Zadražnik, & Đurković,
2005). All of the above mentioned characteristics result
in a game lost or won through the number of points…
Playing situations, which end in points lost or won, are,
34
as in all multi structural ball games, also in volleyball,
very diverse and thus make the teams difficult to com-
pare.
The rules of the game of volleyball demand, from
highly specialised players, nevertheless a certain degree
of universality in the technical-tactical sense, which
coaches adjust to fit the characteristics and abilities of
individuals and team tactics. Six rotations are given,
in fact, with the majority of teams at the present time,
using a 5:1 playing system, the positioning of players is
made according to the following system: setter, diago-
nal player, two attackers – receivers of the serve, two
blocking players and a libero. In technical language an
individual rotation is determined according to the cur-
rent position of the setter (in rotation 1 the setter is in
zone 1; in rotation 2 the setter is in zone 2, etc.). The
positioning of other players (blockers, attackers...) does
not change between the elite teams. This fact allows for
a comparison of the teams in certain rotational schemes.
It has been previously found by Palao, Santos and Ureña
(2005) that female setters are more efficient when the
setter is situated in the back part of the field (zones 1, 5
and 6), whereas the efficiency of male attacking players
is more balanced when the setter is situated in the front
part of the field (zones 2, 3 and 4). Furthermore, some
statistical packages (e.g. DataVolley) being used for the
analysis of the success of a team or an individual play
also provide information about the successfulness of the
team (individual) in certain rotational schemes.
Information acquired through the statistical moni-
toring of matches is often used in studies. The analysis
of the situational parameters of matches in team ball
games is most often used to find the criterion or groups
of criteria, which separate successful teams from unsuc-
cessful ones (Eom & Schutz, 1992; Hughes & Daniel,
2003; Palao, Santos, & Ureña, 2004). In addition, previ-
ous research has aimed to find variables, which have had
the largest individual correlation with the differences of
the analysed parameters. For this purpose, the matches
and the games are usually considered as entities, used
for analysing the quality of the execution of monitored
phases or volleyball skills. Criteria in such research are
usually binary in nature, as they are focused on victory
or defeat in a match or game (Zetou, Tsigilis, Moustaki-
disin, & Komninakidou, 2006).
One of the problems of such research lies in the
selection of suitable ways for monitoring the volleyball
matches (Hughes & Daniel, 2003). The amount of infor-
mation collected, to a great extent, conditions the results
of some multivariate methods. In practice, a few ways
for monitoring the course of the matches have been es-
tablished. In Europe, a statistical programme, DataVol-
ley, is used most often by many clubs and national teams
in order to analyse matches. Nevertheless, the data from
matches, most desired by coaches and the International
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Volleyball Federation (FIVB), is that which could help
with solving the practical problems of individual vol-
leyball teams (Marelić, Rešetar, & Janković, 2004). In
practice, coaches use reports of volleyball matches in or-
der to analyse the game. These reports allow the coaches
to find out in which rotations a team has been more or
less efficient. This information is very important in the
process of team synchronisation, also it can be used for
research purposes. Đurković (2007) has attempted to
find the differences in situational parameters and the
successfulness of the game at the European youth volley-
ball championships for men by analysing six volleyball
rotations. This method permitted an even more detailed
explanation of the reasons for the successfulness of an
individual volleyball team.
In the game of volleyball, winning or losing depends
on a large number of factors. One of these factors is the
efficiency necessary to solve technical-tactical situations
– phases of the game. In addition, it is important for the
success of the team that these phases are solved equally
in all six rotations. This regularity depends on the bal-
ance of the playing quality in individual rotation; howev-
er statistical analyses of games reveal that such balance
is difficult to achieve also in high quality teams. Some
teams base their success on an efficient serve, others
on the successful receipt of a serve and some yet again
on an efficient attack... The aim of the present study is
to utilise statistical data from the matches of the girls’
youth teams in the sense of finding differences between
the winning and losing teams. Nevertheless, in addition
to identifying general differences between the teams, the
game of winning and losing teams will be divided into
six volleyball rotations in order to examine differences
between these teams in individual rotations and to find
the phases that best determine these differences.
METHODS
Data were collected at the European youth volley-
ball championships for women in Zagreb. Eight teams
participated in the championships (Belarus, Croatia,
Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Russia, Serbia and
Montenegro). The sample of measured subjects was rep-
resented with 98 female volleyball players in the youth
category, all under the age of 18. Each team represented
a separate entity. Twenty matches were played at the
tournament and forty entities have been chosen for re-
search purposes (situational parameters were recorded
at each match for every team separately). Data used
in the research have been collected with the use of the
computer programme DataVolley Rel. 5.0, designed by
the Dataproject Company.
Statistical monitoring of the matches is based on the
evaluation of the successfulness of six phases of a vol-
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 35

leyball game – the situational parameters of the game
(independent variables): SERVE (SERVE), RECEIPT
OF SERVE (RECEIPT), ATTACK IN K1 after the re-
ceipt of serve (ATTACK), BLOCK (BLOCK), ATTACK
RECEIPT (DEFENCE), ATTACK IN K2 after receipt
of attack (CATTACK).
On the basis of the quality of execution, individual
actions have been analysed within the six playing phas-
es and placed on an ordinal five level scale: the lowest
degree of execution on a scale (no. 1) represents an
error (e.g. missed serve), whereas the highest degree
of execution (no. 5) represents a point won (e.g. direct
point from a serve) or else an optimum execution of
a skill (e.g. optimum receipt of serve). The frequency
of individual executions has been entered in a formula
shown below and the coefficient of the execution for
each individual phase has been calculated.
k = (number of executions no. 1) × 1 + (number of
executions no. 2) × 2 + (number of executions no. 3) × 3 +
(number of executions no. 4) × 4 + (number of executions
no. 5) × 5/total number of executions (executions no. 1 +
executions no. 2 + executions no. 3 + executions no. 4 +
executions no. 5)
Calculation of the coefficient of the execution is
one of the functions of the DataVolley programmes. It
presents one of the possible calculations of the success-
fulness of a player in a game, a set, a part of the season,
etc. For the purpose of the study, the coefficients of the

TABLE 1
Results of simple (descriptive) statistics of six rotations of a volleyball game

ROTATION1 M Min Max SD K–S ROTATION4 M Min Max SD K–S

RECEIPT 3.90 2.92 4.67 0.43 0.069 RECEIPT 3.78 2.40 5.00 0.51 0.084
SERVE 2.72 2.13 3.45 0.28 0.070 SERVE 2.61 1.86 3.43 0.39 0.073
DEFENCE 3.11 1.50 4.43 0.68 0.139 DEFENCE 3.21 2.00 4.50 0.59 0.080
BLOCK 2.78 1.33 4.67 0.70 0.092 BLOCK 2.77 1.00 4.33 0.69 0.125
ATTACK 3.79 2.67 5.00 0.60 0.082 ATTACK 3.69 2.67 4.50 0.45 0.104
CATTACK 3.65 1.00 4.71 0.58 0.143 CATTACK 3.45 1.00 4.75 0.70 0.133

ROTATION2 M Min Max SD K–S ROTATION5 M Min Max SD K–S

RECEIPT 3.92 3.00 5.00 0.51 0.104 RECEIPT 3.87 2.71 5.00 0.60 0.078
SERVE 2.71 2.00 3.57 0.35 0.081 SERVE 2.62 2.11 3.29 0.29 0.137
DEFENCE 3.36 2.20 5.00 0.68 0.111 DEFENCE 3.00 0.00 4.25 0.82 0.130
BLOCK 2.51 1.00 4.33 0.88 0.093 BLOCK 2.49 0.00 5.00 1.07 0.097
ATTACK 3.78 2.91 4.67 0.46 0.094 ATTACK 3.86 2.22 5.00 0.52 0.082
CATTACK 3.70 2.25 5.00 0.72 0.114 CATTACK 3.49 1.33 4.63 0.72 0.102

ROTATION3 M Min Max SD K–S ROTATION6 M Min Max SD K–S

RECEIPT 3.86 3.00 4.75 0.46 0.092 RECEIPT 4.06 3.07 4.75 0.41 0.108
SERVE 2.74 1.50 3.22 0.35 0.136 SERVE 2.64 2.00 3.55 0.39 0.058
DEFENCE 3.14 1.33 5.00 0.87 0.112 DEFENCE 2.95 1.00 5.00 0.82 0.112
BLOCK 2.76 1.00 5.00 0.82 0.097 BLOCK 2.82 1.00 4.00 0.71 0.148
ATTACK 3.67 2.67 5.00 0.54 0.101 ATTACK 3.85 2.80 4.75 0.52 0.121
CATTACK 3.78 2.17 5.00 0.59 0.09 CATTACK 3.70 0.00 4.83 0.81 0.177

Legend:
M – average
Min – minimal result
Max – maximal result
SD – standard deviation
K–S – Kolmogor-Smirnov test of the normality of distribution of results
RECEIPT – receive of serve
SERVE – serve
DEFENCE – receive of attack
BLOCK – block
ATTACK – attack in K1
CATTACK – attack in K2
ROTATION 1, 2… 6 – position of the setter in the field
36 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

execution were calculated for all six playing phases and rameters of the game between the groups of winning and
for both winning and losing teams for each rotation. losing teams in rotations 1, 2, 3 and 6.
Individual rotations represented a criterion variable,
which is of binary nature (winning or losing the match) TABLE 2
and undoubtedly depends on the quality of the execu- Results of six discriminant analyses
tion of individual phases of a game of volleyball (serve,
receipt of serve, attack in K1 or K2, etc.). In the first λ R χ2 df p
phase, individual rotations were compared (rotation 1,
rotation 2..., rotation 6 of the winning and losing teams) ROTATION 1 0.49 0.57 14.05 6 0.02
ROTATION 2 0.67 0.63 17.98 6 0.00
and whether there are statistically significant differences
ROTATION 3 0.93 0.69 22.48 6 0.00
between the rotations was examined. It has been specu-
ROTATION 4 0.29 0.47 9.09 6 0.16
lated that statistically significant differences between the
ROTATION 5 0.40 0.53 11.85 6 0.06
winning and losing teams will be revealed in some of
ROTATION 6 0.44 0.55 13.00 6 0.04
the rotations. Therefore, the second part of the study
examined the phases of a volleyball game (serve, re- Legend:
ceipt of serve, block...), which in large part determine λ – own values
the winning and the losing teams for each of the rota- R – canonical correlation
tions, with statistically significant differences between χ2 – chi-square test
the teams. As the balance of individual rotations is hard df – number of degrees of freedom
p – level of characteristics of discriminatory function in six rota-
to guarantee even in higher age categories, it has been tions
assumed that in different rotations different phases of ROTATION 1, 2…6 – position of the setter in the field
the volleyball game will influence the result of the game
and their influence will be of various significance.
The data of games played have first been entered in
the computer and analysed with the use of the Statistica TABLE 3
for Windows version 5.0 programme, and, afterwards, Correlation between variables and discriminant func-
simple descriptive parameters were calculated. In the tions and the position of group centroids)
module Discriminant analysis from the programme, a ca-
nonical discriminant analysis has been used in order Discriminant function
to calculate six analyses, one for each of the volleyball
ROTA- ROTA- ROTA- ROTA-
rotations. VARIABLE
TION 1 TION 2 TION 3 TION 6
RECEIPT 0.79 0.53 0.07 0.34
SERVE 0.22 –0.18 0.74 0.13
RESULTS DEFENCE –0.03 0.54 0.57 0.24
BLOCK 0.30 0.71 0.36 0.34
TABLE 1 shows the results of simple descriptive sta- ATTACK 0.53 0.19 0.40 0.63
tistics, calculated for each of the six volleyball rotations CATTACK 0.55 0.33 0.20 0.06
separately. Arithmetic mean, minimum and maximum GROUP CENTROIDS
values as well as the standard deviation have been cal- LOSING TEAMS –0.68 –0.79 –0.96 –0.65
culated for all six game phases. The normality of the WINNING TEAMS 0.68 0.79 0.91 0.65
distribution of data has been tested with the Kolmogor-
Smirnov test. The critical value of n = 20 on the level Legend:
of statistical significance (p) 0.01 was 0.294. Results RECEIPT – receive of serve
in the table show that all the variables were normally SERVE – serve
DEFENCE – receive of attack
distributed. BLOCK – block
TABLE 2 shows the results of six canonical discrimi- ATTACK – attack in K1
natory analyses, one for each of six volleyball rotations. CATTACK – attack in K2
Their own values (λ), canonical correlations (R), chi- ROTATION 1, 2, 3 and 6 – position of the setter in the field
square values (χ2), the number of degrees of freedom
(df) and the level of the significance of discriminatory The results in TABLE 3 reveal the largest projection
functions (p) have been calculated for all six rotations. of discriminatory function in the first rotation (ROTA-
Values were obtained with the use of a standard method TION 1) in the receipt of the serve (RECEIPT = 0.79),
of discriminatory function. The results reveal statisti- followed by the attack in K2 (CATTACK = 0.55) and
cally significant differences in selected situational pa- the attack in K1 (ATTACK = 0.55). In rotation 2 (RO-
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
TATION 2) there was also good receipt of service
(RECEIPT = 0.53), there also has been a block of key
importance (BLOCK = 0.71) and defence (DEFENCE
= 0.54). In rotation 3 (ROTATION 3), as having the
largest influence of the variables, service (SERVE =
0.74) and defence (DEFENCE = 0.57) have been re-
vealed. In rotation 6 (ROTATION 6), the variable at-
tack in K1 (ATTACK = 0.63) was shown to have had
the greatest influence.
DISCUSSION
The review of the results of all six rotations revealed
the highest average values for the variables: receipt of
serve (RECEIPT), attack in K1 (ATTACK) and attack
in K2 (CATTACK). These results correspond to the
data about the statistical game model from major vol-
leyball competitions (Golf, 2008a; Golf, 2008b; Match
Info, 2009a; Match Info, 2009b), showing that the
majority of points in volleyball are won in attack. Fur-
thermore, the successfulness in the variable receipt of
service is significantly higher in comparison to other
technical elements. Further, the procedure of multivari-
ate analysis was used in order to separate those game
phases within every rotation, which show any statisti-
cally significant difference between the group of winning
and losing teams.
From the values shown in TABLE 2 it can be con-
cluded that the results of discriminatory analysis re-
vealed statistically significant differences between the
winning and losing teams (p < 0.05) in four out of six
rotations: Rotation 1, Rotation 2, Rotation 3 and in Ro-
tation 6. The structure of discriminatory function was
bipolar. The group of winning teams has been placed on
a positive pole, whereas the group of losing teams has
been placed on a negative pole. It is interesting to notice
that statistically significant differences have not been
seen in rotations 4 and 5. Namely, in these rotations
the setter has the most difficult task in the organisation
of the attack in complex 1 (K1). After the opponent’s
serve, the setter has the longest distance to travel to the
optimal position for setting the attack (between zones 2
and 3); the player also has to turn towards zone 4 during
this transition and as a result momentarily loses visual
contact with the ball. As a result, it could be concluded
that the game in these two rotations is less diverse and
more predictable, although it is possible that the teams
from the sample did not have extraordinary setters, who
could solve technical-tactical situations in these rota-
tions more successfully.
All the analysed teams played according to the sys-
tem of 5–1, meaning that one player is in the role of set-
ter – she organises the game and sets the ball in attacks
(K1) and counter attacks (K2) in all six rotations. In
37
the first and sixth rotation (p = 0.02 and p = 0.04), the
setter is situated at the back part of the volleyball court,
whereas in the second and third rotation (p = 0.00 in
p = 0.00) she is situated by the net. Situations when
the setter is at the net with only two attacking players
nearby, is, in the tactical sense, considerably different
from the situation when she is at the back of the court
with three available attacking players at the net. Theo-
retically speaking it is easier to organise an attack when
the setter is at the back part of the court and running
into an empty space at the net. In addition to the three
nearby attacking players at the net, she can use at least
one of the back court attackers as well. It also needs
to be mentioned that the setters are usually the worst
blocking players in the game.
The highest statistically significant values of canoni-
cal correlation (R) have been noticed in the two rota-
tions (Rotation 3 and 2), when the setter is at the net.
It can be assumed that the winning teams managed to
attack more successfully from the back part of the court.
Additionally, it needs to be considered that the winning
teams have been shown to be more efficient in servicee
and blocking in these rotations.
Đurković (2007) has, based on the sample of male
players of the same age category, found out that dis-
criminatory functions significantly differentiate the
groups of teams, ranked on the basis of placement at
the tournament, at the significance level 0.01 (p < 0.01)
in rotations 5 and 3. Rotation 5 in K1 is very unfavour-
able for a setter, as he or she has to come to the point
of the attack organisation from the left side of the net
and is required to travel the longest distance. It is also
possible that in rotation 3 the strong serve of a diago-
nal player (presumably a jump serve) creates a playing
situation that often leads to the winning of the point.
In the same research paper, Đurković gives us a sample
of youth male players’ individually analysed rotations
with the setter at the net. With the use of discriminatory
analysis, he presented the contribution of statistically
significant differences in situational parameters to the
benefit of winning teams. Better placed teams have also
served better and played more successfully in the third
rotation and the complex 1 (K1): receipt of serve – set-
ting the attack – attack.
It can be assumed that the similar results of the win-
ning teams in the category of youth female players and
their successfulness in third rotations are a consequence
of the jump serve and the attack of the diagonal player
from the second line. Empirically speaking, it is obvi-
ous that the majority of innovations in technique and
tactics began in men’s volleyball. Nevertheless, the game
of female youth players shows itself to be a successful
copy of the game systems, techniques and tactics of the
male game model.
38
Interesting are also the results of correlation vari-
ables (TABLE 3) with discriminatory function and the
position of centroid groups in this function in rotations,
which are statistically significant at the level p < 0.05.
A particularly interesting feature of the present re-
search findings is also that the results of multivariate
analysis confirmed four statistically significant rotations,
which discriminate winning and losing teams. Within
these rotations, different game phases differently influ-
ence a criterion variable, i.e. victory or defeat.
In rotation 1, the setter runs in from the second line,
also in the analysed rotations of female youth players.
In this rotation, a quality receipt of the serve has the
largest effect on the successfulness of the team, allowing
the winning team to launch a diverse attack, which op-
ponents find difficult to block and this results in a poor
defence. Even when the defence is successful, teams
then have difficulties in organising an attack. The result
of such an attack is also that the team receiving the
serve, has an easier time of it and more often achieves
a point in the counter attack. It is interesting to notice
that the high values of a variable CATTACK are not the
result of a better defence game (DEFENCE = 0.03),
which is a prerequisite for a successful counter attack
game. It can be assumed that the individual quality of
attacking players in the winning teams has enabled an
efficient attack game even after the worst defence.
The results of rotation 2 partly negate the stated
argument that setters are usually worse blockers. Win-
ning teams presumably can be differentiated from losing
teams in this rotation in the diverse attack. In the case of
worse teams not launching an efficient attack from zone
1, then the work of blocking players is much easier in
the modern game of volleyball. Namely, three blocking
players monitor the attack of two attackers at the net. If
the opponent directs the ball to pass the set block, then
the defensive players also have a chance to save the ball
when the block has been set in time.
In rotation 3, when a setter is at the central position
at the net, the serve (SERVE = 0.74) and the receipt of
serve (DEFENCE = 0.57) most significantly contribute
to the differences between the analysed groups. In this
rotation, a diagonal player serves, usually with the use of
a jump serve. This serve usually allows a timed position
of the blocking players and consequently better chances
for the defending players.
In the last, sixth rotation, an attack after the receipt
of a serve reveals a high correlation with the criterion
of ATTACK = 0.63. Domination in the attack after the
receipt of serve (K1) confirms our understanding that,
in modern volleyball, it is important not to lose points
in complex 1, i.e. in actions immediately after receiving
the serve. Apparently, the winning teams are much more
efficient in this element of the game. Elite volleyball, as
opposed to tennis, favours the advantage of the team
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
receiving the serve and delivering the attack, not the
team that serves.
Presumably the majority of volleyball coaches will
agree with this argument, nevertheless, the results of
other rotations show that in practice this is not easily
achieved.
CONCLUSIONS
It has been confirmed that, in the youth category,
there exist differences between the winning and losing
teams in the quality of the execution of various phases
of the volleyball game, even when the teams are at such
a high level as the European championships. The results
of descriptive statistics have revealed, on the basis of
the calculation methodology of the coefficient of the
execution, the highest values of variables that in the
game of volleyball possess a high degree of efficiency
and frequency of use (ATTACK, CATTACK, RECIVE).
An analysis of situational parameters in six volleyball
rotations has revealed statistically significant differences
between the teams in four rotations (ROTATION 1, 2,
3 in 6). It has been found that these are the rotations,
where the setter has an easier path to the position of
the attack organisation. It can be assumed that teams in
this category already differentiate in the quality of attack
from behind the 3 metre line. Additionally, it has been
revealed that in the rotations with statistically significant
differences, various phases of the volleyball game (serve,
receipt of serve...) determine these differences.
The results indicate the specific character of indi-
vidual rotations for this age category, which has to be
considered when managing the training process. The
findings need to be included in the process of team syn-
chronisation; each of the six rotations requires particu-
lar attention both in the technical and tactical sense.
In conclusion, it springs to mind that a comparative
analysis of situational parameters in women’s volleyball
will need to be carried out for the situations when the
setter is at the net (rotation 2, 3 and 4) and the situa-
tions when the setter is in the field (rotations 1, 5 and 6).
This differentiation would pinpoint the effects of indi-
vidual playing positions in the rotations more precisely.
Similarly, it would be interesting to analyse rotations in
junior and senior categories, keeping in mind the same
aim and methods in order to find out whether differ-
ences would reoccur. The training process and a per-
fection of knowledge in the technical and tactical sense
can cause differences between the teams, although it is
possible that the difference found would only increase.
Nevertheless, it has to be understood that a number of
various factors influence the result of the match and that
the quality of a game in individual rotation is merely
one of them. Therefore, a generalisation of the findings
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
of the present study is questionable without further re-
search.
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Match Info. (2009b). FIVB. Retrieved 28. 9. 2009 from
the World Wide Web: http://www.fivb.org/EN/
Volleyball/Competitions/Olympics/2008/M/Press/
MatchInfo.asp
Morrow, J. R., Jackson, A. S., Hosler, W. W., & Ka-
churik, J. K. (1979). The importance of strength,
speed and body size for team success in women’s
intercollegiate volleyball. Research Quarterly for Ex-
ercise and Sport, 50(3), 429–437.
Munz, M. (2008). Olympia analyse. Volleyball magazine,
12, 17–23.
Palao, J. M., Santos, J. A., & Ureña, A. (2004). Effect
of team level on skill performance in volleyball. In-
39
ternational Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport,
4(2), 50–60.
Palao, J. M., Santos, J. A., & Ureña, A. (2005). The ef-
fect of the setter’s position on the spike in volleyball.
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Stamm, R. (2004). Body build structure of young female
volleyballers (aged 13–16) and their performance in
competition. Manking Quarterly, 44(3–4), 253–273.
Yiannis, L., & Panagiotis, K. (2005). Evolution in men’s
volleyball skills and tactics as evidenced in the Ath-
ens 2004 Olympic Games. International Journal of
Performance Analysis in Sport, 5(2), 1–8.
Zadražnik, M. (1999). Assessing competitive and po-
tential successfulness of advanced young volleyball
players. Kinesiologia Slovenica, 5(1/2), 45–50.
Zetou, E., Tsigilis, N., Moustakidis, A., & Komninaki-
dou, A. (2006). Playing characteristics of men’s
Olympic volleyball teams in complex II. Interna-
tional Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 6(1),
172–177.
ZMĚNY V ROTACÍCH MEZI VYHRÁVAJÍCÍMI
A PROHRÁVAJÍCÍMI TÝMY NA JUNIORSKÝCH
MISTROVSTVÍCH EVROPY VE VOLEJBALU
DÍVEK
(Souhrn anglického textu)
VÝCHODISKA: Lidé zkoumající volejbal často sledu-
jí rozdíly, jež odlišují vyhrávající a prohrávající týmy. Vo-
lejbalový zápas totiž probíhá ve dvou celcích (K1 – hra
po příjmu podání: podání – příjem podání – příprava
útoku – útok; K2 – hra po vlastním podání: podání –
blok – obrana – protiútok), a navíc hráči musejí rotovat
v souladu s pravidly volejbalové hry. Herní situace v šesti
rotacích stejnou měrou neodpovídají K1 a K2, pokud
jde o taktické záměry, ani nemají stejnou obtížnost.
CÍLE: Studie zkoumala, zda existují statisticky vý-
znamné rozdíly v jednotlivých fázích volejbalového
zápasu mezi vyhrávajícími a prohrávajícími týmy, a to
samostatně pro všech šest rotací. Zkoumaly se rozdíly
mezi jednotlivými rotacemi mezi vyhrávajícími a pro-
hrávajícími týmy. U rotací se statisticky významnými
rozdíly mezi týmy se také zkoumaly ty fáze, jež nejvíce
rozhodují o těchto rozdílech.
METODY: Studie byla prováděna v rámci junior-
ských mistrovství Evropy ve volejbalu žen. Bylo analy-
zováno dvacet zápasů, v rámci této analýzy byla použita
pětistupňová škála hodnotící úspěšnost hry 98 hráček
mladších 18 let. Bylo analyzováno šest fází volejbalo-
vého zápasu: podání, příjem podání, útok v rámci K1,
útok v rámci K2, blok a obrana (příjem útoku). U každé
jednotlivé rotace byla stanovena kriteriální proměnná.
Byly vypočteny prosté deskriptivní statistické parametry
40
společně se šesti kanonickými diskriminačními analýza-
mi (jedna pro každou rotaci).
VÝSLEDKY: Výsledky kanonické diskriminační
analýzy ukázaly, že čtyři ze šesti rotací byly statisticky
významné na úrovni p < 0,05 (rotace 1 = 0,02; rota-
ce 2 = 0,00; rotace 3 = 0,00; rotace 6 = 0,04). Je zajímavé
povšimnout si, že různé fáze zápasu vykazují největší
projekci diskriminační funkce přesně v rotacích se sta-
tisticky významnými rozdíly. Těmi byly: příjem podání
a útok v rámci K1 a K2 u rotace 1, příjem podání, blok
a obrana u rotace 2, příjem a obrana u rotace 3, útok
v rámci K1 u rotace 6.
ZÁVĚRY: Tyto výsledky ukazují na specifické cha-
rakteristiky jednotlivých rotací v této věkové skupině,
jež je třeba vzít do úvahy v rámci organizace tréninku.
Výsledky nepochybně indikují, že v průběhu synchroni-
zace týmové hry každá ze šesti rotací vyžaduje zvláštní
pozornost, a to pokud jde o techniku i taktiku.
Klíčová slova: volejbal, ženy, fáze, úspěšnost hry.
Marko Zadražnik, Ph.D.
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Sport
Gortanova 22
1000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Education and previous work experience
After finishing undergraduate studies at the Faculty of
Sport at the University of Ljubljana, he turned to work
in private sector in 1984. Taught physical education
at a high school for civil engineering until 1986, then
took up a post as an assistant professor of volleyball
programme at the Faculty of Sport, where he has
finished postgraduate masters degree in 1994 and Ph.D.
in 1998.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Scientific orientation
In the scientific field, he is mainly researching and
examining the factors of success in volleyball. In the
expert field, he is concentrating on education and
training of professional workforce in volleyball (he
has run or participated in more than 100 courses or
seminars on the topic of volleyball). He is an author of
several books and course manuals. Before ending his
career as a coach in 2006, he has successfully led several
Slovenian club teams in various age categories as well
as national selections. He is a president of the Expert
Council at the Volleyball Federation of Slovenia.
First-line publication
Zadražnik, M. (1999). Assessing competitive and
potential successfulness of advanced young volleyball
players. Kinesiol. Slov., 5(1/2), 45–50.
Zadražnik, M. (1995). Ermittlung der Unterschide
bei den motorischen und morphologischen
Dimensionen Jugendlicher, auf verschiedenen
Spielpositionen eingesetzter Volleyball-Spier. In J.
Bergier (Ed.), An international conference on science
in sports team games (pp. 307–315). Biala Podlaska:
Instytut Wychowania Fizycznego i Sportu.
Zadražnik, M. (1999). Spremljanje razvoja nekaterih
morfoloških in motoričnih razsežnosti, pomembnih
za uspešnost odbojkarja, od 7. do 16. leta. In E.
Hofmann (Ed.), Proceedings Školski sport (pp. 363–
367). Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu.
Zadražnik, M. (2002). Reliability and objectivity of eval-
uating practical knowledge of volleyball in physical
education. In R. Pišot, V. Štemberger, F. Krpač, &
T. Filipčič (Eds.), Proceedings Otrok v gibanju (pp.
415–420). Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 41

THE APPLICATION OF FORMAL CONCEPT ANALYSIS AND THE IMPORTANCE

OF SCALE SELECTION IN THE EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY DATA
IN RELATION TO THE BODY MASS INDEX

Erik Sigmund, Jiří Zacpal*, Dagmar Sigmundová

Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic

* Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic

Submitted in May, 2009

BACKGROUND: Research confirms that physical activity (PA) is irreplaceable in a healthy and physically active
lifestyle. One of the key research questions is what the optimal level of everyday PA for health is and how it should
be quantified and interpreted. Formal concept analysis is one possible way of how to assess and describe the level of
PA as related to personal data.
OBJECTIVE: The main goal of this study was to introduce the method of Formal Concept Analysis (FCA) using
data from the ANEWS questionnaire and data from the objective monitoring of a number of steps using the YAMAX
SW-701 pedometer. A further aim was to adopt the most appropriate method within the FCA.
METHODS: A random sample of 273 males aged 18–69 from selected regional centers participated in the study.
RESULTS: The example of daily steps allows for the demonstration of how important it is to select a scale in FCA
data analysis. It is better to use an ordinal scale for the daily number of steps (in our example); because, in so doing,
we create the attributes that can be ordered (a lower number of steps is also insufficient).
CONCLUSIONS: A rough scale produces easier lattice with the general scope of the observed attributes. The
smoothing of the scale produces more difficult lattice and makes for more difficult analyses, but gives more detailed
results. FCA requires more expertise from a researcher than do “classical” testing statistics, but gives us deeper insight
into the examination of the problem.

Keywords: Nominal and ordinal scale, fuzzy, aggregated object, lattice, steps, men.

INTRODUCTION methods can lead sometimes to a biased interpretation

Physical activity (hereafter PA) is of key importance
to a healthy and physically active lifestyle in adults. Yet
the optimal level of its daily amount and the method of
its exact quantification have not been clearly identified.
A daily number of steps appears to be a simple and
comprehensible “quantifier” (Tudor-Locke, Ainsworth,
Thompson, & Matthews, 2002) and pedometers (espe-
cially YAMAX brand) are reliable and exact enough to
measure the steps (Crouter, Schneider, Karabulut, &
Bassett, 2003; Le Masurier, Lee, & Tudor-Locke, 2004;
Schneider, Crouter, & Bassett, 2004). The choice of
appropriate and verified techniques and variables is
a necessary condition that needs to be met in order to
describe various phenomenona properly. Moreover, an
appropriate method of data processing and interpreta-
tion are also important. When only either a quantitative
or qualitative approach is used, that has its limits, which
can be overcome to some extent by the combination of
both quantitative and qualitative methods used, for ex-
ample, in PA meta analysis (Sallis & Owen, 1999). The
“adjustment” of data to the possibilities of statistical
of the tested aspect. For example, the frequent use of
regressive analysis in behavioral studies can also con-
tribute to data misinterpretation. Therefore, the main
aim of this study is to introduce the method of Formal
Conceptual Analysis as applied to a data sample from
the ANEWS questionnaire and the number of steps ob-
tained from the YAMAX pedometer. A further goal of
the study is to discuss the choice of an appropriate scale
in Formal Conceptual Analysis.
METHODS
Participants
A random sample of 273 males aged 18–69 from
selected regional centers participated in the study. The
chosen men fully and correctly completed the ANEWS
questionnaire and weekly physical activity monitoring
using Yamax SW–700 pedometers in Spring and Au-
tumn of 2007.
The level of the body weight of participants was clas-
sified according to the Body Mass Index (BMI – kg·m-2)
42 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

as follows: < 18.5 (underweight), 18.5–24.9 (normal jects from ). Similarly, for subset define:
weight), 25–29.9 (overweight) and ≥ 30 (obese) (World (set of all objects,
Health Organization, 1995). which have attributes from B).
Formal concept from the context there is
ANEWS questionnaire a pair , where , , and
The ANEWS questionnaire, the Neighborhood En- . Set we call extent, and set the intent
vironment Walkability Scale – Abbreviated (www.ipen- of concept .
project.org/surveyanews.htm) includes 54 questions on Therefore, models the natural subconcept–su-
the environment of neighborhoods, which are divided perconcept hierarchy. The set of all concepts form the
into several categories: D) types of residences in your
context , which we denote as follows: .
neighborhood, E) stores, facilities, and other things in
It is a concept lattice, the basic structure of which is
your neighborhood, F) access to services, G) streets in
described by the so called main theorem of concept
my neighborhood, H) places for walking and cycling, I)
lattices (Ganter & Wille, 1999).
neighborhood surroundings and J) neighborhood safety.
The questionnaire consists of questions to be an-
The answers to individual questions in category D) are
swered by respondents by selecting an answer from a list
scored as: 1 – none, 2 – a few, 3 – some, 4 – most, 5 –
of possible answers. From the point of view of FCA, we
all. All 23 questions in the E) category can be answered
can consider the set of respondents as the set of objects
as: 1 – 1–5 min, 2 – 6–10 min, 3 – 11–20 min, 4 – 20–30
and the set of single questions as the set of attributes.
min, 5 – ≥ 30 min and the possibility, “I don’t know”.
The questions need not be yes/no questions. Rather,
Categories F) to J) are scored as follows: 1 – strongly
some questions like those concerning age and educa-
disagree, 2 – somewhat disagree, 3 – somewhat agree,
tion are many valued. Correspondingly, a completed
4 – strongly agree.
questionnaire can be represented by a many valued
formal context. With this type of context FCA doesn’t
Pedometr Yamax SW-701
work. Therefore we have to transform this many valued
The Yamax Digiwalker SW–701 (Yamax Corpora-
context to a bivalent context. This process we called
tion, Japan) is a light (20 g), small commercial elec-
concept scaling.
tronic pedometer that measures vertical oscillations
(Schneider, Crouter, & Bassett, 2004). Yamax uses
Concept scaling
a spring suspended lever that moves in response to the
Scaling is a transformation of a many-valued context
hip’s vertical oscillations. The movement opens and
to a bivalent context. The basic scales being used in
closes an electrical circuit, and each vertical oscillation
FCA are described in Ganter and Wille’s (1999) book.
detected above a critical threshold (0.35 g) is registered
Some important facts are presented below.
as a step taken (Tudor-Locke et al., 2002). Total num-
bers of counted steps are displayed on a small screen.
Nominal scales
In general, pedometers are most accurate in count-
Nominal scales are used to place attributes on
ing steps, less accurate in calculating distance, and least
a scale, the values of which mutually exclude each oth-
accurate at estimating energy expenditure (Crouter et
er. One example from ANEWS could be information
al., 2003). Because steps are the most direct expression
about our repondents’ way of life: alone, family with-
of what the pedometer actually measures, Tudor-Locke
out children or family with children. In this case we use
and Myers (2001) recommend reporting pedometer
a nominal scale and offer a choice of three attributes:
data as steps.
alone, family without children, family with children (TA-
BLE 1). If respondent XY fills in that he lives alone,
Formal Concept Analysis
then in context it looks like this: ,
In area data mining we often have the problem, that
a
we obtain o lot of data and we are looking for a tool,
.
which will allow us to make this data concrete or gener-
alize it. Formal Concept Analysis (FCA) is a very good
The dichotomic scale
tool for this work (Ganter & Wille, 1999). FCA works
The dichotomic scale constitutes a special case
with a formal context.
of nominal scale. It is frequently used to place at-
Formal context is where X is a set of
tributes with yes/no values onto a scale. An example
objects, Y is a set of attributes and I is a binary relation-
from ANEWS could be the question if the respond-
ship between X and Y, xIy or meaning that
ent does work for pay. We use the dichotomic scale
the object x has the attribute y.
and offer a choice of two attributes: employment –
For each defined
YES, employment – NO (TABLE 2). If respondent
(set of all attributes, which have ob-
XY fills in that he works for pay, than in context it
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 43

looks like this: and responding concept lattice is too large for an expert
. to comprehend. In addition, the expert might not be
interested in the formal concepts from this concept
lattice. Rather, the expert might want to consider ag-
TABLE 1 gregates of the individual respondents as objects in the
Example of the creation of a nominal scale in the ques- formal context with the aggregates defined by having
tion of the lifestyle of a participant (ANEWS question- the same attributes. This is the main idea of so called
naire) “aggregated objects” (Bělohlávek, Sklenář, Zacpal, &
Sigmund, 2007).
Questionnaire Context (lifestyle) The basic idea is to choose a set S of attributes
Family Family specified by an expert, such as gender – male, gender –
Participant Answer Alone without with female, etc., with S being a subset of the set Y of all at-
children children tributes. Attributes from S will be called “characteristic
A 1 A 1 0 0 attributes”. By these attributes we aggregate respond-
B 2 B 0 1 0 ents (objects). For example, we have the characteristic
C 3 C 0 0 1 attributes of gender (gender – male, gender– female),
a job (job – yes, job – no) and ownership of a car (car –
yes, car – no), then the set of aggregated objects re-
TABLE 2 places the set of objects – respondents. Each aggregated
Example of the creation of a dichotomic scale in the object represents the group of respondents which has
question of work for pay of a participant (ANEWS ques- the same characteristic attributes. For example: “a man,
tionnaire) who owns a car and has a job” (objects, which are relat-
ed to the attributes gender – male, car – yes, job – yes).
Questionnaire Context (employment) We replace the binary relation with a fuzzy relation-
Partici- Employment – ship between aggregate objects and attributes, where the
Answer Employment – NO
pant YES true degree expresses what percentage of respondents
A 1 1 0 has this property (relative frequency between original
B 0 0 1 objects and attributes). For example, if we have a true
degree between an aggregated object with the charac-
teristic attributes of gender – male, job – yes, car – no
Ordinal scales and attribute dog – yes 0.49, it expresses, that 49% of
Ordinal scales can be used to place many valued men, who have a job and don’t have a car, own a dog.
attributes on a scale, the values of which are ordered Using the above described transformation, we ob-
and where each value implies the weaker ones. We can tain a formal fuzzy context. Instead of the classical set
use the ordinal scale for the number of steps counted we have fuzzy sets and use fuzzy logic instead of clas-
by the pedometer. When we use an ordinal scale, we list sic logic (Bělohlávek, 2002). Now we have calculated
five possible attributes for steps: low active (sedentary), a fuzzy concept lattice. The problem is that this concept
somewhat active, active, highly active and “extremely” lattice is usually very large and contains some concepts,
active (TABLE 3). which are not interesting for the expert. Because of that,
we use the so called crisply generated fuzzy concept
Aggregated objects lattice (Bělohlávek, Sklenář, & Zacpal, 2005) for dis-
Typically, such a formal context contains many ob- playing the most important information contained in
jects and a manageable number of attributes. The cor- the questionnaire.

TABLE 3
Example of the creation of an ordinal scale of the variable daily number of steps (Pedometer Yamax)

Pedometer Yamax Context

Participant Daily amount of steps Low active Somewhat active Active Highly active Extremely active
A < 7,000 A 1 1 1 1 1
B 7,000–9,999 B 0 1 1 1 1
C 10,000–12,999 C 0 0 1 1 1
D 13,000–15,999 D 0 0 0 1 1
E ≥ 16,000 E 0 0 0 0 1
44
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The effect of the selected scale on the final analysis
What effect will the selected scale have on the final
lattice? We attempt to provide the answer to this using
an example. We will consider the average number of
steps per day. The literature has recommended the value
of 10,000 steps per day as the health maintaining mini-
mum (Hatano, 1993; Choi, B., Pak, Choi, J., & Choi,
E., 2007; Welk et al., 2000; Yamanouchi, Shinozaki,
& Chikada, 1995). If we include this recommendation
as the basis for our analysis, we will use the nominal
scale, which names two attributes: steps – insufficient
and steps – sufficient (TABLE 4). This scale can be
also understood as a dichotomic scale in the case of an
answer to the following question “Does the respondent
perform more than 10,000 steps per day?” A dichotomic
scale is a special type of nominal scale.
The limited lattice is created when selecting char-
acteristic attributes such as gender – male, gender –
female, steps – insufficient and steps-sufficient. For the
example, we will analyze only the lattice of men (Fig. 1).
For the analysis, it is important to compare the in-
tents of the individual concepts. It has been proved that
higher PA in adults represented by their daily number
of steps is associated with a lower Body Mass Index
(BMI) (Dwyer et al., 2006; Payn et al., 2008) and with
the feeling of having better health (Payn et al., 2008).
The following table shows only some attributes of the
intents, including BMI (TABLE 5). In Czech adult men,
Fig. 1
Sub lattice of males for two attributes to the variable
daily number of steps (Pedometer Yamax)
Legend:
= (gender – male, steps – insufficient)
= (gender – male, steps – sufficient)
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
there is a lesser occurrence of obesity (4% : 10%). Obes-
ity (41% : 45%) in individuals showing a higher number
of steps per day (≥ 10,000) in comparison to individuals
with a daily number of steps below 10,000 (TABLE 5)
is apparent.
TABLE 4
Creation of two attributes for the variable daily number
of steps (Pedometer Yamax) – nominal scale
Pedometer Yamax Context (steps)
Daily amount Insuffici-
Participant Sufficient
of steps ent
A < 10,000 A 1 0
B ≥ 10,000 B 0 1
The division of steps into two parts only (< 10,000
and ≥ 10,000) is, however, from a mathematical and also
a kinanthropological point of view very rough (Choi,
B., Pak, Choi, J., & Choi, E., 2007; Tudor-Locke & My-
ers, 2001). Tudor-Locke and Myers (2001) argue that
meeting the requirement of 10,000 steps a day is, for
many healthy people, not possible. A metaanalysis of
the results of 32 studies using pedometers to monitor
their daily PA shows that in 8–10 year old children the
daily number of steps can be between 12,000–16,000
(less in girls than in boys), in young healthy adults it is
7,000–13,000 steps (less in women than in men). The
daily number of steps in healthy older adults is 6,000–
8,500 and 3,500–5,500 in people with handicaps or the
chronically ill. On the basis of the long-term monitoring
of PA using pedometers in adults, Tudor-Locke, Hatano,
Pangrazi and Kang (2008) have classified lifestyle in
adults according to the number of their steps as follows:
• < 5,000 steps/day = sedentary,
• 5,000–7,499 steps/day = low active,
• 7,500–9,999 steps/day = somewhat active,
• ≥ 10,000 steps/day = active,
• ≥ 12,500 steps/day = highly active.
On the basis of this information, we would like to
“smoothen” the variable of the daily number of steps
into four attributes using the nominal scale of steps –
low, steps – insufficient, steps – sufficient and steps –
high (TABLE 6).
We will again examine a limited lattice which ap-
pears when we choose the characteristic attributes of
gender – male, gender – female, steps – low, steps –
insufficient, steps – sufficient and steps – high. We will
consider only the sub cluster that concerns men (Fig. 2).
If we analyze the lattice using the two attributes of
steps (steps – insufficient, steps – sufficient), we will
identify basic differences between these two groups. We
will do that by comparing the concepts { } and { }.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 45

TABLE 5
Concepts with the attributes of age (years) and Body Mass Index (BMI – kg·m-2) for the variable daily number of
steps – nominal two attributes scale

Level of body weight

Age (years)
(classified according to BMI)

55–65 years
35–44 years

45–54 years
15–24 years

2–34 years

Concepts
underweight normal weight
overweight (25–29.9) obesity (≥ 30)
(< 18.5) (18.5–24.9)

0.18 0.34 0.22 0.17 0.07 0.03 0.42 0.41 0.04

{ , }
{ } 0.18 0.40 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.04 0.42 0.45 0.10

0.25 0.34 0.15 0.18 0.07 0.03 0.52 0.41 0.04

{ }

TABLE 6
Creation of four attributes for the variable daily number of steps (Pedometer Yamax) – nominal scale

Pedometer Yamax Contex (steps)

Participant Daily amount of steps Low Insufficient Sufficient High

A < 6,000 A 1 0 0 0
B 6,000–9,999 B 0 1 0 0
C 10,000–13,999 C 0 0 1 0
D ≥ 14,000 D 0 0 0 1

attributes consist of too few respondents (10–15). In

For example, in attributes that concern BMI, no sig-
a lower number of respondents, analysis is not efficient.
nificant differences are apparent. The same procedure
can be applied to the lattice which we obtained by us-
The effect of the selected scale on the final analysis
ing four attributes of steps (steps – low, steps – insuffi-
In the case of variables where more scales can be
cient, steps – sufficient and steps – high). We will obtain
applied, the choice of the appropriate scale needs to be
similar results by comparing the concepts of { , ,} and
considered. For example, we consider the number of
steps per day in a respondent. We can choose either the
{ , }. If we examine the lattice and attempt a more de- nominal or the ordinal scale. We use the nominal scale
tailed examination, we will identify more apparent differ- from the previous chapter (TABLE 6). The ordinal scale
ences between BMI in individual groups of respondents is described in the following table (TABLE 8).
with different attributes of steps by comparing the con- Note: The example does not show a typical ordinal
scale, but a special type of such a scale called biordinal.
cepts of { }, { }, { }, { }. The following table shows This type of scale describes contradictory concepts. In
these concepts with selected attributes (TABLE 7). this case they are insufficient and sufficient daily amount
Generally, we can argue that the rougher the of steps.
scale is, the lesser the lattice we obtain, and thus the As characteristic attributes we will again use gender
analysis will be simpler. On the other hand, by using (gender – male, gender – female) and BMI (BMI – un-
a “smoother” scale, we will obtain a more detailed derweight, BMI – normal weight, BMI – overweight,
analysis, however we will work with a lattice which is BMI – obesity). The structure of both fuzzy conceptual
more difficult. The most efficient procedure seems to be lattices will be the same because the same characteristic
the monitoring of changes in the selected attributes by attributes are selected (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 presents a sub lat-
the gradual smoothening of the original “rough” scale. tice for aggregated objects with a characteristic attribute
The smoothening needs to stop when the aggregated of gender – male.
46 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

Fig. 2
Sublattice of males for four attributes to the variable daily number of steps (Pedometer Yamax)

Legend:
= (gender – male, steps – low), = (gender – male, steps – insufficient),

= (gender – male, steps – sufficient), = (gender – male, steps – high)

The degrees of the truth level of attributes will be CONCLUSIONS

different due to the different scales applied. The com-
parison of these attributes is shown in the following
table (TABLE 9).
The comparison of the degrees of the truth level
created using nominal and ordinal scales shows the dif-
ferent values of attributes of steps – insufficient and
steps – sufficient. The difference is caused by the fact
that in ordinal scales, the attribute of steps insufficient
involves also the attribute of steps-low and on the other
hand the attribute of steps – sufficient involves also at-
tribute steps – high. In an ordinal scale we thus obtain
a total percentage of all respondents who show either
a sufficient or an insufficient number of steps. When
analyzing the entire lattice, this seems to be more effi-
cient since we obtain a comprehensive view of these two
groups which we can further describe more in detail by
assessing groups with a “more extreme” number of steps
(steps – low, steps – high). We can therefore conclude
that using the ordinal scale in such a case is more ef-
ficient. However, in some situations using the nominal
scale is more efficient, for example, in situations when
we are interested in particular intervals.
We have shown some examples of using different
scales and their effects on the results while applying
Formal Conceptual Analysis. We can conclude that only
due to an appropriate choice of “smoothness” and the
scale, can we obtain precise results. The expert’s experi-
ence and expertise in the field of physical activity plays
an essential role. Yet, choosing the correct scale and
the smoothness of the scale, especially in highly vari-
able variables such as a daily number of steps is also
important.
Data processing without the appropriate software
is not possible these days. In the case where FCA is
applied, the Lattice Navigator program (Radvanský &
Sklenář, 2007) to process the data is useful. The scales
can be easily changed and adjusted in this program. We
can examine the final clusters and compare “interesting”
concepts.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 47

TABLE 7
Concepts with the attributes of age (years) and Body Mass Index (BMI – kg·m–2) for the variable daily number of
steps – nominal four attributes scale

Level of body weight

Age
(classified according to BMI)

55–65 years
35–44 years
25–34 years

45–54 years
15–24 years

Concepts
underweight normal weight overweight obesity
(< 18.5) (18.5–24.9) (25–29.9) (≥ 30)

0.08 0.34 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.33 0.40 0.01

{, , , }
0.08 0.35 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.33 0.42 0.01
{, , }

0.08 0.34 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.33 0.40 0.08

{, , }

0.08 0.34 0.15 0.08 0.07 0.33 0.40 0.01

{, , }

0.19 0.34 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.01 0.44 0.40 0.01

{ , , }
{ , ,} 0.08 0.39 0.11 0,08 0.11 0.33 0.44 0.08

0.08 0.35 0.15 0.08 0.07 0.33 0.42 0.01

{, }

0.08 0.34 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.33 0.40 0.08

{, }

0.19 0.34 0.11 0.18 0.08 0.01 0.44 0.40 0.08

{ , }
0.20 0.35 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.04 0.44 0.42 0.01
{ , }

0.19 0.34 0.15 0.15 0.07 0.01 0.51 0.40 0.01

{ , }
{} 0.08 0.42 0.17 0.08 0.25 0.33 0.50 0.17
{ } 0.20 0.39 0.11 0.18 0.11 0.04 0.44 0.44 0.08

0.28 0.35 0.15 0.15 0.07 0.04 0.53 0.42 0.01

{ }

0.19 0.34 0.16 0.23 0.08 0.01 0.51 0.40 0.08

{ }

TABLE 8
Creation of four attributes for the variable daily number of steps (Pedometer Yamax) – ordinal scale

Pedometer Yamax Contex (steps)

Participant Daily amount of steps Low Insufficient Sufficient High
A < 6,000 A 1 1 0 0
B 6,000–9,999 B 0 1 0 0
C 10,000–13,999 C 0 0 1 0
D ≥ 14,000 D 0 0 1 1
48
Fig. 3
Sublattice of males for nominal and bi-ordinal scale
Legend:
(gender––male,
= (gender – male, BMI – underweight), = (gende
= (gender – male, BMI – overweight), = (gender – male, BMI – obesity)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study has been supported by the research grant
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of
the Czech Republic (No. MSM 6198959221) “Physical
Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech
Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes”.
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TABLE 9
Comparison of the degrees of the truth level of attributes created using nominal and ordinal scales

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{ }
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{ }
0.33 0.56 0.11 0.33 0.67 0.11
{}

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site
APLIKACE FORMÁLNÍ KONCEPTUÁLNÍ
ANALÝZY A DŮLEŽITOST VÝBĚRU ŠKÁLY
PŘI HODNOCENÍ DAT O POHYBOVÉ AKTIVITĚ
VE VZTAHU K BODY MASS INDEXU
(Souhrn anglického textu)
VÝCHODISKA: Nenahraditelnost pohybové aktivity
(PA) ke zdravému a pohybově aktivnímu životnímu stylu
je široce akceptována a zdůrazňována. Stále se však hle-
dá zdravotně optimální míra její každodenní realizace
a způsob její přesné kvantifikace a srozumitelné inter-
pretace. Možným prostředkem k vyhodnocování a inter-
pretaci úrovně prováděné PA a jejího vztahu k osobním
datům je Formální konceptuální analýza (FCA).
CÍLE: Hlavním cílem této studie je představit meto-
du Formální konceptuální analýzy na vyhodnocení kon-
krétního příkladu dat z ANEWS dotazníku a denního
počtu kroků z pedometru Yamax. Dílčím cílem je pak
poukázat na správný výběr škály při jejím používání.
METODIKA: Metoda FCA je představena na datech
z ANEWS dotazníku a denního počtu kroků z pedomet-
ru Yamax SW-701 u randomizovaného souboru 18–69le-
tých mužů (n = 273) z České republiky.
VÝSLEDKY: Při použití různých druhů škály (no-
minální nebo ordinální) zjišťujeme odlišné skupinové
výsledky. V případě denního počtu kroků je vhodnější
zvolit ordinální škálu, neboť vytváříme atributy, které
lze seřazovat (např. nižší počet kroků je současně počet
nedostatečný).
ZÁVĚRY: Volba hrubší škály vede k jednoduššímu
svazu s možností komplexnějšího pohledu na sledované
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
atributy. Naproti tomu postupné zjemňování škály vede
ke složitějším svazům a tedy náročnější analýze, získá-
váme však podrobnější výsledky. Formální konceptuální
analýza klade vyšší nároky na odbornost uživatele (vý-
zkumníka) než „klasická“ testovací statistika, umožňuje
však plastičtější vhled do zkoumané problematiky.
Klíčová slova: nominální a ordinální škála, fuzzy, agrego-
vaný objekt, svaz, kroky, muži.
Mgr. Erik Sigmund, Ph.D.
Palacký University
Faculty of Physical Culture
tř. Míru 115
771 11 Olomouc
Czech Republic
Education and previous work experience
Erik Sigmund is a research worker of Center for Ki-
nanthropology Research at Faculty of Physical Culture
in Palacký University, Olomouc.
He graduated in Mathematics and Physical Educa-
tion high school teacher from Palacký University (Czech
Republic) and obtained his Mgr. in 1997. In the field
of Kianthropology he obtained Ph.D. in Department
of Kinanthropology from Palacký University (Czech
Republic).
E. Sigmund’s scientific interests are in the fields of
human movement, environment for physical activity,
physical activity programmes for children, data anal-
ysis and formal concept analysis. Dr. Sigmund was a
main investigator and coinvestigator of university and
state grants in these fields. He published 1 monographs
(“Physical activity of children and their integration us-
ing sixty movement games”, Hanex) and over 90 pa-
pers in conference proceedings and journals including
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, European
Journal of Public Health, Journal of Human Kinetics,
Exercise of Society Journal of Sport Science, Human
Kinetics, Kinesiologia Slovenica, Svensk Indrottsforskn-
ing. Erik Sigmund is a member of ACSM and EUPHA.
First-line publications
Sigmund, E., Croix, D. S. M., Miklánková, L., & Frömel,
K. (2007). Physical activity patterns of kindergar-
ten children in comparison to teenagers and young
adults. European Journal of Public Health, 17(6),
646–651.
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., Formánková, S., Ludva, P., &
Klimtová, H. (2005). Activity preferences in girls
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 51

and boys aged 10–14 from Moravia region. Human Bělohlávek, R., Sigmund, E., & Zacpal, J. (in press).
Kinetics, 13(1), 95–105. Evaluation of IPAQ questionnaires supported by
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., Klimtová, H., & Tomik, R. formal concept analysis. Information Sciences.
(2000). Structure and level of physical in children
aged 11–12 divided according to the body weight.
Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica,
30(1), 25–31.
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., & Neuls, F. (2005). Physical
activity of children and youth: Evaluation guidelines
from the viewpoint of health support. Acta Universita-
tis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 35(2), 59–68.
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., Neuls, F., Skalik, K., & Grof-
fik, D. (2002). Inactivity in life style of adolescent
girls classified according to the level of their body
weight. Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis.
Gymnica, 32(1), 17–25.
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., & Sallis, J. F. (2007). The re-
liability of the long and short IPAQ forms in Czech
youth aged 15–24y [Abstract]. Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise, 39(Suppl. 5), 191.
Sigmund, E., Frömel, K., Sigmundová, D., & Sallis, J.
F. (2006). Age and gender patterns of physical ac-
tivity: The contributions of physical education and
organized physical activity. Kinesiologia Slovenica,
12(1), 63–74.
Sigmund, E., Másilka, D., Sigmundová, D., Frömel, K.,
& Novák, M. (2005). The effect of interventional
physical activity of residential camps in nature on
the habitual physical activity of females and males.
Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica,
35(1), 43–51.
Sigmund, E., Mitáš, J., Sigmundová, D., Frömel, K., Ho-
rák, S., Zacpal, J., Nykodým, J., Šebrle, Z., Řepka, P.,
Feltlová, D., Suchomel, A., Mičan, O., Klobouk, T.,
Lukavská, M., & Bláha, L. (2008). The use of formal
concept analysis in evaluation of the relationship be-
tween the environment and physical activity of the
residents in Czech regional cities. Acta Universitatis
Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 38(2), 65–74.
Sigmund, E., Sigmundová, D., & El Ansari, W. (2009).
Changes in physical activity in preschoolers and first
grade children: Longitudinal study in the Czech Re-
public. Child: Care, Health & Development, 35(3),
376–382.
Sigmund, E., Vašendová, J., Neuls, F., Frömel, K., &
Skalik, K. (2000). Correlates of physical activity in
11–12 years old children. Acta Universitatis Palacki-
anae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 30(2), 51–58.
Sigmund, E., Zacpal, J., Sigmundová, D., Mitáš, J.,
Sklenář, V., Bělohlávek, R., & Frömel, K. (2007).
Vyhodnocení IPAQ dotazníků pomocí Formální
konceptuální analýzy. Studia Kinanthropologica,
8(1), 7–16.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 53

COORDINATION SKILLS IN 9 TO 11 YEARS OLD PUPILS AT PRACTICAL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN RELATIONSHIP TO THEIR DEGREE
OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

Alena Lejčarová

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Submitted in October, 2009

BACKGROUND: The degree of pupils’ intellectual disability is regarded as the fundamental criterion for a neces-
sary internal differentiation in the physical education teaching process at practical elementary schools. Up to now,
children with intellectual disability, or pupils at practical elementary schools, have not received, in this regard, so much
attention, neither in the area of research nor in the teaching process.
OBJECTIVE: The aim of the conducted study was to identify the level of selected coordination skills in 153 9 to
11 years old pupils at practical elementary schools in Prague in relationship to their degree of intellectual disability.
METHODS: Seven tests of coordination skills (rhythmical, balance, kinaesthetic differential, alteration, and as-
sociative) were used to assess the level of coordination skills in these children.
RESULTS: Substantive significant differences (using Cohen’s d index) were proven, with an almost absolute defi-
niteness, between pupils having their intellectual abilities in the lower boundary area of mild intellectual disability, and
those whose intellectual abilities are in the upper boundary area of mild intellectual disability, and further between
these and the others (profound intellectual substandard, mild intellectual substandard, average intellectual abilities –
lower average). From the point of view of the average values of performance parameters, a direct relationship with
the degree of intellectual disability can be observed – the former decreases as the latter increases. However, the best
test score was surprisingly achieved by pupils with a slightly below average intellect and not by pupils with the highest
level of intellectual abilities.
CONCLUSIONS: Different results of practical elementary school pupils’ motor tests are causally dependent not
only on the level of intellectual disability, but on its aetiology, too. They are also influenced by particular characteristics
of pupils’ personalities (including motivation) and by the environment they live in.

Keywords: Intellectual abilities, special schools, mental retardation.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most demanding categories of children
in the field of special needs education has always been
children with intellectual disability (ID), who have often
been systematically overlooked in areas of care owing
to their specificity. On a world scale, the incidence of
individuals with ID is estimated at 2–3% of the total
population. The biggest proportion of this category
(approx. 80–90%) consists of children with mild ID
(IQ 69–50), who, as a rule, spend their legally required
school years in practical elementary schools (special
schools) (Kysučan, 1990; Gaži, 1991; Krejčířová, 1995;
Langer, 1996; Valenta & Krejčířová, 1997; Švarcová,
2000; Müller, 2001; Teplá, 2003; Valenta & Müller,
2007; Černá et al., 2008).
Although these institutions are primarily designed
to educate children with this degree of intellectual dis-
ability, in recent years in particular we have encountered
pupils here whose reasoning abilities fall into the intel-
lectual below average band, or possibly even intellectual
average, who, for some reason, did not make progress
at ordinary elementary schools. At these schools there
may be individuals with mental and emotional disorders,
with specific learning disabilities, minimal brain dys-
functions, autistic features, mutism, behavioural difficul-
ties, and sometimes a multihandicap (epilepsy, sensory
impairment, endocrinological disorders, speech disor-
ders, motor or somatic disorders et al.) (Plášková, 1991;
Řáda, 1993; Pavličková, 2000); a considerable number
come from an unstimulating socio-cultural environment
(especially Romanies) (Balvín et al., 1997). Children
come to these schools from different environments –
directly from the family, from a special kindergarten,
from an ordinary kindergarten, or from an elementary
school. There are almost 20% more boys than girls in
these schools (Semerádová, 2001; Šmídová, Janoušková,
& Katrňák, 2008).
In view of the considerable heterogeneity of pupils
in terms of their mental development, age and sex, mo-
tor abilities, emotional factors, motivation, concomi-
tant defects, socio-cultural background, etc., teaching
54
physical education to one class can be highly demand-
ing for a special needs teacher (Karásková, 1994). We
therefore regard it as essential in the teaching process to
make allowances for an internal differentiation process
that would lead to a more effective management of the
teaching unit and would also enable individualisation
according to pupils’ special needs and capabilities. Be-
sides the aetiology of intellectual disability, we see the
fundamental criterion in the degree of intellectual dis-
ability, on the basis of which pupils would be split into
relatively homogeneous groups with approximately the
same motor competence, which would make it possible
for the vast majority of them to achieve the set goals of
the physical education programme.
Up to now, children with mild ID, or pupils of practi-
cal elementary schools, have not received as much at-
tention in the area of motorics as they deserve. The
research done to date has concentrated mainly on test-
ing physical capacity or fitness, partly for the prevention
of health risks associated with this population group’s
predominantly hypokinetic way of life. It has focused
rather on comparing selected motor indicators of chil-
dren with mild ID and their intact peers. Comparing the
motor performance of individual categories of persons
with ID in relationship to their degree of disability is not
such a frequent subject of study; more research of this
type has been conducted among the adult or adolescent
population (Černá, 1985; Válková & Thaiszová, 1989;
De Franca Barros & Leite de Barros Neto, 1999). One
pioneering study is the work of Londeree and Johnson
(1974), who compared the standard of motor perform-
ance of individuals with average intelligence, mild ID,
moderate and severe ID aged 6–19. More recently,
Eichstaedt et al. (1991, in Eichstaedt & Lavay, 1992),
conducted an extensive study of 4,464 mentally retarded
boys and girls aged 6–20 to ascertain the differences in
the level of motor performance between groups with
mild ID, moderate ID, Down syndrome and the intact
population.
Pires Lopes and Bentes dos Santos (2002) studied
differences in the motor skills of boys and girls aged
10–14 in correlation with the degree of ID (mild ID,
moderate ID, severe ID). In research done with 207
children with mild to severe ID aged 6–15, Kusano and
Gohara (1990) compared their standard of motor coor-
dination, measured by the softest and quietest landing
of the test subjects from a height of 40 centimetres onto
a measuring board.
Coordination abilities account for just a very small
part of scientific interest and have been researched
much less than fitness – this is probably because they
are complex and less clearly defined, and also because
it is harder to find valid indicators for them. In addi-
tion, with children with mild ID (practical elementary
school pupils) we regard the development of coordina-
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
tion skills as more difficult. We believe, however, that the
priority standing of coordination skills in the structure
and development of the motor skills of these school-
children makes it necessary to identify the standard of
these skills and the change dynamics in individual stages
of ontogenesis. Contemporary civilisation increasingly
needs individuals whose excellence enables them to
keep pace with the perfection of technology and, see-
ing that the future work process of those leaving these
schools focuses mainly on manual work, a good stand-
ard of coordination skills is a precondition of their suc-
cessfully finding work.
There are not even any guideline data of this nature
in the Czech Republic and the relationship between the
degree of intellectual disability and coordination abili-
ties is a very rarely studied issue. The goal of this study
was therefore to identify the level of selected coordina-
tion abilities of practical elementary school pupils aged
9–11 years in relationship to their degree of intellectual
disability.
METHOD
Participants
The research sample consisted of 153 practical el-
ementary school pupils (61 girls and 92 boys) aged 9–11
years (10.62 ± 0.56 years). This involved an exhaustive
survey (it concerns a convenience sample) at those
schools that offered suitable conditions for the conduct-
ing of the research (a total of 17 out of a basic set of 24).
An attempt was made to contact the school principals
and parents or primary caregivers of these children to
explain the project and request consent.
Based on the data acquired from the content analy-
sis of pedagogical-psychological documentation, pupils
were divided into five groups1 according to the quantita-
tive standard of their intellectual abilities:
• Group A: lower boundary of mild ID (IQ 50–59) –
11 pupils (54.5% girls and 45.5% boys).
• Group B: upper boundary of mild ID (IQ 60–69) –
31 pupils (35.5% girls and 64.5% boys).
• Group C: profound intellectual substandard (IQ
70–79) – 61 pupils (45.9% girls and 54.1% boys).
• Group D: mild intellectual substandard (IQ 80–89)
– 36 pupils (38.9% girls and 61.1% boys).
• Group E: average intellectual abilities – lower aver-
age (IQ 90–100) – 14 pupils (14.3% girls and 85.7%
boys).
Because the fundamental criterion for the research
project’s comparative objective was the standard of in-
tellectual ability and not a comparison with a certain
1 
The given categories are merely an artificial division of a com-
plex continuity and cannot be defined with absolute precision.
The IQ values given in brackets are merely guideline.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
norm, and because the groups were relatively balanced
in terms of sex and age (with the exception of the
uneven composition of Group E in terms of sex and
Group D in terms of age), we do not consider viewing
the groups as a whole, i.e. irrespective of medical history
indicators, as too much of an error.
Instruments
During testing, a whole series of methodological
problems are created by the basic characteristics of
practical elementary schoolchildren/particularly chil-
dren with mild ID. The motor tests must be at the op-
timal level of difficulty and must not take up too much
time if they are to possess any validity, and their content,
i.e. the individual tasks, must be absolutely clear and
comprehensible to the children and must not arouse
fear, e.g. of heights, fear of apparatus, etc. Moreover,
selecting appropriate tests is highly fundamental ow-
ing to the need to make allowances for the aspect of
the standard of motor skill that is required to perform
a specific movement task.
The following tests (for their description see the Ap-
pendix) were used to assess the level of pupils’ coordina-
tion skills (Měkota, 1979):
1. Non rhythmic drumming (test of rhythmic ability).
2. Asynchronous and asymmetrical arm movements (the
criterion for coping with the movement task is the
ability to adapt movement to altered conditions).
3. One leg standing endurance test with eyes closed (test
of motor balance).
4. Jump over a skipping rope (the criterion for coping
with the movement task is the complexity of move-
ment).
5. Routine with rod (test of the ability to deal with spa-
tial and temporal structure of movement in com-
bination, i.e. a test of dexterity – the criterion for
managing the movement task is speed of movement).
6. Backward long jump (test of the ability to deal with
a combination of spatial movement structures, i.e.
a test of dexterity – the criterion for managing the
movement task is speed of movement).
7. Jump onto a target (test of kinaesthetic differential
ability – the criterion for coping with the movement
tasks is precision of movement).
Data collection
Before each motor test the children were given pre-
cise instructions and told the applicable rules. In view
of their insufficient ability to concentrate and a lower
standard of comprehension among practical elementary
schoolchildren, often linked to problems in understand-
ing oral instructions, it was necessary to aid their com-
prehension of a specific task with a visual demonstration
by the examiner herself, sometimes in the form of im-
agery, in some cases by tactile assistance.
55
The testing took place in school classrooms and in
gyms where physical education is taught at a particular
school, i.e. in conditions the test subjects were very fa-
miliar with and used to. During the testing, the basic
objective conditions were always complied with. The
testing process was not significantly disrupted, e.g. by
ambient noise, the presence of unauthorised persons,
etc. The test subjects were sufficiently motivated by the
examiner (the author of this paper) to perform the mo-
tor exercises and duly encouraged during testing – they
were kept informed of the “record” scores in each test.
That often generated a genuine atmosphere of striving
for the best result, with the children encouraging each
other. Overall, the testing took place in a positive atmos-
phere – the pupils were interested and involved and, for
the most part, cooperated well with the examiner. No
signs of boredom were registered, which can definitely
be ascribed to the diverse range of motor tests and the
novelty effect. The new, appropriately presented event,
devoid of the monotony, tedium and lack of creativity
that typify physical education classes at practical el-
ementary schools, and the presence of a new person
– the examiner – encouraged the children to be active.
Before the specific motor tests were performed, the
children were always given sufficient time to familiarise
themselves with them and in some cases practise them.
The examiner used all these measures to create the
kind of environment that would reduce any anxiety
the testing might have aroused in the test subjects and
would thus, to some extent, enable them to render the
best possible performance.
Because of the increased propensity to fatigue
among practical elementary schoolchildren, there were
breaks during the testing to allow the children to rest,
go to the toilet or take refreshment.
Procedure
The following basic descriptive statistical parameters
were used to assess the standard and consistency of per-
formances in individual motor tests: arithmetic mean
(M), median (Me), standard deviation (SD). The sub-
stantive significance of differences in average perform-
ances was assessed using Cohen’s d index (effect size).
This index operates with conventional values, which
make it easier to determine when a difference is large,
or the relative substantive significance of the difference
in performance averages (Kromrey et al., 2007). When
judging substantive significance, we worked on the sole
basis of the mean of the scores of participants who had
completed a given motor task.
RESULTS
A clearly proven substantively significant difference
between group A and all other groups, with group A
56 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

TABLE 1
Assessment of substantive significance (effect size) of the difference in motor test results between individual groups
of pupils differentiated according to the degree of intellectual ability

One leg
Substantive Non rhythmic Asyn. arm Jump over Routine Backward Jump onto
Groups standing
significance drumming movements skip. rope with rod long jump a target
balance
Difference medium small small medium large medium small
A–B
d 0.68 0.07 0.00 0.73 0.91 0.76 0.49
Difference large large large large large large large
A–C
d 1.69 0.94 1.11 1.66 1.22 2.08 1.19
Difference large large large large large large large
A–D
d 2.39 1.15 1.28 2.37 1.18 3.16 0.94
Difference large medium large large large large large
A–E
d 2.34 0.65 0.88 1.44 1.37 2.07 1.98
Difference large large large medium small large small
B–C
d 1.06 0.84 1.06 0.57 0.46 1.02 0.30
Difference large large large large small large small
B–D
d 1.69 1.01 1.23 1.18 0.49 1.76 0.26
Difference large medium large medium medium large medium
B–E
d 1.67 0.61 0.85 0.71 0.56 1.24 0.67
Difference small small small medium small medium small
C–D
d 0.49 0.30 0.40 0.66 0.08 0.68 0.01
Difference medium small small small small small medium
C–E
d 0.52 0.09 0.15 0.28 0.06 0.44 0.50
Difference small small small small small small small
D–E
d 0.05 0.31 0.16 0.27 0.04 0.05 0.36

achieving worse results, was found in the observed mo-
tor indicators (the exception is the result of the asyn-
chronous and asymmetric arm movements test, where the
substantive difference between groups A and B is very
small). The same tendency is evident when the scores
of group B are compared with the others; only the dif-
ference in scores in the jump onto a target test between
groups B and E is not so significant (TABLE 1). By
contrast, the scores achieved by groups C and D, C and
E, and D and E were not significantly different, with the
exception of the results of the jump over a skipping rope
and backward long jump tests when comparing groups C
and D and in the non rhythmic drumming and jump onto
a target tests when comparing groups C and E.
In summary, the best results in the selected coordi-
nation skills tests were achieved by group D, whereas
group A displayed the lowest standard of motor per-
formance. TABLE 2 gives a detailed overview of the
each group’s scores.
From the point of view of the consistency of per-
formance on individual motor tests, the most homogene-
ous group is group A, while group E is characterised by
a large inter-individual dispersion. It is worth mention-
ing the value of the standard deviation with the perform-
ances of all groups in the jump over a skipping rope test,
which is greater than the value of the arithmetic mean –
this is proof of the asymmetry of the distribution of
test scores, whereby the most successfully pupils (who
managed five jumps) deviate very significantly from the
mean.
Overall, one can observe a certain relationship be-
tween intellect and the motorics of practical elementary
school pupils – as intellectual level decreases, so does
the standard of motor performance (TABLE 2). How-
ever, group E’s results were unexpected – in all motor
indicators under scrutiny (with the exception of per-
formance in the non rhythmic drumming and jump onto
a target tests) this group demonstrated a lower perform-
ance relative to group D (in terms of the arithmetic
mean of scores), and in the asynchronous and asymmet-
ric arm movements test this even applies relative to group
C. This circumstance can be explained by, among other
things, the small size of group E and the large inter-
individual dispersion of scores of individual participants
and also by the fact that the selected scale of intellectual
ability ratings is too fine and the transition between cat-
egories is very fluid. Another factor may be that these
pupils were placed in the special needs schooling system
for non intellectual reasons, such as a lack of motiva-
tion or even demotivation vis-à-vis school and school
duties, health differences, anxiety, neuroticism, and so
forth, which may have been reflected in their approach
to the testing.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 57

TABLE 2
Basic statistical characteristics of scores in motor tests for individual groups of pupils, differentiated according to the
degree of intellectual ability

One leg
Non rhytmic Asyn. arm Jump over Routine with Backward Jump onto
Motor test standing
drumming movements skip. rope rod long jump a target
balance
n 11 6 11 11 8 11 11
M 1.59 95.83 7.55 0 41.97 24.36 33.05
Group A
SD 1.27 44.45 5.77 0 12.28 8.58 10.92
Me 1.75 82 8 0 37.2 25 33
n 31 25 31 31 23 31 31
M 2.50 99.52 7.55 0.42 32.21 33.32 25.48
Group B
SD 1.39 63.40 6.44 1.15 9.18 15.08 23.41
Me 2.25 88# 6# 0# 31 36 17#
n 61 58 61 61 57 61 61
M 4.19 59.10 15.30 1.13 27.5 48.44 19.18
Group C
SD 1.81 33.29 8.21 1.36 11.46 14.57 12.39
Me 4.25 54# 13# 1# 25.78# 48 19.5#
n 36 35 36 36 36 36 36
M 5.03 48.26 19.49 2.19 26.49 57.61 19.01
Group D
SD 1.61 38.24 12.94 1.85 13.95 12.48 18.94
Me 5 38# 15# 2# 23.71# 57 14#
n 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
M 5.11 63.14 17.18 1.64 26.91 56.71 14.25
Group E
SD 1.74 56.32 16.09 2.27 9.63 22.7 7.35
Me 5 42.5# 11.5# 0 24.9 52.5# 14.25

Legend:
#
– abnormal distribution of data
n – number of pupils who successfully perform the test
M – mean
SD – standard deviation
Me – median
1
M, SD, Me are given in number of cycles
2
M, SD, Me are given in seconds
3
M, SD, Me are given in the numbers of performances
4
M, SD, Me are given in centimetres

DISCUSSION among pupils of practical elementary schools and can

Unfortunately, we cannot compare this data with any
available research scrutinising the same age category,
with a similar structure of intellectual disability and us-
ing at least similar diagnostic tools to assess motor abili-
ties. We can draw some guidance from the pioneering
work of Londeree and Johnson (1974), whose compari-
son of the level of the physical capability of 6–19 year
old individuals with average intelligence, mild ID and
moderate to profound ID confirmed that performance
in motor tests falls with a rising degree of intellectual
disability. The same conclusions were reached by Eich-
staedt et al. (1991, in Eichstaedt & Lavay, 1992) in an
extensive survey of 4,464 mentally retarded individuals
aged 6–20.
The selected motor tests proved to be suitable tools
for measuring the standard of motor performance
be used in this form in other field studies as well. The
choice of diagnostic tools must always respect the fact
that the difficulty of the movement task must generally
be such that even the “weakest” test subject can com-
plete the task and at the same time it presents a chal-
lenge even for the most proficient test subject (Měkota
& Novosad, 2005); that is almost impossible with
a group as heterogeneous as the pupils of practical el-
ementary schools, however.
In the following part of the discussion we look more
closely at pupils’ difficulties in performing certain tests
and the factors that could affect their performances.
The ability to perform the rhythmic routine in the
non rhythmic drumming, i.e. the accuracy and speed at
which a new, rhythmically demanding movement struc-
ture could be managed, was very high in certain pupils
(mainly from group E) – they assimilated the routine
58
quickly and were able to reproduce it without error and
rapidly. In contrast, other schoolchildren (mainly from
groups A and B) had considerable difficulties remem-
bering the movement structure and would, for example,
leave out part of the routine or proceed very slowly, etc.
Reconstruction ability, which was rated by the asyn-
chronous and asymmetric arm movements test, lies to
a great extent in the speed and accuracy of perception
and also in the ability to anticipate change. In this case,
the test subjects’ experience plays a big role (Měkota
& Novosad, 2005) – the population under scrutiny has
less experience in this regard. Of the schoolchildren,
10% completely failed to master the movement task. The
complexity of this exercise, consisting in adapting or
reconstructing movements according to changing condi-
tions (instructions), was highly demanding for the test
subjects. The change concerned the shift in the tim-
ing of individual movements. Internal conditions also
changed during the activity as a result of the increased
fatigue of the majority of children (especially in groups
A and B). Bauer, Pellens and Van der Schoot (1981) em-
phasise that the test subjects’ previous experiences and
the degree of complexity of the task play a major role
in performance in balance skills tests (in this research
project this was the one leg standing endurance with eyes
closed test) – the differences in performance between
children with mild ID and intact children are not so
marked in tests with a lower degree of complexity as in
tests with a high degree of complexity. When seeking to
ascertain the standard of static balance ability, which
Tóth, Sipos and Bognár (2004) regard as one of the
most important signs of psychomotoric development,
we observed that the children had very considerable
difficulties holding a fixed body position for even a few
seconds. The elimination of visual control made the
task enormously more difficult again; they were unable
to change the tonus of their muscle groups or make
subtle compensatory movements of various parts of the
body to make rapid corrections to even minor variations
in the given position. Kiphard (1990) associates these
insufficient correction movements when maintaining
balance with a general lack of delicate motoric control.
The assessment of balance abilities is almost the
only one of the set of coordination skills that has re-
ceived significant attention in research studies looking
at children with mild ID. In research by Brandt et al.
(1997), pupils at special schools achieved roughly half
the standard of performance of intact children in a static
balance test – to some extent this tallies with the results
of this research. Kokobun and Koike (1995) studied the
performance of children and adults with ID (from mild
to severe) in dynamic balance (walking along a balance
beam) and in static balance (standing on one leg with
eyes open), correlated to the influence of four factors:
chronological age, mental age, clinical type, and the age
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
when the person started walking. Overall, these abilities
develop with increasing chronological and also mental
age – mental age is a stronger factor in static balance
than dynamic balance. Children who started to walk at
a younger age attain higher scores in balance tests than
those who started to walk at a later age. The authors
add that the belated development of motor reflexes may
be one of the reasons for the poor standard of balance
skills in individuals with ID.
On the other hand, Eichstaedt and Lavay (1992)
regard the low standard of strength of the legs as one of
the potential causes of poor performance in standing on
the non dominant leg.
As expected, jump over a skipping rope caused most
of the children particularly serious difficulties; the high-
est failure rate of all the selected tests was recorded
here – a full 55% of the sample scored zero, and a large
number of these were not able to spring with their legs
together or land with their legs together. Besides whole
body coordination and explosive power in the legs, cour-
age also played a certain part in performance in this test,
especially among children with anxiety problems and
with low aspirations and diminished self confidence.
Besides dexterity, motoric memory also influences
performance in the routine with rod test; the individual
parts of the routine were less customary for the chil-
dren and thus placed greater demands on their cognitive
functions. We observed a considerable increase in the
effect of sensomotoric learning, which was reflected in
a relatively big difference in achieved times between the
1st and 3rd attempts, and in some cases the 1st and 2nd
attempts. In girls of younger school age, Kostadinovová
(1992) found that the movement task represented by
this test involved both the overall level of intelligence
and the ability to focus attention. In our opinion, this
movement task was the best received by the children.
One reason was certainly that it was associated with
a subjectively experienced feeling of success, manifested
in an entirely obvious intra-individual improvement in
performance with each new attempt, and with the piece
of equipment, which, as the children’s reactions indi-
cated, are not used often in physical education lessons
at practical elementary schools.
The kinaesthetic differential abilities tested by jump
onto a target are used to control movements in time,
space and dynamics that make it possible to achieve
a high degree of accuracy and the delicate interplay of
individual movement phases and overall movement.
This complex activity functions via perception, as the
basic precondition of this ability and differentiation as
its creative application. The standard of both perception
and differentiation falls with falling intelligence – we
could observe this in the different test scores achieved
by children differentiated by their degree of intellectual
disability. A fundamental part of this task consists in
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
motoric memory and the test subjects’ movement expe-
rience, which is linked to the perception of the subtest
differences in the performance of movement and its
comparison with the previous attempt. Both factors
are of a lower standard in the population under scru-
tiny than among the intact child population. Graunke
and Schmidt (1983) also mention that pupils of special
schools/children with mild ID tend to fail at movement
tasks requiring fine dexterity in the sense of the measur-
ing of exact impulses, the precise gauging of strength or
direction and precision of movement.
Assessing the pupils’ motor performance solely on
the basis of the value of their performances in specific
tests does not reveal the internal and external factors
which the performance is dependent on and which,
moreover, have different valences in different children
as a consequence of their individual differences. The
reasons for the identified standard of the motor per-
formance of children in the individual groups are as
multifarious as the reasons for their disability and are
often partly identical to them. As there are usually sev-
eral factors at work here, shortcomings in the children’s
motor abilities can only rarely be ascribed categorically
to one specific reason.
These research results highlight the urgent need to
devote adequate attention to the motorics of practical
elementary schoolchildren. In particular, the motoric
shortcomings identified in children with the most pro-
found intellectual disability may be considered a barrier
to their mobility training when instilling basic work and
life habits, and consequently in social adaptation, or in-
tegration; there is no doubt, however, that they too have
sufficient prerequisites for development of their motor
abilities, within the context of their disability.
The emphasis in educational work should therefore
be placed not only on practical activity and assimilation
of the practical skills necessary for involving these chil-
dren in the ordinary life of society, on manual dexterity
and work habits; emphasis should also be placed on
the overall development of motorics in physical educa-
tion. As a final point, we would like to point out that
children’s motor abilities are not the only precondition
of movement activity in an occupation or sport; success
in these areas is also conditional on prerequisites such
as constitution, personality qualities and performance
motivation.
CONCLUSIONS
Practical elementary school pupils differ in the level
of coordination skills with respect to their intellectual
disability level. Significant differences were proved, with
an almost absolute definiteness, between pupils having
their intellectual abilities in the lower boundary area of
59
mild ID (group A), and the others except those, whose
intellectual abilities are in the upper boundary area of
mild ID (group B), and further between group B and
the others. As concerns motor result average values,
a direct interrelation with the intellectual disability level
can be observed – they drop with its increase. The best
test scores (save rhythmical and kinaesthetic differential
abilities) were surprisingly registered in pupils with mild
intellectual substandard, not in pupils with the highest
intellectual ability level. This can be explained by their
small sample; health problems, anxiety, neuroticism, or
perhaps demotivation at school could have influenced
the results in the negative way as well.
The study was supported by grant from Czech Minis-
try of Education, Youth and Sports, MSM 0021620864.
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in 10–15 years old school children. In V. Klisouras,
S. Kellis, & I. Mouratidis (Eds.), Pre-Olympic Con-
gress 2004: Proceedings. Volume II. (pp. 193–194).
Thessaloniki: Aristotle University.
Valenta, M., & Krejčířová, O. (1997). Psychopedie: ka-
pitoly z didaktiky mentálně retardovaných. Olomouc:
Netopejr.
Valenta, M., & Müller, O. (2007). Psychopedie: teoretické
základy a metodika. Praha: Parta.
Válková, H., & Thaiszová, V. (1989). A contribution
to the motor abilities of mentally subnormal popu-
lation. Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis.
Gymnica, 19, 97–119.
ÚROVEŇ VYBRANÝCH KOORDINAČNÍCH
SCHOPNOSTÍ 9–11LETÝCH ŽÁKŮ
ZÁKLADNÍCH ŠKOL PRAKTICKÝCH
V ZÁVISLOSTI NA STUPNI JEJICH
MENTÁLNÍHO POSTIŽENÍ
(Souhrn anglického textu)
VÝCHODISKA: Za jedno z hlavních kritérií ne-
zbytné vnitřní diferenciace tělovýchovného procesu
na základních školách praktických je považován stu-
peň mentálního postižení žáků. Doposud však dětem
s mentálním postižením, resp. žákům základních škol
praktických nebyl v tomto ohledu věnován dostatek po-
zornosti jak v oblasti výzkumného bádání, tak v tělový-
chovné praxi.
CÍLE: Cílem realizované studie bylo zjistit úroveň
vybraných koordinačních schopností 153 žáků (ve věku
9–11 let) na základních školách praktických v Praze
s ohledem na stupeň jejich mentálního postižení.
METODIKA: K posouzení úrovně vybraných koor-
dinačních schopností bylo použito sedm motorických
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
testů (rytmické, rovnováhové, kinesteticko-diferenciační
schopnosti, schopnosti přestavby a sdružování).
VÝSLEDKY: Téměř naprosto jednoznačně byly
věcně významné rozdíly (užitím Cohenova koeficientu
d) prokázány mezi žáky s intelektovými schopnostmi
v oblasti dolní hranice lehkého mentálního postižení
a ostatními s výjimkou těch, jejichž intelektové schop-
nosti se pohybují na horní hranici lehkého mentálního
postižení, a dále mezi těmito žáky a ostatními (hluboký
intelektový podprůměr, lehký intelektový podprůměr,
průměrné intelektové schopnosti – nižší průměr).
Z hlediska průměrných hodnot motorických výkonů
lze sledovat jejich přímou vazbu k míře mentálního po-
stižení – klesají s jejím růstem. Nejlepší testová skóre
byla překvapivě zaregistrována u žáků s lehkým intelek-
tovým podprůměrem, a nikoliv u žáků s nejvyšší úrovní
intelektových schopností.
ZÁVĚRY: Rozdílné výsledky v motorických testech
žáků základních škol praktických nejsou ryze kauzál-
ně závislé pouze na stupni mentálního postižení, ale
i na jeho etiologii. Rovněž je ovlivňují i specifika osob-
nosti žáků (včetně schopnosti motivace) a podmínky
prostředí, v němž se pohybují.
Klíčová slova: intelektové schopnosti, speciální školy, men-
tální retardace.
Mgr. et Mgr. Alena Lejčarová, Ph.D.
Charles University
Faculty of Physical Education
and Sport
José Martího 31
162 52 Praha 6
Czech Republic
Education and previous work experience
2001–2004 – Ph.D. study program at Charles University
in Prague, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport,
Prague, Czech Republic.
2001–2007 – Charles University in Prague, Faculty of
Education, Mgr. study program Special Pedagogy.
1997–2001 – Charles University in Prague, Faculty of
Physical Education and Sport, Mgr. study program
Physical Education and Sport.
2007–2008 – special educator at Prague special school
for pupils with intellectual disability.
2005 – assistant at Department of Pedagogy, Psychology
and Didactics of Physical Education and Sport, Charles
University in Prague, Faculty of Physical Education and
Sport.
61
First-line publications
Lejčarová, A. (2009). Motor competence of children
with intellectual disabilities and locomotion
activities in their lifestyle. In P. Slepička et al. (Eds.),
Sport and Lifestyle (pp. 82–115). Praha: Karolinum.
Lejčarová, A. (2008). Reliabilita vybraných motorických
testů aplikovaných u žáků s intelektovým postižením.
Česká kinantropologie, 12(3), 47–60.
Lejčarová, A. (2008). Motor performance of pupils
at practical elementary schools in relation to their
degree of intellectual disability. Acta Univ. Carol.
Kinanthrop., 44(1), 49–64.
Lejčarová, A. (2008). Level of selected fitness abilities
of pupils at practical elementary schools in relation
to the aetiology of their intellectual disability. Acta
Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn., 38(3), 45–54.
Lejčarová, A. (2007). Úroveň vybraných koordinačních
schopností žáků základních škol praktických v závis-
losti na etiologii jejich intelektového postižení. Česká
kinantropologie, 11(3), 61–71.
APPENDIX
Non rhythmic drumming
The test subject sits on a chair at a table and lays the
palms of his hands on the table roughly shoulder width
apart. When given the command, he “drums” with the
palms of his hands as follows – 1. he strikes the table
surface twice with his left palm; 2. he crosses his right
hand over his left and again strikes the table twice with
his right palm; 3. he touches his forehead once with his
right palm; 4. he lowers his hand and touches the table
with his right palm. The test subject repeats the cycle
of movements for a period of 20 seconds. The number
of complete and correctly performed cycles during the
specified period is recorded. The test is repeated four
times. The arithmetical average of all four attempts is
used as the result.
Asynchronous and asymmetrical arm movements
From the initial position of standing up straight
with legs together and arms at his sides the test subject
performs a three count movement, initially five times –
1. stretch arms forward, 2. stretch arms sideways, 3. low-
er arms. The test subject then does the same again,
with the difference that the left arm starts and performs
the movement one count later. The time in seconds re-
quired to perform the routine three times without error
is scored.
One-leg standing endurance test with eyes closed
The test subject stands fully on the sole of his domi-
nant leg (without footwear); he bends the non dominant
62
leg at the hip and knee, turns it outwards and rests the
sole on the inside of the knee of his standing leg; he puts
his hands on his hips and gives the timekeeper the com-
mand to start the stopwatch. The task is to keep his bal-
ance as long as possible, at most 60 seconds. The test is
repeated three times. The score is the sum of the times.
Jump over a skipping rope
The test subjects stands on the ground holding the
rope down in front of him so that the distance between
the hands is 40 cm. By springing with legs together he
jumps over the rope, landing on both feet in a stable po-
sition. He repeats the jump five times, always forwards.
The number of perfect jumps is recorded.
Routine with rod
Basic position – standing with legs slightly apart,
the test subject holds a short gymnasts’ rod horizontally
behind his legs (holding the rod at the edges). At the
command, the test subject steps or jumps over the rod
so that the pole is held flat in front of his legs. The test
subject then turns 360o the way to the left (or right),
sits down and then lies on his back, passing both legs
simultaneously over the rod, stands up and straightens
his body. (The rod is now again held flat and low be-
hind him.) The test subject again moves the rod in front
of his body by stepping or jumping over it, straightens
up and stretches his arms forward. The total time in
seconds that the test subject requires to perform the
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
prescribed routine with the rod is measured. The test
is repeated five times. The sum of the times of the sec-
ond and third attempt are recorded. The first attempt is
treated as practice.
Backward long jump
With knees bent and slightly apart, heels on the
start line feet in parallel and approximately shoulder
width apart, the test subject springs backwards, with
his legs together, as far as he can, landing again with his
legs together. Preparatory movements of the arms and
torso are permitted, but preparatory bouncing is not.
Five attempts are performed. The length of the jump
in centimetres is assessed (from the line to the front
edge of the sole of the foot that is closer to the line
upon landing). The best attempt is recorded. Accuracy
of measuring 1 cm.
Jump onto a target
Two parallel lines at the prescribed distance apart
(approx. 50% of the test subject’s height) are marked
out on the floor. The test subject’s task is to perform
a long jump with legs together from the starting line to
the target line so that upon landing the edges of both
heels are exactly on the target line. After 2 jumps with
eyes open, 2 jumps are performed with eyes closed. The
absolute deviation from the target line are measured to
an accuracy of 0.5 cm and recorded. The results of each
pair of jumps are totalled.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 63

EFFECT OF THE INTERVENTION PROGRAM “PARALYMPIC SCHOOL DAY”

ON ATTITUDES OF CHILDREN ATTENDING INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL TOWARDS
INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Georgios Xafopoulos, Martin Kudláček1, Christina Evaggelinou2

Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Catholic University, Leuven, Belgium

1
Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
2
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

Submitted in June, 2009

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect that the “Paralympic School Day” had on the at-
titudes of children attending the International school in Ostrava, Czech Republic, toward the inclusion of peers with
a disability in general physical education classes.
METHODS: Students (71, including 42 boys and 29 girls), with a mean age of 12.70 and 11.67 years respectively,
originating from 5 countries, participated in the program. All participants completed the questionnaire “Children’s
Attitude Toward Integrated Physical Education-Revised” (CAIPE-R) (Block, 1995) and the Adjective checklist (Siper-
stein, 1980) before and after the implementation of the program. The CAIPE-R questionnaire examines two areas
(subscales) – general attitudes and sport specific attitudes.
RESULTS: Results indicated significant differences only in general attitudes among girls measured by the Adjective
checklist. Other changes were non significant. Among boys there were slight non significant positive changes in the
adjective checklist (t = 0.75, p = 0.46) and in attitudes toward inclusion in PE (t = 0.61, p = 0.55) and non significant
negative changes in attitudes toward the modification of sport rules (t = –0.25, p = 0.81). Among girls we found non
significant negative changes in attitudes toward inclusion in PE (t = –0.64, p = 0.53) and non significant negative
changes were also found in attitudes toward the modification of sport rules (t = –1.26, p = 0.22).

Keywords: Inclusion, paralympic education, general physical education, adapted physical activity, disability, pupils with
special education needs.

INTRODUCTION ment (Sherrill, 2004). Inclusion is a term which express-

The inclusion of students with disabilities into gen-
eral physical education classes is a fast and growing
trend (DePauw & Doll-Tepper, 2000). Several countries
have led in the effort to implement policies which foster
inclusion. In the U. S .A. for example, most students
with disabilities (around 96%) are educated in general
education schools, and almost half spend the majority
of the school day in general education classrooms (U. S.
Department of Education, 2005). Increasingly, in Japan,
Koryu Kyoiku (i.e. interactive education) is advocated,
which means that students with and without disabilities
are educated together (Kusano & Chosokabe, 2001) In
Greece there is a new PL 3699/2008 mandating school
inclusion of all children in regular classes. In the Czech
Republic, the school law from the year 2004 guarantees
the inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream
education, but it is still common that children with dis-
abilities are excluded from physical education.
Inclusion is guided by the fundamental principle of
valuing diversity. Belonging, acceptance, and a sense of
being supported are essentials of an inclusive environ-
es commitment to educate each child, to the maximum
extent appropriate, in the school and classroom he or
she would otherwise attend. It involves bringing the
support services to the child rather than moving the
child to the services and requires only that the child
will benefit from being in the class rather than having to
“keep up” with the other students (WEAC, 2009). Inclu-
sion in physical education classes means that students
with disabilities are placed in regular physical education
programs where students with disabilities are viewed as
students who may learn and move differently from their
peers (Block, 2000).
Inclusion of students with disabilities in general
physical education classes has been the focus of grow-
ing number of studies. More recently, Block and Obrus-
nikova (2007) reviewed a ten year period from 1995 to
2005 and their findings were favorable towards inclu-
sion. However, the most prevalent barriers to including
students with disabilities are related to the attitudes of
peers toward their classmates with disabilities (Sher-
rill, 2004). Peer acceptance is not easily achieved when
students are perceived as being different (Fishbein,
64
1996). According to Sherrill (2004), physical educa-
tion teachers must find ways for these students to be
socially accepted, despite their differences from others.
Attitude is the key to changing behaviors toward people
who are different and is characterized not as a behav-
ior, but a situation which comes before it. In Planned
behavior theory (Ajzen, 1991, 2002), a central factor is
the intention to perform a behavior. Attitude, subjective
norm and perception of behavioral control, in combi-
nation, lead to the formation of a behavioral intention.
As a general rule, the more favourable the attitude and
subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control,
the stronger should be the person’s intention to perform
the behaviour. Positive attitudes can greatly influence
a positive approach toward sharing the space and ac-
tivities of children with and without disabilities as well
as a positive approach of teachers to teaching students
with disabilities (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000).
Attitudes, one’s predisposition to either approach-
ing or avoiding something, can influence the process
of inclusion. Attitudes can change and many theories
about changing attitudes have been developed over time
(Tripp & Sherrill, 1991). Sherrill (2004) indicated the
following as being the most important ones: social cog-
nitive theory, contact theory, persuasive communica-
tion theory, theory of reasoned action and theory of
planned behaviour. Attitudes can also be influenced
either positively or negatively. Research has shown that
variables that can positively affect the attitudes of chil-
dren without disabilities toward peers with disabilities
are gender differences, females are more positive than
males (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000) and pre-
vious exposure to disability such as with a friend or
family member (Block, 1995). Variables that can nega-
tively affect the attitudes of peers toward inclusion can
be associated with the competitive aspects of physical
education (Block, 1995).
UNESCO, and the International Paralympic Com-
mittee are two leading organizations worldwide working
on changing attitudes towards children with disabilities
and promote inclusion. More specifically, the Inter-
national Paralympic Committee (IPC) is the global
governing body of the paralympic movement. The IPC
organizes the summer and winter Paralympic Games
and among other things is committed to promote among
school children the Paralympic values, which include
respect for sporting achievements, acceptance of indi-
vidual differences, sport as a human right and empow-
erment and social support in sports. The process of
integrating paralympic ideals and values in a system of
education is considered by IPC’s educational committee
to be an effective pedagogical method which helps in
creating awareness and understanding towards persons
with a disability.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
During the last decades, several paralympic educa-
tion programs have been developed in collaboration
with IPC and the organizing committee of the Paral-
ympic Games. For example, the program for the At-
lanta Paralympic Games entitled “The Paralympics:
An overview of the Paralympic Games and people who
participate” or the most recent one for the London Para-
lympic Games entitled “Get set”. A more flexible and
easy to use paralympic education program, however,
was developed in 2005 by five adapted physical activ-
ity scientists teaching at different physical education
departments across Europe. The program was under
the umbrella of IPC, the European Paralympic Commit-
tee and the European Union and is called Paralympic
School Day (PSD). Its purpose is to create an awareness
and understanding of persons with disability, as well as
disability and sport related issues in school students (In-
ternational Paralympic Committee, 2006). The concept
behind the PSD is openness to flexibility and individual
creativity. In order to reach the intended goals of the
programme it is recommended to divide the PSD into
three phases – before the event, implementation and
after the event. The English version of the PSD has
been distributed in 170 national Paralympic Commit-
tees across five continents and has also been translated
into five European languages in order to easily be used
by physical and adapted physical educators teaching in
public schools. What began as the PSD concept has
turned into a highly developed educational initiative that
has been well implemented around the world. Although
the great acceptance PSD had among practitioners is
impressive, there is a small scientific evidence for its
value in changing the attitudes of school children.
Van Biesen, Busciglio and Valandewijck (2006)
examined the attitudes of 196 students aged 8 to 13
years old, from three primary Flemish schools. Three
categories of attitudes were reported – general attitudes,
attitudes concerning sports specific topics and the sum
of both general and sports – specific topics. They used
CAIPE-R before and after the implementation of the
PSD program. Results indicated that the PSD did in-
fluence the attitudes of non disabled students towards
the inclusion of students with disabilities within physi-
cal education. In the Czech Republic, Ješina, Lucas,
Kudláček, Janečka, Machová and Wittmannová (2006),
implemented the PSD program on 48 children of the
4th and 5th grade (the mean age being 10.70 years of
age) attending primary school in Olomouc. For the eval-
uation, the Czech version of CAIPE-CZ and Siperstein’s
Adjective checklist was used. Results indicated that 23
children experienced a positive change and less impact
(but still positive) was had on the rest of the children.
Similar findings were found on the second question-
naire. Finally, Panagiotou and colleagues (2008) studied
the effect that a PSD program on 178 primary school
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
children attending 5th and 6th grade in public schools
in Greece had. The experimental group received a one
day PSD program. All children answered the CAIPE-R
questionnaire twice. Results indicated significant differ-
ences in the experimental group only in general attitudes
and not in the case of sport specific related questions.
Generally the PSD program compared to general
disability programs seems to help students and youth
to understand their own values and to “adopt” a bet-
ter attitude towards peers with disabilities. Currently,
however, the PSD’s had to focus on summer sports and
not on winter sports. In addition, in all of the above
mentioned studies, students were homogeneous, coming
from a particular culture, speaking one language and
raised with similar values by their parents as well as by
significant others. Would that be true if we applied this
program to a more heterogeneous group? Has this pro-
gram the power to overcome different styles of upbring-
ing among school children and pursue its goal? The
aim of this study was to investigate if the intervention
program called PSD can have an effect on the attitudes
of International school children toward the inclusion of
peers with disabilities.
METHODS
Participants
The study was participated in by 71 children (42
boys and 29 girls), with a mean age of 11.33 (SD = 2.91)
and 11.17 (SD = 3.23) years old respectively. All children
attended the International school located in Ostrava, the
Czech Republic. More specifically, among the partici-
pants were six children from the United Kingdom, eight
from Canada, five from the USA, 31 from Korea and
21 from the Czech Republic. All participants filled out
the questionnaires twice, one week before and one week
after the implementation of the PSD program.
Instruments and data analysis
The original version of CAIPE-R, designed by Mar-
tin Block (1995), was used for the collection of the
data. This inventory is designed to assess the attitudes
of children in regular schools towards including children
with disabilities in their physical education classes. To
start with, the children will get a description of a student
with a disability, read by the investigator. Afterwards 13
statements are made, 8 regarding including a child with
disabilities in a regular physical education class and 5
regarding adaptations to a specific sport. The last 5 are
designed to measure the acceptance of modifications to
a sport. Participants will have to express their agreement
or disagreement with the statements on a 4 point Likert
scale (4 = yes, 3 = probably yes, 2 = probably no, 1 =
no). The children will have to fill in the questionnaire
65
twice, once before and once after the intervention. The
reliability measure of Cronbach alpha measurement for
attitudes toward inclusion in PE was 0.60 for boys and
0.88 for girls. The Cronbach alpha for attitudes towards
modification to sport rules was 0.70 for boys and 0.73
for girls.
The second instrument used was the Adjective
checklist (Siperstein, 1980). It is based on the assump-
tion that the choice of adjectives reveals opinions and
feelings and will assess children’s judgments of the at-
tributes of peers with disabilities. Thirty four adjectives,
seventeen positive and seventeen negative, are given.
Children will have to indicate which adjectives they as-
sociate with the child with an impairment. They can
circle as many adjectives as they want. The total score is
calculated by subtracting the number of negative adjec-
tives from the number of positive adjectives and adding
a constant of 20. A summary score below 20 indicates
a relatively negative attitude and a score above 20 is
associated with a positive attitude. We have utilized the
statistical program SPSS PC 11.5 with a paired samples
t-test with a set level of statistical significance of p being
smaller than 0.05.
Procedure
The PSD program was implemented in May 2009 in
the International school in Ostrava, the Czech Republic.
The program lasted one day and was implemented in
the school’s facilities. During this period, the same stu-
dents were involved in volunteering in the Sledge hockey
World Championship as part of their school commit-
ment along with other town schools. Thus, the PSD
program emphasized among other activities, Winter
Paralympic sports and more specifically Sledge hockey.
The 71 participants were divided into six groups of
12 students each. They alternatively rotated into six ac-
tivities: (a) Paralympic sports, (b) sledge hockey, (c)
wheelchair mobility, (d) wheelchair basketball, (e) meet
an athlete, (f) boccia. The time length of each activity
was 40 min. During the first activity students watched
the Paralympic video about summer and winter sports,
their rules, sport adaptations and sport equipment,
followed by group discussion. The second activity was
sledge hockey. Students had the opportunity to learn
about the adapted equipment used in this sport, sit on
the sledge, practice the balance and shoot to score. Dur-
ing the last ten minutes of this session, they discussed
the differences between ice hockey and sledge hockey.
The purpose of the third activity was to let the children
experience being different and move around in a differ-
ent way and become aware of problems with accessibil-
ity. During the session children worked in small groups
and practiced movements in a wheelchair. They tried to
move independently around the school and carry out lit-
tle assignments, like get to the toilet, wash their hands,
66
reach the principal’s office, etc. While doing these ac-
tivities children were stimulated to find solutions for
problems they had to face. Similarly, during the fourth
activity, students experienced how to use a wheelchair
while playing basketball. They learned basic informa-
tion about adapted equipment and skills required in
this sport as well as ways of classification. At the end
of this session, students played wheelchair basketball
against their teachers. During their stay at the fifth sta-
tion, students participated in the Paralympic sport of
boccia. Through this session the students learned basic
information and rules, became familiar with equipment,
found out what it means to be an athlete with cerebral
palsy and finally watched a demonstration of a game.
Finally, students had the opportunity to play an actual
game themselves. The final activity was to meet and
discuss all of the above with a sledge hockey athlete.
Questions like, „How did you become disabled? What
did your classmates at school think and how did they
behave? Who introduced you to sports? What is the
biggest satisfaction while you are competing?
RESULTS
The results of the CAIPE-R questionnaire are fo-
cused on two main areas – attitudes toward having
a peer with a disability in physical education class and
attitudes toward the modifications of sports rules (the
way it is written does not help the reader). In order
to explore the difference in participants’ attitudes be-
tween before and after intervention we have selected the
“paired t-test”, which showed among boys (TABLE 1)
slight non-significant positive changes in the adjective
checklist (t = 0.75, p = 0.46) and in attitudes toward
inclusion in PE (t = 0.61, p = 0.55) and non significant
TABLE 1
Paired T-test for comparison between pre and post intervention for boys (n = 4)
Adjective checklist (pre)
Adjective checklist (post)
Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE (pre)
Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE (post)
Attitude toward modification of sports rules (pre)
Attitude toward modification of sports rules (post)
Legend:
Mean = arithmetic mean
SD = standard deviation
t = value of used t-test
p value = level of statistical significance
* p < 0.05 the difference is statistically significant
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
negative changes in attitudes toward the modification of
sport rules (t = –0.25, p = 0.81).
Paired t-test among girls (TABLE 2) showed signifi-
cant positive changes in the adjective checklist (t = 2.75,
p = 0.02). In attitudes toward inclusion in PE we found
non significant negative changes (t = –0.64, p = 0.53).
Non significant negative changes were also found in at-
titudes toward the modification of sport rules (t = –1.26,
p = 0.22).
TABLES 3 and 4 display the paired samples t-test
that was performed on CAIPE-R questionnaire for each
statement, which examined attitudes toward the inclu-
sion of peers with a disability in physical education
classes and attitudes toward sport rules modifications.
The first eight statements focused on general attitudes.
In the fifth statement (Q5) the students were asked,
if he or she were playing a sport such as basketball,
would it be OK if Peter was placed on his or her team.
The scores of boys showed an increased difference after
the intervention between the pre-test and post-test on
this statement. The pre-test had a mean score of 2.76
and the post-test had a mean score 3.21. The last five
statements focused on sport rule modifications. In the
four of five last statements among boys there were slight
non-significant improvements in attitude towards sport
rules modifications.
Among girls we found slight non significant changes
in both attitude toward having a peer with a disability in
PE and their attitude toward the modification of sports
rules. An interesting finding is that girls’ opinions im-
proved in only two items (If we were playing a team
sport such as basketball, it would be OK having Peter
on my team and if Peter were in my P.E. class, I would
talk to him and be his friend), which are very general
statements not related to actual activities in physical
education.
Mean SD Gain t P value
24.38 4.74
0.57 0.75 0.46
24.95 4.74
18.31 2.83
0.26 0.61 0.55
18.57 2.61
16.43 3.17
–0.08 –0.25 0.81
16.35 3.70
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 67

TABLE 2
Paired T-test for comparison between pre and post intervention for girls (n = 29)

Mean SD Gain t P value

Adjective checklist (pre) 23.45 4.29
3.11 2.75 0.02*
Adjective checklist (post) 26.55 5.49
Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE (pre) 19.51 0.79
–0.30 –0.64 0.53
Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE (post) 19.21 0.70
Attitude toward modification of sports rules (pre) 16.00 3.43
–0.72 –1.26 0.22
Attitude toward modification of sports rules (post) 15.28 4.38

Legend:
Mean = arithmetic mean
SD = standard deviation
t = value of used t-test
p value = level of statistical significance
* p < 0.05 the difference is statistically significant

TABLE 3
Descriptive statistics in CAIPE-R questionnaire for boys (n = 42)

Statement Pretest Posttest

Mean SD Mean SD

Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE

It would be OK having Peter come to my PE class. 3.10 0.91 3.19 0.80

Because Peter cannot play sports very well, he would slow down the game for
2.14 0.84 2.07 1.05
everyone.
If we were playing a team sport such as basketball, it would be OK having Peter
2.76 1.00 3.21 0.71*
on my team.
P. E. would be fun if Peter was in my PE class. 3.14 0.87 3.17 0.76
If Peter were in my P. E. class, I would talk to him and be his friend. 3.59 0.59 3.50 0.74
If Peter were in my P. E. class, I would like to help him practice and play the games. 3.57 0.59 3.42 0.74

Attitude toward modification of sports rules

If you were playing basketball would you be willing to make a pass to Peter? 3.38 0.70 3.38 0.70
It would be OK to allow Peter to shoot at a lower basket? 3.57 0.77 3.24 0.88
If you were playing basketball and Peter was in the keyhole would you allow him to
3.17 0.96 3.19 1.02
stay longer (five seconds instead of three)?
It would be OK to allow Peter a free pass to a teammate (no one can steal the ball
2.98 0.99 3.05 1.03
from Peter)?
If you were playing basketball and Peter took hold of the ball would you help him
3.33 0.98 3.50 0.77
and co-operate so that he could make a basket (Peter is in your team)?

Legend:
Mean = arithmetic mean
SD = standard deviation
* p < 0.05 the difference is statistically significant
68 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

TABLE 4
Descriptive statistics in CAIPE-R questionnaire for girls (n = 29)

Statement Pretest Posttest

Mean SD Mean SD

Attitude toward having a peer with a disability in PE

It would be OK having Peter come to my PE class 3.41 0.95 3.31 0.97

Because Peter cannot play sports very well, he would slow down the game for
2.72 0.88 2.65 0.86
everyone.
If we were playing a team sport such as basketball, it would be OK having Peter
3.24 0.91 3.28 0.84
on my team.
P.E. would be fun if Peter was in my PE class. 3.21 0.82 3.14 0.99
If Peter were in my PE class, I would talk to him and be his friend. 3.38 0.98 3.41 0.95
If Peter were in my PE class, I would like to help him practice and play the games. 3.55 0.87 3.41 0.87

Attitude toward modification of sports rules

If you were playing basketball would you be willing to make a pass to Peter? 3.34 0.94 3.21 0.90
It would be OK to allow Peter to shoot at a lower basket? 3.41 0.90 3.10 1.04
If you were playing basketball and Peter was in the keyhole would you allow him to
3.27 0.92 3.07 1.03
stay longer (five seconds instead of three)?
It would be OK to allow Peter a free pass to a teammate (no one can steal the ball
2.59 1.15 2.72 0.96
from Peter)?
If you were playing basketball and Peter took hold of the ball would you help him
3.38 1.01 3.17 1.07
and co-operate so that he could make a basket (Peter is in your team)?

Legend:
Mean = arithmetic mean
SD = standard deviation
* p < 0.05 the difference is statistically significant

DISCUSSION Limited information, however, exists regarding the

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effect that the PSD program had on the attitudes of
International school children toward the inclusion of
peers with disabilities. The results revealed that the one
day intervention program had positively influenced the
general attitudes of these children (statistically signifi-
cant change among girls and non significant positive
change among boys), but not their sport specific at-
titudes. The attitudes towards inclusion increasingly
positively change and as a consequence more children
with disabilities are being included in physical educa-
tion classes around the world (De Pauw & Doll Tepper,
2000; Downs, 2001; Hutzler, Yaakov, Almosny, & Berg-
man, 2001). Guidelines for inclusion practice have been
delineated in many countries (Hutzler et al., 2001). In
addition, there is extensive research evidence that inclu-
sion in physical education can effectively work for the
child with a disability (Goodwin & Watkinson, 2000)
and it can work without negatively affecting peers with-
out disabilities.
implementation of specific programs on the attitudes
of peers without disabilities towards their peers with
disabilities. According to Allport (1935) a single re-
markable experience could have the power to change
attitudes. The ultimate goal of the PSD program was
to stress (cognitively, affectively and behaviorally) the
importance for respect and acceptance of individual
differences, respect for the athletic achievements of
athletes with a disability and teach children without
disabilities that persons with a disability have the right
to take part in sport. The results of the present study
revealed positive change to the general attitudes of the
participants, which is in accordance with the findings
published in recent literature. For example, Panagiotou
et al. (2008) found that the implementation of a one day
PSD programme had influenced the general attitudes
of the 5th and 6th grade of Greek students towards the
inclusion of children with disabilities in physical edu-
cation classes, but didn’t influence the sport specific
part. Similarly, Van Biesen et al. (2006) and Ješina et al.
(2006) implemented a PSD program in Belgium and the
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4
Czech Republic respectively and found changes in gen-
eral attitudes and not in sport specific attitudes. Limited
and controversial research evidence exists regarding the
benefits of planned disability awareness training on at-
titudes toward peers with disabilities. Loovis and Loovis
(1997) measured the attitudes of 430 second through
sixth grade students from two different elementary
schools (there was not a control group). The disability
awareness program consisted of disability simulations.
Females showed a statistically significant, positive at-
titude improvement after the training, while the males
showed a moderate, but not statistically significant im-
provement. On the other hand Lockhart, French and
Gench (1998) did employ a control group in their study.
Participants were 90 5th grade students who were ran-
domly selected and assigned into three sets of condi-
tions – group 1 received “cognitive empathy training”
to educate students about the etiology of orthopedic
disabilities, group 2 participated in affective empathy
training designed to allow students to experience and
feel what is like to have a disability through simulation
activities and discussions, and group 3 was the control
group that received no special empathy training. Re-
sults did not show any significant differences in attitudes
among students after training (10 days, 30 in each).
Lockhart et al. (1998) posited that limited contact with
students with physical disabilities and test sensitivity
might have influenced the results.
The implementation of the Paralympic education
programs, which were developed to serve the educa-
tion of children from the particular countries that the
Paralympic Games were held in, were also found to have
a positive effect on children’s attitudes towards integra-
tion. For example, during the 2004 Athens Paralympic
Games in Greece, an extra hour was added to the school
curriculum entitled Olympic/Paralympic education. The
manual used by teachers was the Paralympic Games
“from 1960 to 2004” which has a philosophy and practi-
cal ideas similar to the PSD. The results of two master
theses revealed that the implementation of this program
revealed positive attitude change towards the integration
of students with disabilities in physical education classes
(Kippers & Bouramas, 2003).
CONCLUSION
Findings of the research indicate that physical educa-
tion programs which include information, assimilation
games, and group discussions about disability and struc-
tured contact between those with and without disability
can play an important role in changing non disabled
children’s attitudes (Loovis & Loovis, 1997). As far
as the findings of the second part of the questionnaire
used in this study, the findings agree with the results re-
69
ported in other studies Kalyvas and Reid (2003), Pana-
giotou (2008), Van Biesen et al. (2006) and Ješina et al.
(2006), which reported that children without disabilities
didn’t agree to changing the rules of sports in order to
allow their classmates with disabilities to participate in
their physical education class. This could probably be
due to the fact that adaptations in the rules distracted
the children from high levels of competition and chal-
lenge. Future studies could study either the implementa-
tion of PSD programme lasting a few more days or the
effect that an infusion of the PSD philosophy and prac-
tice could have in the general physical education school
curriculum and not solely exist as an independent one
day program. This way children will have arithmetically
more opportunities to examine how sport rules could
be adapted within physical education in order not to
majorly affect the competitiveness of the games. In other
words, more work is needed in the cognitive component
of children without disabilities in order to solve their
dilemmas and understand how children with different
disabilities will not negatively affect the sport results of
the games played in physical education classes. Thus,
there is a need not only in the area of including students
with disabilities in general physical education classes,
but research directly associated with the physical educa-
tion curriculum in order to allow the equal participation
of students with and without disabilities. Overall the
results of this study revealed that children from differ-
ent socio-educational backgrounds attending an interna-
tional school were able to foster positive attitudes and
perceptions towards students with a disability after the
implementation of a one day PSD program.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The study has been supported by the research grant
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of
the Czech Republic (No. MSM 6198959221) “Physical
Activity and Inactivity of the Inhabitants of the Czech
Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes”.
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chová, I., & Wittmannová, J. (2006). Effect of an
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about/report/annual/osep/2003/index.html 74 100 Crete
Greece

VLIV INTERVENČNÍHO PROGRAMU Education and previous work experience

„PARALYMPIJSKÝ ŠKOLNÍ DEN“ NA POSTOJE Bachelor degree in Physical Education, Aristotle Uni-
DĚTÍ NAVŠTĚVUJÍCÍCH MEZINÁRODNÍ ŠKOLU versity of Thessaloniki.
VŮČI ZAČLENĚNÍ STUDENTŮ S POSTIŽENÍM 2009 – Erasmus Mundus Master in APA, Katholic Uni-
(Souhrn anglického textu) versity Leuven.

CÍL: Cílem této studie bylo prošetřit, jaký má „Para-

lympijský školní den“ vliv na postoje dětí navštěvujících
1. mezinárodní školu v Ostravě vůči začlenění spolužáků
s postižením do hodin tělesné výchovy.
METODY: Programu ze zúčastnili studenti z 5 zemí
(71, z toho 42 chlapců a 29 dívek) průměrného věku
12,70, respektive 11,67 let. Všichni účastníci vyplnili do-
tazník „Postoj dětí vůči integrované tělesné výchově –
revidovaná verze“ (CAIPE-R) (Block, 1995) a Adjective
checklist (Siperstein, 1980), a to před implementací
programu a po ní. Dotazník CAIPE-R zkoumá dvě ob-
lasti (subškály) – obecné postoje a postoje vztahující
se ke sportu.
VÝSLEDKY: Výsledky naznačily významné rozdí-
ly pouze v obecných postojích mezi dívkami, a to dle
výsledků v Adjective checklist. Další změny nebyly
významné. Mezi chlapci byly slabé nevýznamné pozi-
tivní změny v Adjective checklist (t = 0,75, p = 0,46)
a v postojích vůči začlenění do TV (t = 0,61, p = 0,55)
a nevýznamné negativní změny v postojích vůči přizpů-
sobení sportovních pravidel (t = –0,25, p = 0,81). Mezi
dívkami jsme zaznamenali nevýznamné negativní změny
v postojích vůči začlenění do TV (t = –0,64, p = 0,53)
a nevýznamné negativní změny byly také zaznamená-
ny v postojích vůči přizpůsobení sportovních pravidel
(t = –1,26, p = 0,22).

Klíčová slova: začlenění, paralympijská výchova, všeobecná

tělesná výchova, aplikovaná pohybová aktivita, postižení,
žáci se speciálními vzdělávacími potřebami.
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4 73

ERRATUM

Dear readers,
we have found out there was a misprint in the article cited below in one of the previous issues. It was the article:
Sigmund, E., Sigmundová, D., Mitáš, J., Chmelík, F., Vašíčková, J., & Frömel, K. (2009). Variability of selected
indicators of physical activity in a randomized sample of the Czech population between the years 2003–2006:
Results from the short and long self administered format of the IPAQ questionnaire. Acta Universitatis Palackianae
Olomucensis. Gymnica, 39(2), 23–31.
Due to a mistake of the editorial staff, an incorrect figure (Fig. 3) was published. We apologize to the authors and
readers for the mistake. The correct figure is published below.

Vážení čtenáři,
zjistili jsme, že v příspěvku v jednom z předchozích čísel se vyskytla zásadní tisková chyba. Jedná se o následující článek:
Sigmund, E., Sigmundová, D., Mitáš, J., Chmelík, F., Vašíčková, J., & Frömel, K. (2009). Variability of selected
indicators of physical activity in a randomized sample of the Czech population between the years 2003–2006:
Results from the short and long self administered format of the IPAQ questionnaire. Acta Universitatis Palackianae
Olomucensis. Gymnica, 39(2), 23–31.
V tomto příspěvku byl vinou redakce otištěn chybný obrázek (Fig. 3). Autorům příspěvku a čtenářům se tímto velice
omlouváme a níže uvádíme správný obrázek dodaný autory.

Fig. 3
Comparison of the total physical activity, walking and sitting (mean ± standard deviation) between equivalent forms
of Czech self–administered format of IPAQ – males


74 Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn. 2009, vol. 39, no. 4

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gické asociace – Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 5th edition, 2001 (viz www.apastyle.org).

Jazyk
Hlavním jazykem časopisu je angličtina. Název článku, abstrakt a klíčová slova jsou publikovány také v češtině. Všechny texty
zaslané do časopisu jsou akceptovány pouze v angličtině. Od česky mluvících autorů je vyžadováno, aby poskytli metadata článku
v angličtině i v češtině. Za autory, kteří nemluví česky, doplní českou verzi metadat redakce.

Formátování textu
Soubor příspěvku je ve formátu souboru Microsoft Word (.doc). Text má jednoduché řádkování, je zarovnaný doleva, používá
dvanáctibodový font Times New Roman a všechny ilustrace, obrázky a tabulky jsou umístěny na samostatné stránky. Maximální
povolená délka příspěvku je 15 stran celkem.

Abstrakt a klíčová slova

Doporučená délka abstraktu je 300 slov a neměla by přesáhnout 400 slov. Pokud je to možné, bude abstrakt strukturován do
následujících částí: VÝCHODISKA, CÍLE, METODIKA, VÝSLEDKY (včetně relevantní statistiky) a ZÁVĚRY. Autoři uvedou
3 až 10 klíčových slov (nepoužitých v názvu příspěvku).

Struktura příspěvku
Typický článek je strukturován následujícím způsobem: ÚVOD, METODIKA, VÝSLEDKY, DISKUZE, ZÁVĚRY, a REFERENČ-
NÍ SEZNAM. Názvy kapitol jsou napsány velkými písmeny a zarovnány doleva.

Tabulky a obrázky
Tabulky a obrázky budou umístěny na samostatných stránkách. Obrázky a ilustrace (pokud možno ve vysokém rozlišení, např.
nekomprimovaný TIFF) by měly být nahrány spolu s příspěvkem jako doplňkové soubory a názvy těchto souborů by měly obsahovat
číslo obrázku (např.: figure01.jpg, figure02.tiff). V textu umístěte nad každou tabulku a obrázek identifikaci. Identifikace je zarovnaná
doleva a sestává z popisku (např.: TABLE 1, Fig. 1) na prvním řádku a názvu tabulky nebo obrázku začínajícím na dalším řádku.

Referenční seznam
Reference jsou umístěny na konci příspěvku v abecedním pořadí a musí být v souladu s APA publikačním stylem (viz příklady na
www.gymnica.upol.cz). Pro reference nelze nikdy použít poznámky pod čarou. Pečlivě překontrolujte reference, abyste se ujistili,
že jsou správně a zařazeny pouze v případě, že jsou citovány v textu. Uvedeny mohou být pouze reference, které byly publikovány
nebo jsou přijaty k publikování. Kde je to možné, uveďte URL adresu odkazující na referenci.

Těšíme se na další spolupráci!

Doc. MUDr. Pavel Stejskal, CSc., vědecký editor

Doc. PhDr. Vlastimila Karásková, CSc., výkonný editor
Telefon: +420 585 636 357
Email: aupo@upol.cz
 ACTA
UNIVERSITATIS PALACKIANAE OLOMUCENSIS
GYMNICA

Vol. 39 No. 4

Published by Palacký University, Olomouc 2009

Preparation and arrangement before print: Mgr. Zuzana Hanelová, Iva Tezzelová, & František Chmelík
Technical Editor and graphic arrangement: RNDr. Miroslava Kouřilová

Published quarterly
MK ČR E12792

Electronic form available on address: http://www.gymnica.upol.cz

ISSN 1212-1185