5100.5 - Conrete Design PDF

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AS 5100.5:2017
Bridge design
Part 5: Concrete
AP-G51.5-17
AS 5100.5:2017
(Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
This Australian Standard® was prepared by Committee BD-090, Bridge Design. It was
approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 17 March 2017.
This Standard was published on 31 March 2017.
The following are represented on Committee BD-090:
 Australian Industry Group

 Australian Steel Institute
 Austroads
 Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
 Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand
 Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia—Cement
 Concrete Institute of Australia
 Consult Australia
 Engineers Australia
 New Zealand Heavy Engineering Research Association
 Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board
 Steel Construction New Zealand
 Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia
 Sydney Trains
This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR AS 5100.5.
Standards Australia wishes to acknowledge the participation of the expert individuals that
contributed to the development of this Standard through their representation on the
Committee and through the public comment period.
Keeping Standards up-to-date

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systems. To maintain their currency, all Standards are periodically reviewed, and new editions
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using a current Standard, which should include any amendments that may have been
published since the Standard was published.
Detailed information about Australian Standards, drafts, amendments and new projects can
be found by visiting www.standards.org.au
Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at
mail@standards.org.au, or write to Standards Australia, GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001.
AS 5100.5:2017
(Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
Australian Standard®
Bridge design
Part 5: Concrete
Originated as HB 77.5—1996.
Revised and redesignated as AS 5100.5—2004.
Second edition 2017.
Reissued incorporating Amendment No. 1 (November 2018).
COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia Limited
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher, unless otherwise permitted under the Copyright Act 1968.
Published by SAI Global Limited under licence from Standards Australia Limited, GPO Box
476, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia
ISBN 978 1 76035 718 4
AS 5100.5:2017 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design, to
supersede AS 5100.5—2004.
This Standard incorporates Amendment No. 1 (November 2018). The changes required by
the Amendment are indicated in the text by a marginal bar and amendment number against
the clause, note, table, figure or part thereof affected.
This Standard is also designated as Austroads publication AP-G51.5-17.
The objectives of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are to provide nationally acceptable
requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel and composite construction, which embody
principles that may be applied to other materials in association with relevant
Standards; and
(c) the assessment of the load capacity and rehabilitation of existing bridges.
These requirements are based on the principles of structural mechanics and knowledge of
material properties, for both the conceptual and detailed design, to achieve acceptable
probabilities that the bridge or associated structure being designed will not become unfit for
use during its design life.
The objective of this Part (AS 5100.5) is to specify requirements for the design and
construction of concrete bridges and associated structures.
Whereas earlier editions of the Bridge design series were essentially administered by the
infrastructure owners and applied to their own inventory, an increasing number of bridges
are being built under the design-construct-operate principle and being handed over to the
relevant statutory authority after several years of operation. This Standard includes clauses
intended to facilitate the specification to the designer of the functional requirements of the
owner, to ensure the long-term performance and serviceability of the bridge and associated
structure.
Significant changes to the 2004 edition of AS 5100.5 are as follows:
(a) Increase in concrete strength specified in design rules from 65 MPa to 100 MPa. This
has resulted in the review of all equations in AS 5100.5 for strength and has meant, in
some instances, modification of equations such as the rectangular stress block model
and inclusion of requirements for confinement to the core of columns.
The application of the Standard is further influenced by the ductility class of the steel
reinforcement, with some new restrictions applying to the use of Ductility Class L
reinforcement. Ductility Class N stainless steel reinforcement may now be used.
(b) Section 2 ‘Design procedures actions and loads’, has been revised to align with the
AS/NZS 1170 series, Structural design actions, and additional design check methods
for designers to consider has been included.
(c) Section 3 ‘Design properties of materials’ has been reviewed to include—
(i) new shrinkage equations, to address autogenous and drying shrinkage; and
(ii) creep calculations, to modify the creep factor by revising the k2 and k3 factors,
including the addition of environmental and humidity factors.
(d) Specification of additional severe exposure classifications and requirements for
sulfate soils introduced in Section 4 on durability.
3 AS 5100.5:2017
(e) The fire resistance criteria in Section 5 ‘Design for fire resistance’ have been
updated.
(f) Section 6 ‘Methods of structural analysis’ has been completely revised.
(g) New Section 7 ‘Strut-and-tie modelling’, which provides rules on strut-and-tie
modelling, has been added.
(h) Clause 8.2 regarding design of flexural members for shear and torsion, incorporating
the modified compression field theory.
(i) Clause 10.7.3 regarding confinement to the core of columns in Section 10 has been
significantly changed due the importance of this issue for high strength concrete.
(j) Section 11 ‘Design of walls’ has been revised to be more consistent with Section 10
‘Design of columns for strength and serviceability’.
(k) Section 13 ‘Stress development, splicing of reinforcement and coupling of tendons’
has been completely revised.
(l) New Section 16 ‘Steel fibre reinforced concrete’ has been added.
NOTE: Traditionally, the terms ‘tie’ and ‘fitment’ were used interchangeably in this Standard.
The word ‘tie’ is now used only in the strut-and-tie analysis section while the term ‘fitment’ is
used for units such as stirrups and ligatures that perform various functions, such as restraining the
longitudinal reinforcement and resisting shear.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables are deemed to be requirements

of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
AS 5100.5:2017 4
CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 APPLICATION ........................................................................................................... 8
1.3 NORMATIVE REFERENCES .................................................................................... 9
1.4 DEFINITIONS........................................................................................................... 11
1.5 NOTATION ............................................................................................................... 17
1.6 CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................................................... 29
1.7 EXISTING BRIDGES ............................................................................................... 29
1.8 DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 29
1.9 USE OF ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS OR METHODS ........................................ 30
SECTION 2 DESIGN PROCEDURES, ACTIONS AND LOADS

2.1 DESIGN PROCEDURES .......................................................................................... 31
2.2 DESIGN FOR FATIGUE .......................................................................................... 31
2.3 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH ....................................................................................... 33
2.4 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY ........................................................................... 37
2.5 ACTIONS AND COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS .................................................. 39

2.6 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY BY PROTOTYPE
TESTING................................................................................................................... 39
2.7 OTHER DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 39
SECTION 3 DESIGN PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

3.1 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE ................................................................................ 40
3.2 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCEMENT .................................................................... 47
3.3 PROPERTIES OF TENDONS ................................................................................... 49
3.4 LOSS OF PRESTRESS IN TENDONS ..................................................................... 51
3.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR NON-LINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ....... 54
SECTION 4 DESIGN FOR DURABILITY

4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 55
4.2 METHOD OF DESIGN FOR DURABILITY ............................................................ 55
4.3 EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION .............................................................................. 56
4.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE FOR EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATIONS A,
B1, B2, C1 AND C2 .................................................................................................. 58
4.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE FOR EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION U ..... 61
4.6 ABRASION ............................................................................................................... 61
4.7 FREEZING AND THAWING ................................................................................... 62
4.8 CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN AGGRESSIVE SOILS........................................... 62
4.9 CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ................................ 64
4.10 ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY (AAR)........................................................ 65
4.11 DELAYED ETTRINGITE FORMATION ................................................................. 65
4.12 EARLY AGE THERMAL CRACKING OF LARGE AND RESTRAINED
CONCRETE MEMBERS .......................................................................................... 65
4.13 RESTRICTIONS ON CHEMICAL CONTENT IN CONCRETE .............................. 66
4.14 REQUIREMENTS FOR COVER TO REINFORCING STEEL AND TENDONS .... 66
4.15 CRACKING OF CONCRETE ................................................................................... 70
4.16 PROVISIONS FOR STRAY CURRENT CORROSION ........................................... 70
5 AS 5100.5:2017
Page
SECTION 5 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 71
5.2 HYDROCARBON FIRE ........................................................................................... 71
5.3 NON-HYDROCARBON FIRE .................................................................................. 71
5.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ............................ 71
SECTION 6 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 74
6.2 LINEAR ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE CONTINUOUS
BEAMS AND FRAMED STRUCTURES ................................................................. 75
6.3 ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES INCORPORATING SECONDARY
BENDING MOMENTS ............................................................................................. 77
6.4 LINEAR ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS OF MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES .... 77
6.5 NON-LINEAR FRAME ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 78
6.6 NON-LINEAR STRESS ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 78
6.7 PLASTIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 79
6.8 ANALYSIS USING STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS ................................................... 79
SECTION 7 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING

7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 80
7.2 CONCRETE STRUTS ............................................................................................... 80

7.3 TIES .......................................................................................................................... 85
7.4 NODES ...................................................................................................................... 85
7.5 ANALYSIS OF STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS .......................................................... 86
7.6 DESIGN BASED ON STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING .......................................... 86
SECTION 8 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

8.1 STRENGTH OF BEAMS IN BENDING ................................................................... 87
8.2 STRENGTH OF BEAMS IN SHEAR AND TORSION ............................................ 91
8.3 GENERAL DETAILS ............................................................................................. 102
8.4 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR IN COMPOSITE AND MONOLITHIC BEAMS ........ 105
8.5 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS..................................................................................... 107
8.6 CRACK CONTROL OF BEAMS ............................................................................ 109
8.7 VIBRATION OF BEAMS ....................................................................................... 111
8.8 T-BEAMS AND L-BEAMS .................................................................................... 111
8.9 SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR BEAMS ................................................................. 112
8.10 COMPOSITE MEMBERS ....................................................................................... 112
SECTION 9 DESIGN OF SLABS FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

9.1 STRENGTH OF SLABS IN BENDING .................................................................. 118
9.2 STRENGTH OF SLABS IN SHEAR ....................................................................... 120
9.3 DEFLECTION OF SLABS ...................................................................................... 121
9.4 CRACK CONTROL OF SLABS ............................................................................. 122
9.5 VIBRATION OF SLABS ........................................................................................ 124
9.6 MOMENT RESISTING WIDTH FOR ONE-WAY SLABS SUPPORTING
CONCENTRATED LOADS .................................................................................... 125
9.7 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR IN COMPOSITE SLABS ............................................. 125
9.8 FATIGUE DESIGN OF SLABS .............................................................................. 125
SECTION 10 DESIGN OF COLUMNS AND TENSION MEMBERS FOR STRENGTH AND

SERVICEABILITY
10.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 126
10.2 DESIGN PROCEDURES ........................................................................................ 126
AS 5100.5:2017 6
Page
10.3 DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMNS ........................................................................... 127

10.4 DESIGN OF SLENDER COLUMNS ...................................................................... 128
10.5 SLENDERNESS ...................................................................................................... 129
10.6 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS IN COMBINED BENDING
AND COMPRESSION ............................................................................................ 133
10.7 REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS ..................................... 136
10.8 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS ....................................................................... 147
10.9 CRACK CONTROL OF COLUMNS AND TENSION MEMBERS ....................... 147
SECTION 11 DESIGN OF WALLS

11.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 148
11.2 DESIGN PROCEDURES ........................................................................................ 148
11.3 BRACED WALLS ................................................................................................... 148
11.4 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT ............................................................................................. 149
11.5 SIMPLIFIED DESIGN METHOD FOR WALLS SUBJECT TO VERTICAL
COMPRESSION FORCES ...................................................................................... 149
11.6 DESIGN OF WALLS FOR IN-PLANE SHEAR FORCES ..................................... 150
11.7 REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR WALLS .......................................... 151
SECTION 12 DESIGN OF NON-FLEXURAL MEMBERS AND ANCHORAGE ZONES

12.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 153

12.2 DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 153
12.3 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS FOR THE DESIGN OF NON-FLEXURAL
MEMBERS .............................................................................................................. 153
12.4 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINUOUS CONCRETE NIBS
AND CORBELS ...................................................................................................... 155
12.5 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STEPPED JOINTS IN BEAMS AND
SLABS ..................................................................................................................... 155
12.6 ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR POST-TENSIONED MEMBERS ............................. 156
12.7 CRACK CONTROL ................................................................................................ 158
12.8 ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR PRETENSIONED MEMBERS ................................. 158
12.9 BEARING SURFACES ........................................................................................... 159
SECTION 13 STRESS DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

13.1 STRESS DEVELOPMENT IN REINFORCEMENT ............................................... 160
13.2 SPLICING OF REINFORCEMENT ........................................................................ 167
13.3 STRESS DEVELOPMENT IN TENDONS ............................................................. 169
13.4 COUPLING OF TENDONS .................................................................................... 171
SECTION 14 JOINTS, EMBEDDED ITEMS AND FIXINGS

14.1 JOINTS .................................................................................................................... 172
14.2 EMBEDDED ITEMS............................................................................................... 173
14.3 FIXINGS ................................................................................................................. 173
14.4 DURABILITY OF EMBEDDED ITEMS AND FIXINGS ...................................... 174
SECTION 15 PLAIN CONCRETE MEMBERS

15.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 175
15.2 DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 175
15.3 STRENGTH IN BENDING ..................................................................................... 175
15.4 STRENGTH IN SHEAR .......................................................................................... 176
15.5 STRENGTH IN COMBINED BENDING AND COMPRESSION .......................... 176
15.6 REINFORCEMENT AND EMBEDDED ITEMS .................................................... 176
7 AS 5100.5:2017
Page
SECTION 16 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

16.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 177
16.2 DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 177
16.3 PROPERTIES OF SFRC ......................................................................................... 178
16.4 DESIGN OF SFRC MEMBERS CONTAINING REINFORCEMENT OR
TENDONS ............................................................................................................... 182
16.5 DURABILITY ......................................................................................................... 187
16.6 FIRE ........................................................................................................................ 187
16.7 PRODUCTION OF SFRC ....................................................................................... 187
SECTION 17 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

17.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 191
17.2 TEST REPORT OR TEST CERTIFICATES ........................................................... 191
17.3 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE
AND GROUT .......................................................................................................... 191
17.4 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCING
STEEL ..................................................................................................................... 194
17.5 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR
PRESTRESSING DUCTS, ANCHORAGES AND TENDONS .............................. 197
17.6 CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR JOINTS AND EMBEDDED
ITEMS ..................................................................................................................... 199

17.7 TOLERANCES FOR STRUCTURES AND MEMBERS ........................................ 200
17.8 FORMWORK .......................................................................................................... 201
APPENDICES
A TESTING OF MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES.................................................... 202
B BEAM STABILITY DURING ERECTION ............................................................ 208
C DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL CONCRETE BRIDGES ............................................. 210
D STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDER .......................... 213
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 223

AS 5100.5:2017 8
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Bridge design
Part 5: Concrete
SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design and construction of concrete
bridges and associated structures that contain reinforcement or tendons, or both. It also sets
out minimum requirements for plain and steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) members.
NOTES:
1 It is intended that the properties and requirements for reinforcement or tendons, as set out in
this Standard, may also be used for the design and construction of elements not containing
concrete, for example, stress laminated timber decks.
2 For design life of bridges covered by this Standard, see Clause 4.1.
1.2 APPLICATION
This Standard applies to structures and members in which the materials conform to the
following:
(a) Concrete with—
(i) characteristic compressive strength at 28 days ( f c ) in the range of 25 MPa to
100 MPa; and
(ii) with a saturated surface-dry density in the range 2100 kg/m3 to 2800 kg/m3.
(b) Reinforcing steel of Ductility Class N in accordance with AS/NZS 4671.
NOTE: Reinforcement types with this ductility may be used without restriction, in all
applications referred to in this Standard, except where Ductility Class E reinforcing steel is
required.
(c) Reinforcing steel of Ductility Class E in accordance with AS/NZS 4671.
NOTE: Reinforcement types of this ductility class will need to be specially sourced to be used
in Australia.
(d) Reinforcing steel of Ductility Class L in accordance with AS/NZS 4671 shall not be
used in the design for strength, except in any of the following—
(i) As transverse shear and torsion reinforcement provided the additional
requirements specified in Clause 3.2.1 are satisfied.
(ii) As longitudinal shear reinforcement provided the additional requirements
specified in Clause 3.2.1 are satisfied.
(iii) As lateral restraint to longitudinal reinforcement and reinforcement for
confinement of the core in columns.
(iv) As bursting reinforcement in prestressed concrete anchorages.
 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

9 AS 5100.5:2017
(v) Where design is validated by testing in accordance with Appendix A and

compliance with any additional acceptance criteria on ductility specified by the
authority.
Reinforcing steel of Ductility Class L in accordance with AS/NZS 4671 may be used
in the design for serviceability including shrinkage, creep and temperature restraint
reinforcement, deflections and crack control without restriction.
NOTE: The use of Ductility Class L reinforcement is further limited by other clauses within
the Standard.
(e) Prestressing tendons complying with AS/NZS 4672.1 and tested in accordance with
AS/NZS 4672.2.
(f) Stainless steel reinforcing bar of Ductility Class N in accordance with BS 6744 with
designations 1.4301, 1.4162, 1.4429, 1.4436, 14362 or 14462 to EN 10088-1.
1.3 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

The following are the normative documents referenced in this Standard.
NOTE: Documents referenced for informative purposes are listed in the Bibliography.
AS
1012 Methods of testing concrete
1012.1 Method 1: Sampling of fresh concrete
1012.2 Method 2: Preparation of concrete mixes in the laboratory

1012.3.1 Method 3.1: Determination of properties related to the consistency of
concrete—Slump test
1012.3.5 Method 3.5: Determination of properties related to the consistency of
concrete--Slump flow, T500 and J-ring test
1012.4 Method 4: Determination of air content of freshly mixed concrete (all
methods)
1012.9 Method 9: Compressive strength tests—Concrete, mortar and grout
specimens
1012.10 Method 10: Determination of indirect tensile strength of concrete cylinders
(‘Brazil’ or splitting test)
1012.11 Method 11: Determination of the modulus of rupture
1012.12.1 Method 12.1: Determination of mass per unit volume of hardened concrete—
Rapid measuring method
1012.12.2 Method 12.2: Determination of mass per unit volume of hardened concrete—
Water displacement method
1012.13 Method 13: Determination of the drying shrinkage of concrete for samples
prepared in the field or in the laboratory
1012.14 Method 14: Method for securing and testing cores from hardened concrete
for compressive strength
1012.16 Method 16: Determination of creep of concrete cylinders in compression
1012.17 Method 17: Determination of the static chord modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of concrete specimens
1012.20.1 Method 20.1: Determination of chloride and sulfate in hardened concrete and
aggregates—Nitric acid extraction method
1012.20.2 Method 20.2: Determination of water-soluble chloride in aggregates and
hardened concrete
1100 Technical drawing
1100.501 Part 501: Structural engineering drawing
1199 Sampling procedures and tables for inspection by attributes
1199.1 Part 1: Sampling schemes indexed by acceptance quality limit (AQL) for lot-
by-lot inspection
www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

AS 5100.5:2017 10
AS
1379 Specification and supply of concrete
1478 Chemical admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout
1478.1 Part 1: Admixtures for concrete
3600 Concrete structures
3610 Formwork for concrete
3610.1 Part 1: Documentation and surface finish
3799 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds for concrete
AS/NZS
1170 Structural design actions
1170.0 Part 0: General principles
1554 Structural steel welding
1554.3 Part 3: Welding of reinforcing steel
1554.6 Part 6: Welding stainless steels for structural purposes
1597 Precast reinforced concrete box culverts
1597.2 Part 2: Large culverts (exceeding 1200 mm span or 1200 mm height and up to
and including 4200 mm span and 4200 mm height)
1768 Lightning protection
2425 Bar chairs in reinforced concrete—Product requirements and test methods

3582 Supplementary cementitious materials and blended cement
3582.1 Part 1: Fly ash
3582.2 Part 2: Ground granulated blast-furnace
3582.3 Part 3: Amorphous silica
4671 Steel reinforcing materials
4672 Steel prestressing materials
4672.1 Part 1: General requirements
4672.2 Part 2: Testing requirements
5100 Bridge design
5100.1 Part 1: Scope and general principles
5100.2 Part 2: Design loads
5100.7 Part 7: Rating of existing bridges
ISO
12491 Statistical methods for quality control of building materials and components
ASTM
C42 Standard Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed
Beams of Concrete
C295 Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
EN
10088 Stainless Steels
10088-1 Part 1: List Of Stainless Steels
14721 Test Method For Metallic Fibre Concrete—Measuring The Fibre Content In
Fresh And Hardened Concrete
14651 Test Method For Metallic Fibre Concrete—Measuring The Flexural Tensile
Strength (limit of proportionality (lop), Residual)

11 AS 5100.5:2017
EN
14889 Fibres for concrete
14889-1 Part 1: Steel fibres—Definitions, Specifications and Conformity
BS
6744 Stainless steel bars—Reinforcement of concrete—Requirements and test
methods
1.4 DEFINITIONS
1.4.1 General
For the purposes of this Standard, the definitions below apply.
1.4.2 Administrative definitions
1.4.2.1 Approved
Except as may be otherwise stated, approved by authority.
1.4.2.2 Authority
The body with jurisdiction over the provision of bridges and associated structures, and/or
responsible for the design, construction and maintenance of bridges within its jurisdiction.
1.4.2.3 Drawings
The drawings forming part of the documents setting out the work to be executed.
1.4.2.4 Specification
The specification forming part of the documents setting out the work to be executed.
1.4.3 Technical definitions
1.4.3.1 Action
Set of concentrated or distributed forces acting on a structure (direct action), or deformation
imposed on a structure or constrained within it (indirect action).
NOTE: The term ‘load’ is often used to describe direct actions.
1.4.3.2 Action effects
Internal forces and bending moments due to actions (stress resultants).
1.4.3.3 Anchorage zone
Region between the face of the member where the prestress is applied and the cross-section
at which a linear distribution of stress due to prestress is achieved.
1.4.3.4 Average ambient temperature
Average value of the daily maximum and minimum ambient temperatures over the relevant
period at a site.
1.4.3.5 B-region
Portion of a member in which the assumption that plane sections remain plane can be
applied.
1.4.3.6 Basic creep coefficient (φcc.b)
Mean value of the ratio of final creep strain to elastic strain for a specimen loaded at
28 days under a constant stress of 0.4 f c .
1.4.3.7 Bottle-shaped compression field
Compression field that is wider at mid-length than at its ends.

AS 5100.5:2017 12
1.4.3.8 Braced column

Column in a structure for which the lateral actions, applied at the ends in the direction
under consideration, are resisted by components such as masonry infill panels, shear walls
or lateral bracing.
1.4.3.9 Cement
A hydraulic binder composed of Portland or blended cement used alone or combined with
one or more supplementary cementitious materials.
1.4.3.10 Cementitious material
Portland cement or a mixture of Portland cement with one or more supplementary
cementitious materials or in combination with other supplementary material as approved.
1.4.3.11 Characteristic strength
Value of the material strength, as assessed by standard test, that is exceeded by 95% of the
material (lower characteristic strength).
1.4.3.12 Composite concrete member
Member consisting of concrete members constructed separately but structurally connected
so the member responds as a unit to applied actions.
1.4.3.13 Concrete
Mixture of cement, aggregates and water, with or without the addition of chemical
admixtures.
1.4.3.14 Construction joint
Joint that is located in a structure or part of a structure for convenience of construction and
made so that the load-carrying capacity and serviceability of the structure, or part of the
structure, will be unimpaired by the inclusion of the joint.
1.4.3.15 Cover
Distance between the outside of the reinforcing steel or tendons and the nearest permanent
surface of the member, excluding any applied surface finish.
1.4.3.16 Creep coefficient
Mean value of the ratio of creep strain to elastic strain under conditions of constant stress.
1.4.3.17 Critical shear perimeter
Perimeter defined by a line geometrically similar to the boundary of the effective area of a
support or concentrated load and located at a distance of d om/2 therefrom (see Figure 9.2.3).
1.4.3.18 Critical opening
Opening through the thickness of a slab where an edge, or part of the edge, of the opening
is located at a clear distance of less than 2.5b o from the critical shear perimeter [see
Figure 9.2.3(b)].
1.4.3.19 Design life
The period assumed in design for which a structure or a structural element required to
perform its intended purpose with minimal maintenance and without replacement or major
structural repairs.
1.4.3.20 Discontinuity
Abrupt change in geometry or loading, including prestress.

13 AS 5100.5:2017
1.4.3.21 Direct loading

Loading on a structure that includes the self-weight of its component members and
externally applied loads.
1.4.3.22 D-region
Portion of a member within a distance equal to the member depth (D), from a discontinuity.
1.4.3.23 Duct
Conduit (plain or corrugated) to accommodate prestressing tendon(s) for post-tensioned
installation.
1.4.3.24 Ductility class
Designation relating to the ductility of reinforcement.
NOTES:
1 ‘L’ designates ‘low’, ‘N’ designates ‘normal’, ‘E’ designates ‘earthquake’.
2 For further information on designation, refer to AS/NZS 4671.
1.4.3.25 Durability
Ability of a structure and its component members to perform the functions for which they
have been designed, over a specified period of time, when exposed to their environment.
1.4.3.26 Effective area of a support or concentrated load for slabs in shear
Area totally enclosing the actual support or load and for which the perimeter is a minimum.
NOTE: For critical shear perimeter, see Figure 9.2.3.
1.4.3.27 Effective depth
Distance from the extreme compressive fibre of the concrete to the resultant tensile force in
the reinforcing steel and tendons in that zone, which will be tensile at the ultimate strength
condition of pure bending.
1.4.3.28 Embedded items
Items, other than reinforcement and tendons, that are embedded in a concrete member or
structure.
NOTE: Embedded items include pipes and conduits with their associated fittings, sleeves,
permanent inserts for fixings and other purposes, prestressed anchorages, holding-down bolts and
other supports.
1.4.3.29 Exposure classification
Designation indicative of the most severe environment to which a concrete member is to be
subjected during its design life
NOTE: For exposure classifications, see Table 4.3.
1.4.3.30 External tendon
A post-tensioned tendon situated outside the concrete section only connected to the
structure by anchorages and deviators.
1.4.3.31 Fan-shaped compression field
Compression field that has non-parallel straight sides [see Figure 7.2.1(b)].
1.4.3.32 Fitment
Unit of reinforcement commonly used to—
(a) restrain from buckling the longitudinal reinforcing bars in beams, columns and piles;
(b) carry shear, torsion and diagonal tension;

AS 5100.5:2017 14
(c) act as hangers for longitudinal reinforcement; or

(d) provide confinement to the core concrete.
NOTE: Also referred to commonly as a stirrup, ligature or helical reinforcement.
1.4.3.33 Fixing
Material cast into concrete for the purpose of maintaining in position reinforcement,
tendons, ducts, formwork, inserts or devices for lifting of members.
1.4.3.34 Footing
Part of a structure in direct contact with and transmitting load to the supporting foundation.
1.4.3.35 Foundation
Soil, subsoil or rock, whether built-up or natural, by which a structure is supported.
1.4.3.36 Grout
Mixture of cement and water, with or without the addition of sand, or chemical admixtures,
proportioned to produce a pourable liquid without segregation of the constituents.
1.4.3.37 Headed reinforcement
Steel bar that achieves anchorage by means of a suitably sized head or end plate.
1.4.3.38 Helical reinforcement
Unit of reinforcement that is wound in a helical fashion around the main longitudinal
reinforcing bars in a column or pile, to restrain them from buckling and to carry shear,
torsion and diagonal tension, or around tendons at an anchorage to resist bursting action
effects.
1.4.3.39 Initial force
Force, immediately after transfer, at a stated position in a tendon.
1.4.3.40 Jacking force
Force in a tendon measured at the jack.
1.4.3.41 Ligature (reinforcement)
See fitment, Clause 1.4.3.32.
1.4.3.42 Limit state
As defined in AS 5100.1.
1.4.3.43 Mean strength
Statistical average of a number of test results representative of the strength of a member,
prototype or material.
1.4.3.44 Moist curing
Supplying additional moisture to the concrete surface by means of a complete and
continuous application of water to the surface of the concrete.
1.4.3.45 Movement joint
Joint that is made between parts of a structure for the specific purpose of permitting relative
movement between the parts of the structure on either side of the joint.
1.4.3.46 Node
Point in a joint in a strut-and-tie model where the axes of the struts, ties and concentrated
forces acting on the joint intersect.

15 AS 5100.5:2017
1.4.3.47 Nodal zone

Volume of concrete around a node, which is assumed to transfer strut-and-tie forces through
the node.
1.4.3.48 One-way slab
Slab characterized by flexural action mainly in one direction.
1.4.3.49 Plain concrete member
Member either unreinforced or containing reinforcement but assumed to be unreinforced.
1.4.3.50 Post-tensioning
Tensioning of tendons after the concrete has hardened.
1.4.3.51 Prestressed concrete
Concrete into which internal stresses are induced deliberately by tendons.
NOTE: Prestressed concrete includes concrete commonly referred to as ‘partially prestressed’.
1.4.3.52 Prestressing steel
See tendon, Clause 1.4.3.65.
1.4.3.53 Pretensioning
Tensioning of tendons before the concrete is placed.
1.4.3.54 Prismatic compression field

Compression field that is parallel sided [see Figure 7.2.1(a)].
1.4.3.55 Professional engineer
A person who has appropriate experience and competence in the relevant field and—
(a) if legislation is applicable, a registered professional engineer in the relevant
discipline; or
(b) if legislation is not applicable, a corporate member of the Institution of Engineers
Australia, or a person eligible to become a chartered professional engineer of the
Institution of Engineers, Australia, or the National Engineers Register in the relevant
discipline.
1.4.3.56 Reinforcement
Steel bar, wire or mesh but not tendons.
NOTE: Commonly referred to as reinforcing steel.
1.4.3.57 Self-compacting concrete
Concrete that is able to flow and consolidate under its own weight, completely fill the
formwork or excavation even in the presence of dense reinforcement, whilst maintaining
homogeneity and without the need for additional compaction, and which complies with
specified requirements for slump flow, viscosity and passing ability.
1.4.3.58 Shear wall
Wall that is intended to resist lateral forces acting in or parallel to the plane of the wall.
1.4.3.59 Short column
Column in which the additional bending moments due to slenderness can be taken as zero.
1.4.3.60 Slender column
Column that does not satisfy the requirements for a short column.

AS 5100.5:2017 16
1.4.3.61 Steel fibre reinforced concrete

Concrete manufactured with steel fibres of any type and geometry and where the fibres are
mixed together with the other constituent materials before casting.
1.4.3.62 Strength grade
Numerical value of the characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days ( f c ),
used in design.
1.4.3.63 Strut-and-tie model
Truss model made up of struts and ties connected at nodes.
1.4.3.64 Supplementary cementitious materials
1.4.3.64.1 Fly ash
The solid material extracted from the flue gases of a boiler fired with pulverized coal.
1.4.3.64.2 Ground granulated iron blast-furnace slag (slag)
Material consisting essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium, produced
simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace.
1.4.3.64.3 Amorphous silica
Very fine pozzolanic material, composed mostly of non-crystalline silica.
NOTE: The high specific surface area of amorphous silica can cause workability problems when
used in cement paste, mortar or concrete if suitable measures or precautions are not implemented.
1.4.3.65 Tendon
Wire, strand or bar (or any discrete group of such wires, strands or bars) that is intended to
be pretensioned or post-tensioned.
1.4.3.66 Tie
Tension member in a strut-and-tie model.
1.4.3.67 Transfer
Time of initial transfer of prestressing forces from the tendons to the concrete.
1.4.3.68 Transmission length
Length, at transfer, over which the stress in a pretensioned tendon builds up from zero at
one end to its full value.
1.4.3.69 Two-way slab
Slab characterized by significant flexural action in two directions at right angles to one
another.
1.4.3.70 Unbonded tendon
A post-tensioned tendon fabricated from sheathed prestressing strands, bars or rods
connected to the structure by anchorage only.
1.4.3.71 Uniform strain
Strain in the reinforcement at maximum stress, corresponding to the onset of necking.
1.4.3.72 Upper characteristic strength
Value of the material strength, as assessed by standard test, which is exceeded by 5% of the
material.

17 AS 5100.5:2017
1.4.3.73 Water/cementitious material ratio

The ratio of the amount of water to the total amount of cementitious materials by mass in a
freshly mixed cubic metre of concrete.
NOTE: The water should be the total free water contained in the batch aggregates in excess of
their saturated-dry condition.
1.5 NOTATION
The symbols used in this Standard, including their definitions, are listed below.
Unless a contrary intention appears, the following applies:
(a) The symbols used in this Standard have the meanings ascribed to them below, with
respect to the structure, or member, or condition to which a clause is applied.
(b) Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
(c) The dimensional units for length, force and stress, in all expressions or equations, are
to be taken as millimetres (mm), newtons (N) and megapascals (MPa) respectively,
unless noted otherwise.
(d) An asterisk (*) placed after a symbol as a superscript (for example, M y* ) denotes a
design action effect due to the design load.
Symbol Definition
Ab cross-sectional area of a reinforcing bar
Ab.fit cross-sectional area of the fitment
Ac smallest cross-sectional area of the concrete strut at any point along its
length and measured normal to the line of action of the strut
Acp total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete section
Act area of concrete on flexural tension side of member; or
area of concrete within the tensile zone (mm2).
NOTE: The tensile zone is that part of the cross-section calculated to be in
tension just before formation of the first crack
Ag gross cross-sectional area of a member
Am an area enclosed by the median lines of the walls of a single cell
Ao area enclosed by shear flow path, including any area of holes therein
Aoh area enclosed by centre-line of exterior closed transverse torsion
reinforcement, including area of holes (if any)
Ap cross-sectional area of tendons
Apt cross-sectional area of the tendons in the zone that will be tensile under
ultimate load conditions
As cross-sectional area of reinforcement; or
cross-sectional area of a single anchored bar of diameter db
Asc cross-sectional area of longitudinal compressive reinforcement
Asf area of fully anchored reinforcement crossing the interface
Asi area of reinforcement in the ith direction crossing a strut

AS 5100.5:2017 18
Symbol Definition
Ast cross-sectional area of longitudinal tensile reinforcement; or
cross-sectional area of reinforcement in the zone that would be in tension
under the design loads if the effects of prestress and axial loads are ignored
Ast.min minimum area of reinforcement required within the tensile zone (mm2).
NOTE: If Ast.min is zero only steel fibres are necessary to control cracking
Asv cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
Asv.min cross-sectional area of minimum shear reinforcement
Asw cross-sectional area of the bar forming a closed fitment
Atr cross-sectional area of a transverse bar along the development length
Atr.min cross-sectional area of the minimum transverse reinforcement along the
development length
A1 a bearing area
A2 largest area of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to and
concentric with A1
a a distance; or
horizontal projection of the inclined strut; or
perpendicular distance from the nearer support to the section under

consideration; or
dimension of the critical shear perimeter measured parallel to the direction of
bending being considered
asup length of a support in the direction of the span
av distance from the section at which shear is being considered to the face of the
nearest support
b width of a rectangular cross-section or member
bc core dimension measured between the centre-lines of the outermost fitments
measured across the width of the section
bef effective width of a compression face or flange of a member
bf width of the shear plane
bl size of rectangular, or equivalent rectangular column, capital, or bracket,
measured in the direction of the span for which moments are being
determined
bo dimension of an opening
bs width of the flange in a composite member
bt size of rectangular, or equivalent rectangular column, capital, or bracket,
measured transverse to the direction of the span for which moments are being
determined
bv effective width of a web for shear
bw a width of the web; or
minimum thickness of the wall of a hollow section
c(c1) cover to reinforcing steel or tendons
cd the smaller of the concrete covers to the deformed bar and half the clear
distance to the next parallel

19 AS 5100.5:2017
Symbol Definition
D overall depth of a cross-section in the plane of bending; or
depth of member
Db overall depth of a spandrel beam
Dc depth of smaller column cross-sectional dimension if rectangular, or the
column diameter if circular
Ds overall depth of a slab or drop panel
d effective depth of a cross-section in the plane of bending
db nominal diameter of a bar, wire or tendon; or
nominal internal diameter of reinforcement bend or hook
dc width of the idealized strut; or
core dimension measured between the centre-lines of the outermost fitments
measured through the depth of the section
dd diameter of a prestressing duct
df diameter of the bar forming the tie; or
equivalent diameter of the steel fibre
dg maximum nominal aggregate size
do distance from the extreme compressive fibre of the concrete to the centroid
of the outermost layer of tensile reinforcement or tendons (not less than 0.8D
for prestressed concrete members)
dom mean value of do, averaged around the critical shear perimeter
dp distance from the extreme compressive fibre of the concrete to the centroid
of the tendons in the zone of the concrete in tension under ultimate strength
conditions
ds overall dimension measured between centre-lines of the outermost fitments;
or
distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of non-
prestressed tensile reinforcement
dsc distance from the extreme compressive fibre of the concrete to the centroid
of compressive reinforcement
dsp distance of the out-of-plane splitting force that may be considered
dv effective shear depth
Ec mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days
Ecj mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at age j
Ed design action effect
Ep modulus of elasticity of tendons, determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.2
Epθ modulus of elasticity of tendons at elevated temperatures
Es modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, determined in accordance with
Clause 3.2.2
Esθ modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement at elevated temperatures
e eccentricity of prestressing force or load; or
base of Napierian logarithms

AS 5100.5:2017 20
Symbol Definition
eo vertical eccentricity between the centre of gravity of a beam and the
longitudinal axis through the lifting points
F force
FL peak load obtained from a 3-point notch bending test undertaken in
accordance with EN 14651
Ftd required tensile force in longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension
side of a member
fcm mean value of concrete compressive strength at the relevant age; or
mean concrete compressive strength at the time cracking is expected to occur
fcmi mean value of the in situ compressive strength of concrete at the relevant age
fcp mean compressive strength of concrete at transfer
fct uniaxial tensile strength of concrete
fct.f measured flexural tensile strength of concrete
fct.ef tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks may
first be expected to occur
fct.sp measured splitting tensile strength of concrete
fcv concrete shear strength

fpb characteristic minimum breaking strength
fpy yield strength of tendons
fpo stress in prestressed reinforcement when stress in the surrounding concrete is
zero
fpθ minimum tensile strength of tendons at elevated temperatures
fr average confining pressure on the core cross-section taken at the level of the
fitments
fR,j residual flexural tensile strength
fr.eff effective confining pressure applied to the core of a column
fs.max maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after formation
of the crack
fscr maximum steel stress for crack control
fsi serviceability limit stress in the reinforcement
fsy characteristic yield strength of reinforcement (referred to as Re in
AS/NZS 4671), determined in accordance with Clause 3.2.1
fsy.f yield strength of reinforcement used as fitments
fsyθ characteristic yield strength of reinforcement at elevated temperatures
ful characteristic ultimate strength of the longitudinal reinforcement
f c characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete at 28 days
f cp characteristic concrete strength at transfer
f ct characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of concrete


f ct.f characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete at 28 days

21 AS 5100.5:2017
Symbol Definition
f cθ design characteristic compressive strength of concrete at elevated
temperature

f R,2 mean residual flexural strength determined at a crack mouth opening
displacement (CMOD) of 1.5 mm as determined from a 3-point notch
bending test undertaken in accordance with EN 14651

f R,4 mean residual flexural strength determined at a crack mouth opening
displacement (CMOD) of 3.5 mm as determined from a 3-point notch
bending test undertaken in accordance with EN 14651

f1.5 characteristic residual tensile strength of steel fibre reinforced concrete
(SFRC)
G permanent action (dead load)
gp permanent distributed load normal to the shear interface per unit length, in
newtons per millimetre
Hw floor-to-floor unsupported height of a wall
Hwe effective height of a wall
h overall depth of a joint
I second moment of area of the uncracked concrete cross-section about the
centroidal axis
Ic second moment of area of a concrete section
Icr second moment of area of a cracked section with the reinforcement
transformed to an equivalent area of concrete
Ief an effective second moment of area
Ief.max maximum effective second moment of area
If second moment of area of a flexural member
Jt a torsional modulus
Jtb torsional modulus of the standard precast prestressed concrete I-girder
section
Jtn torsional modulus of the I-girder sections with a composite slab connected
above
j time after prestressing, in days; or
appropriate age of concrete, in days
K a factor that accounts for the position of the bars being anchored with respect
to the transverse reinforcement
k a coefficient, ratio or factor used with and without numerical subscripts
kc a coefficient that takes account of the nature of the stress distribution within
the section immediately prior to cracking
kco cohesion coefficient
kcs factor used in serviceability design to take account of the long-term effects
of creep and shrinkage
ke effectiveness factor accounting for the arrangement of the fitments
km coefficient
kp coefficient that takes account of the level of prestress

AS 5100.5:2017 22
Symbol Definition
kR,4 ratio of the mean residual tensile strength taken at a crack opening
displacement (COD) of 1.5 mm
kr ratio of the dimension of an anchorage bearing plate to the corresponding
depth, or breadth, of the symmetrical prism
ku neutral axis parameter being the ratio, at ultimate strength under any
combination of bending and compression, of the depth to the neutral axis
from the extreme compressive fibre to d
kuo ratio, at ultimate strength, without axial force of the depth to the neutral axis
from the extreme compressive fibre to do
k1 a coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating
stresses due to non-linear shrinkage or temperature profiles through the
member depth
k1 compressive strength factor for concrete at elevated temperatures
k2 tension reinforcement factor with strain 2%
k3 modulus of elasticity factor of steel reinforcement at elevated temperatures
k4 minimum tensile strength factor of tendons at elevated temperatures
k5 modulus of elasticity of tendons factor at elevated temperatures

L centre-to-centre distance between the supports of a flexural member
Le effective length of a column
Lef effective span of a member, taken as the lesser of ( Ln + D) and L for a beam
or slab; or
Ln + D/2 for a cantilever
Ll distance between centres of lateral restraints or from a lateral restraint to the
free edge
Ln length of clear span in the direction in which moments are being determined,
measured face-to-face of supporting beams, columns or walls, or for a
cantilever, the clear projection
Lp total development length of tendons
Lpa length of the tendon from the jacking end to a point at a distance ‘a’ from
that end
Lpt transmission length for pretensioned tendons
Lsc development length of a bar for a compressive stress less than the yield stress
Lst development length of a bar for a tensile stress less than the yield stress
Lsy.c development length in compression, being the length of embedment required
to develop the yield strength of a deformed bar in compression
Lsy.cb basic development length of a deformed bar in compression
Lsy.t development length in tension, to develop the characteristic yield strength of
a deformed bar in tension
Lsy.t.lap tensile lap length for either contact or non-contact splices
Lsy.tb basic development length of a deformed bar in tension

23 AS 5100.5:2017
Symbol Definition
Lu unsupported length of a column, taken as the clear distance between the faces
of members capable of providing lateral support to the column. Where
column capitals or haunches are present, Lu is measured to the lowest
extremity of the capital or haunch
Lw overall length of a wall
lb length of the bursting zone
lf length of the steel fibre
M* design bending moment at a cross-section
M h* design lateral bending moment
M s* maximum bending moment at the section, based on the short-term

serviceability load or construction load
M v* design bending moment to be transferred from a slab or beam to a support
M x* , M y* design bending moment in a column about the major and minor axes
respectively under the design axial force N*
M 1* , M 2* smaller and larger design bending moment respectively at the ends of a
column
Mc moment used in the calculation of the buckling load (Nc)

Mcr bending moment causing cracking of the section with due consideration to
prestress, restrained shrinkage and temperature stresses
Mg bending moment due to self-weight plus dynamic allowance at serviceability
limit state (SLS)
Mu ultimate strength in bending at a cross-section of an eccentrically loaded
compressive member
Mub particular ultimate strength in bending when kuo = 0.003/(0.003 + fsy / Es)
Muo ultimate strength in bending, without axial force, at a cross-section
(Muo)min minimum required ultimate strength in bending at a critical cross-section
Mux, Muy ultimate strength in bending about the major and minor axes respectively of a
column under the design axial force N *
m number of fitments legs crossing the confinement plane
N* design axial compressive or tensile force on a cross-section
N G* design axial force due to permanent effects at the ultimate limit state (ULS)
Nc buckling load used in column design

Nu ultimate strength in compression, or tension, at a cross-section of an
eccentrically loaded compression or tension member respectively; or
ultimate strength per unit length of wall
Nub particular ultimate strength in compression of a cross-section when
kuo = 0.003/(0.003 + fsy/Es)
Nuo ultimate strength in compression, without bending, of an axially loaded
cross-section
Nuot ultimate strength in tension, without bending, of an axially loaded
cross-section

AS 5100.5:2017 24
Symbol Definition
n number of bars uniformly spaced inside helical reinforcement; or
number of laterally restrained longitudinal bars; or
number of stress cycles
P force in the tendons; or
maximum force occurring at the anchorage during jacking; or
applied load
Pe total effective prestress force allowing for all losses
Pi prestressing force after initial losses
Pv vertical component of the prestressing force
p a reinforcement ratio
pc length of the outside perimeter of concrete cross-section
pcw web reinforcement ratio for compressive reinforcement
pw a reinforcement ratio in a wall; or
web reinforcement ratio for tensile reinforcement
R design relaxation of a tendon
Rb basic relaxation of a tendon
Rd design capacity of a member or structure (equal to Ru or sys. Ru.sys)

Ru ultimate strength of a member
Ru.sys mean capacity of the structure
r radius of gyration of a cross-section; or
radius of curvature of the duct; or
radius of curvature of the prestressing tendon
Sp structural performance factor
s centre-to-centre spacing of fitments including shear, torsional or confining
reinforcement, measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of a member; or
standard deviation; or
maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement within Lsy.c, or spacing of
fitments, or spacing of successive turns of helical reinforcement, all
measured centre to centre, in millimetres; or
spacing of anchored shear reinforcement crossing interface
sb clear distance between bars of the non-contact lapped splice
sd centre-to-centre distance between lines of ducts in the plane of the curvature
sL clear distance between bars of the non-contact lapped splice
sm spacing of bars being developed, in millimetres
T a temperature; or
force resultant of transverse tensile stresses
T* torsional moment at a cross-section; or
applied torsion
Tb* design bursting force calculated at the ultimate limit state (ULS)
*
Tb.s design bursting force calculated at the serviceability limit state (SLS)
Tb.cr bursting (or splitting) force across a strut caused at the time of cracking of
the strut

25 AS 5100.5:2017
Symbol Definition
Tcr torsional cracking moment
Tu ultimate torsional strength
Tuc ultimate torsional strength of a beam without torsional reinforcement and in
the presence of shear
Tus ultimate torsional strength of a beam with torsional reinforcement
Tu.max ultimate torsional strength of a beam limited by web crushing failure
Tw vertical component of the force carried by the secondary struts
t time
tf thickness of topping or flange anchored by shear reinforcement
th hypothetical thickness of a member used in determining creep and shrinkage,
taken as 2Ag/ue
tw thickness of a wall
u effective length of the critical shear perimeter
ue exposed perimeter of a member cross-section plus half the perimeter of any
closed voids contained therein, used to calculate th
uh perimeter of the centre-line of the closed transverse torsion reinforcement

*
V design shear force at a cross-section
Vo shear force which would occur at a section when the bending moment at that
section was equal to the decompression moment Mo
Vt shear force, which, in combination with the prestressing force and other
action effects at the section, would produce a principal tensile stress of f ct at
either the centroidal axis or the intersection of flange and web, whichever is
the more critical
Veq* equivalent factored shear force at any section for coexisting applied shear
(V*) and applied torsion (T*)
*
Vmin minimum design shear force for all load combinations
Vu ultimate shear strength

Vu.max ultimate shear strength limited by web crushing failure
Vu.min minimum ultimate shear strength of a beam provided with minimum shear
reinforcement (Asv.min)
Vuc ultimate shear strength excluding shear reinforcement
Vuf ultimate shear strength of an SFRC beam
Vuo ultimate shear strength of a slab with no moment transfer
Vus contribution by shear reinforcement to the ultimate shear strength of a beam
or wall
w average clear spacing between adjacent tied longitudinal bars; or
width of loaded area or node
X a dimension
x shorter overall dimension of a rectangular part of a cross-section
Y a dimension

AS 5100.5:2017 26
Symbol Definition
y larger overall dimension of a rectangular part of a cross-section
yt depth from the centroidal axis to the extreme fibre at the top of the section
y1 larger overall dimension of a closed fitment
Z section modulus of the uncracked cross-section, referred to the extreme fibre
at which flexural cracking occurs
z projection of the inclined compressive strut normal to the shear span; or
internal moment lever arm of the section
α coefficient; or
divergence angle between bottled shape compression fields and idealized
parallel sided strut
αb coefficient for beams
αc coefficient; or
modular ratio of the cast-in-place concrete to the precast beam concrete in
the composite member
αf stress range factor
αn coefficient
αs correlation factor
αtot sum in radians of the absolute values of successive angular deviations of the
prestressing tendon over a length of the tendon from the jacking end to a
point at distance (a) from that end (Lpa)
αv angle between the inclined shear reinforcement and the longitudinal tensile
reinforcement
β an effective compression strength factor; or
fixity factor; or
a ratio; or
a factor with or without alphanumeric subscripts
βd a factor
βh a ratio
βn factor to account for the effect of the anchorage of ties on the effective
compressive strength of a nodal zone
βp an estimate of the angular deviation due to wobble effects, in radians per
metre (rad/m)
βs strut efficiency factor
βv angle of tilt assumed for the calculation of stability of a slender beam during
erection
γ ratio, under design bending or design combined bending and compression, of
the depth of the assumed rectangular compressive stress block to kud
γ1, γ2 column end restraint coefficients, determined in accordance with
Clause 10.5.3
γi angle between the axis of a strut and the bars in the ith direction of
reinforcement crossing that strut
Δ a deflection

27 AS 5100.5:2017
Symbol Definition
Δh lateral deviation of a slender beam at mid-span from the specified datum line
immediately after transfer
Δv lateral deflection caused by the self weight of the beam due to bending about
the y– y axis
ΔFcd required additional force in longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural
compression side of a member
Δσp change in the stress due to the change in length of the prestressed tie
δ, δb, δs moment magnifiers for slenderness effects
ε a strain
εcc strain due to concrete creep
εcs design shrinkage strain of concrete
 cs* final design shrinkage strain of concrete
εcsd drying shrinkage strain

εcse autogenous shrinkage strain
 cse
* final autogenous shrinkage strain
εcsd.b basic drying shrinkage strain

 csd.b
* final drying basic shrinkage strain
εpu strain at maximum stress of a prestressing tendon

εsu uniform strain at maximum stress, corresponding to the onset of necking
εx longitudinal strain in concrete at mid-depth of member for determining
concrete shear capacity
θ angle measured between the axis of the strut and the axis of a tie passing
through a common node; or
angle between tie leg and confinement plane
θv angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal
axis of the member
λ a factor
λuc a ratio of loads
μ friction curvature coefficient; or
coefficient of friction; or
structural ductility factor; or
displacement ductility
v Poisson’s ratio for concrete, determined in accordance with Clause 3.1.5
ρ density of plain concrete, in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3), determined
in accordance with Clause 3.1.3
ρccj residual creep coefficient; or
residual shrinkage coefficient
ρp transverse compressive pressure at the ultimate limit state (ULS) along the
development length perpendicular to the plane of splitting in megapascals
ρs volumetric ratio of the fitments relative to the volume of the core

AS 5100.5:2017 28
Symbol Definition
σci sustained stress in the concrete at the level of the centroid of the tendons,
calculated using the initial prestressing force prior to any time-dependent
losses and the sustained portions of all the service loads
σcp average intensity of effective prestress in concrete
σcp.f compressive stress due to prestress, at the extreme fibre where cracking
occurs
σcs maximum shrinkage-induced tensile stress on the uncracked section at the
extreme fibre at which cracking occurs
σ min minimum compressive stress at the extreme fibres under consideration, taken
as zero if tensile.
σ max maximum compressive stress at the extreme fibres under consideration.
σ max  σ min maximum permissible stress range under fatigue loading for the calculated
σ min and equal to 0.45 f c when σmin is zero.
σo a constant sustained stress
σp effective stress in the prestressing tendon at the time under consideration
σpa stress in the tendon at a distance ‘a’, measured from the jacking end
σp.ef effective stress in the tendon after allowing for all losses
σpi stress in the tendon immediately after transfer
σpj maximum stress in the tendon at the jacking end
σpu maximum stress that would be reached in a tendon at ultimate strength of a
flexural member
σsc a compressive stress being developed in a bar in compression
σscr tensile steel stress at the serviceability limit state (SLS) for a beam in flexure
or in tension or for a slab in flexure
σst tensile stress in reinforcement
*
τ design shear stress acting on the interface
τu shear stress capacity
 capacity reduction factor for design using linear elastic analysis
s stress reduction factor for design using linear stress analysis
st strength reduction factor for design using strut-and-tie analysis
sys system strength reduction factor for design using non-linear methods of
analysis
φcc design creep coefficient at any time t
 cc* final design creep coefficient
φcc.b basic creep coefficient of concrete, determined in accordance with

Clause 3.1.8.2
ψr factor of safety against lateral buckling
Ω dimension of node

29 AS 5100.5:2017
1.6 CONSTRUCTION
All concrete structures, designed in accordance with this Standard, shall be constructed so
that all the requirements of the design, as contained in the drawings and specifications, are
achieved.
1.7 EXISTING BRIDGES

The general principles of this Standard shall be applied when evaluating the strength or
serviceability of an existing bridge.
Where the strength or serviceability of a member or prototype is to be tested, the actual
geometry, section sizes and condition of the member, as well as the material properties of
the member shall be used (see Section 17).
Where the strength or serviceability of an existing bridge is to be evaluated, the provisions
of AS 5100.7 shall apply.
NOTE: Existing bridges may contain materials that do not comply with the material specifications
herein and may have been designed to different requirements, but the general principles of this
Standard would apply. (Refer to AS 5100.8 with respect to strengthening and rehabilitation of an
existing bridge.)
1.8 DESIGN
1.8.1 Design data

In addition to the data specified in AS 5100.1, the drawings shall include the following
design data:
(a) Exposure classification for durability and associated cover to reinforcing steel and
tendons.
(b) Class and grade of concrete.
(c) Grade, ductility class and type of reinforcement and grade and type of tendons.
(d) Reference number and date of issue of applicable design Standards.
(e) Design life (if not 100 years).
1.8.2 Design details
The drawings or specifications for concrete members and structures shall include, as
appropriate, the following:
(a) The shape and size of each member.
(b) The finish and method of control for unformed surfaces.
(c) Class of formwork for the surface finish specified.
(d) The number of bars, size, bar shape, spacing and location of all reinforcement to
AS 1100.501 and the required concrete cover.
(e) The size, quantity and location of tendons and structural fixings and the required
concrete cover.
(f) Any required properties of the concrete.
(g) The curing procedure.
(h) The force required in each tendon, the maximum jacking force to be applied in each
tendon and the order in which the tendons are to be stressed.
(i) The minimum strength concrete required before the application of prestressing forces.

AS 5100.5:2017 30
(j) The location and details of planned construction and movement joints, and of
connections and splices.
(k) The minimum period of time before stripping of forms and removal of shores.
(l) Any constraint on construction assumed in the design including, where relevant, the
casting procedure.
(m) Any other requirements.
1.9 USE OF ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS OR METHODS

Where alternative materials, methods of design or construction are used, and provided that
the requirements of Section 2 are met, the designer shall satisfy the relevant authority as to
their use.

31 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 2 DESIGN PROCEDURES,

ACTIONS AND LOADS
2.1 DESIGN PROCEDURES

2.1.1 Design for strength and serviceability
Concrete structures shall be designed for ultimate strength and serviceability limit states
(SLSs) in accordance with the general principles and procedures for design as set out in
AS 5100.1 and the specific requirements of Clauses 2.3 and 2.4.
Notwithstanding the requirements of Clauses 2.3 and 2.4, it shall be permissible to carry out
design checks for strength and serviceability by testing a structure or a component member
in accordance with Appendix A.
2.1.2 Design for fatigue
Where relevant, concrete structures shall be designed for fatigue effects in accordance with
Clause 2.2.
2.1.3 Design for earthquake actions
Where structures are required to be designed for earthquake actions, they shall comply with
AS 5100.2, this Section and the provisions of Appendix A of this Standard.
NOTE: See Clause 6.9.

2.1.4 Design for robustness
Concrete structures shall be designed to be robust in accordance with the procedures and
criteria given in AS 5100.1 and AS/NZS 1170.0, as appropriate.
2.1.5 Design for durability
Concrete structures shall be designed to be durable in accordance with the requirements of
Section 4.
2.1.6 Design for fire resistance
Where it is considered necessary for the structure or part thereof to be fire resistant, it shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of Section 5.
2.1.7 Material properties
The properties of materials used in the design shall be in accordance with Section 3.
When evaluating the behaviour of a concrete structure, member or cross-section, the values
of concrete properties used in the calculation shall be appropriate to the age of the concrete,
rate of loading and expected variations of material properties.
2.2 DESIGN FOR FATIGUE

2.2.1 General
Fatigue shall be considered where relevant and shall be taken into account in the design of
the structure. Fatigue shall always be considered in the design of concrete railway bridges,
but need not be considered in the design of concrete road bridges where the effective
number of stress cycles is less than 500 000.
The fatigue loadings to be used and the number of stress cycles shall be determined in
accordance with AS 5100.2.
Design actions for use in fatigue analysis shall be determined in accordance with the
methods specified in Items (a) to (d) of Clauses 6.1.3. Moment redistribution is not
permitted.

AS 5100.5:2017 32
2.2.2 Maximum range in concrete compressive stresses

The maximum range in concrete compressive stress under the fatigue design loading
specified in AS 5100.2 shall be determined from the following equation:
0.45 f c   f c   min  f c . . .2.2.2
where
σ min = minimum compressive stress at the extreme fibres under
consideration, taken as zero if tensile
σ min shall not exceed 0.45 f c
σ max = maximum compressive stress at the extreme fibres under consideration
(σ max  σ min) = maximum permissible stress range under fatigue loading for the
calculated σ min and equal to 0.45 f c when σ min is zero
f c = characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength of concrete at 28 days
2.2.3 Shear limited by web compressive stresses

In no case shall the maximum shear force in flexural members under the combination of
permanent effects and the fatigue design loading exceed 0.60 times the value of Vu.max.
where Vu.max is calculated in accordance with Clause 8.2.3.3.
2.2.4 Shear in slabs

The maximum shear force in concrete slabs, as determined in accordance with Clause 9.2
under the combination of permanent effects and the fatigue design loading, shall be limited
to the values specified in this Clause.
Where the slab can act as a wide beam and a shear failure could occur across a substantial
width, the maximum calculated shear shall be limited to 0.60 times the value of Vu in
accordance with Clause 9.2. For slabs where the effective number of stress cycles is greater
than 2 000 000, the maximum calculated shear shall be limited to 0.54 times the value of
Vu. If the longitudinal tensile reinforcement ratio (Ast + Apt)/(bdo) is less than 0.01, the
permissible shear shall be reduced by multiplying the permissible value of Vu by the factor
[100(Ast + Apt)/(bdo)]1/3.
Where the potential failure surface could form a truncated cone or pyramid around a
support or loaded area, the maximum calculated shear shall be limited to 0.50 times the
value of Vuo specified in Clause 9.2.3.
2.2.5 Tensile stress range in steel
The maximum tensile stress range in tendons and reinforcement under the fatigue loading
specified in AS 5100.2 shall be limited to the appropriate values given in Table 2.2.5. These
stress ranges are applicable for 2 000 000 stress cycles.
To account for the design number of stress cycles (n), determined from AS 5100.2, the
values given in Table 2.2.5 shall be multiplied by the stress range factor αf—
where
αf = (2  106/n)1/3 . . . 2.2.5
 0.74
In areas of high fluctuating stresses, such as in deck slabs, welded lap splices shall not be
used. All other welding, including tack-welding of reinforcing bar shall be in accordance
with AS/NZS 1554.3, or welded mesh in accordance with AS/NZS 4671, as appropriate.

33 AS 5100.5:2017
The design for fatigue of welded reinforcement and welded mesh shall be in accordance
with recognised verification methods as approved by the relevant authority.
NOTE: Suitable verification methods for fatigue of welded reinforcement include:
(a) EN 1992-1-1
(b) EN 1992-2
(c) AASHTO LRFD
(d) FIB Model Code 2010
TABLE 2.2.5
PERMISSIBLE TENSILE FATIGUE
STRESS RANGES IN STEEL
Type of steel embedded in Fatigue design stress range
concrete limit, MPa
Reinforcement 150 (0.35 + 0.026d i /d b )
Prestressing wires and strands 150
in grouted plastic ducts
Prestressing wires, strands and 100
bars in grout steel ducts
Deflected pretensioned strands 70
and bent reinforcing bars

LEGEND:
d b = nominal diameter of a reinforcing bar
di = nominal internal diameter of reinforcement bend or
hook
2.2.6 Calculation of stresses in the reinforcement and tendons of flexural members

When assessing steel stresses for fatigue in flexural members with shear reinforcement, the
stress variations in both the longitudinal reinforcement and tendons, and shear
reinforcement shall be calculated, assuming that all the shear force is carried by the
reinforcement and tendons. The angle between the compression struts and the longitudinal
axis of the member shall be chosen to be between 35° and 55°, except that for non-
prestressed slabs and trough girders the angle shall be between 40° and 55°.
2.3 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH

2.3.1 General
Strength checks for concrete structures and their component members shall be carried out
using the procedures specified in Clauses 2.3.2 to 2.3.6, and methods of structural analysis
specified in Section 6, as appropriate to the strength check procedures being used.
It shall be permissible to use different strength check procedures for different members in a
structure, and for the structure as a whole, provided it can be shown that all external actions
and forces and calculated internal stress resultants are consistent with the requirements of
equilibrium and compatibility for the entire structure.
2.3.2 Strength check procedure for use with linear elastic methods of analysis
The strength check procedure for use in conjunction with—
(a) linear elastic methods of analysis of indeterminate structures and members;
(b) simplified methods of analysis of indeterminate structures and members; and
(c) static analysis of determinate structures,

AS 5100.5:2017 34
shall be carried out as follows:

(i) It shall be confirmed that the design capacity is equal to or greater than the design
action effect, for all critical cross-sections and regions—
Rd  Ed . . . 2.3.2
where
Rd = design capacity (equal to Ru)
Ed = design action effect
(ii) The design capacity (Rd = Ru) shall be obtained using the appropriate capacity
reduction factor (), given in Table 2.3.2, and the ultimate strength (Ru), determined
in accordance with the relevant sections of this Standard, using characteristic values
for the material strengths.
(iii) The design action effect (Ed) shall be determined for the critical combination of
factored actions specified in AS 5100.2 and Clause 2.5 by one of the following
methods of analysis:
(A) Linear elastic analysis in accordance with Clause 6.2.
(B) Linear elastic analysis incorporating secondary bending moments due to lateral
joint displacement in accordance with Clause 6.3.
(C) Analysis in accordance with Clause 6.9.

(D) Equilibrium analysis of a statically determinate structure.
The capacity reduction factor () in Item (ii) and load combinations in Item (iii) above shall
not apply when using displacement-based earthquake design for assessing the flexural
strength of potential plastic hinge zones of bridge columns in seismic design categories
BEDC-2 to BEDC-4.
For displacement-based earthquake design, the capacity reduction factor  = 1.0.

35 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 2.3.2
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS (ϕ)
Type of action effect Capacity reduction factor (ϕ)
(a)
Axial force without bending:
(i) Tension: 0.8
(ii) Compression 0.6
(b) Bending without axial tension or compression: 0.6  (1.19  13k uo /12)  0.8
(c) Bending with axial tension:  + [(0.8  ) (N u /N uot )] and
 is obtained from Item (b)
(d) Bending with axial compression, where—
(i) N u  N ub 0.6
(ii) N u < N ub 0.6 + [(   0.6) (1  N u /N uot )] and
 is obtained from Item (b)
(e) Shear 0.7
(f) Torsion 0.7
(g) Bearing 0.6
(h) Bending, shear and compression in plain concrete 0.6
(i) Bending, shear and tension fixings 0.6

NOTE: Ductility Class L reinforcement shall only be used in accordance with Clause 1.2.
2.3.3 Strength check procedure for use with linear elastic stress analysis
The strength check procedure for use with a linear elastic stress analysis of a structure or
member shall be made as follows:
(a) The structure or member shall be analysed for the critical combination of factored
actions, as specified in AS 5100.2 and Clause 2.5, by linear stress analysis, in
accordance with Clause 6.4, assuming the concrete to be uncracked, and using
accepted principles of mechanics.
(b) The calculated principal compressive stresses shall not exceed the following value:
s  0.9 f c . . . 2.3.3
where
s = stress reduction factor with values taken from Table 2.3.3
β = an effective compressive strength factor, to be evaluated as follows:
(i) In regions not containing effective confining reinforcement, β shall equal
1.0 when the principal tensile stress does not exceed f ct , otherwise β shall
equal 0.6.
(ii) In regions where effective confining reinforcement is provided, β shall be
evaluated by rational calculation taking account of the amount of
confining steel and the details used, but shall not exceed 2.
(c) Reinforcement and/or tendons shall be provided to carry all of the internal tensile
forces, with stresses not exceeding s fsy and sfpy respectively, where values for the
stress reduction factor using linear analysis (s) are in accordance with Table 2.3.3.
(d) In determining the areas of steel reinforcement, it shall be permissible to reduce the
peak stresses by averaging the stresses over an area appropriate to the size of the
member.
(e) The stress development of the reinforcement and tendons shall be determined in
accordance with Clauses 13.1 and 13.3 respectively.
AS 5100.5:2017 36
TABLE 2.3.3
STRESS REDUCTION FACTORS FOR DESIGN
USING LINEAR STRESS ANALYSIS ( s)
Material Stress reduction factor
( s )
Concrete 0.6
Reinforcement and tendons 0.8
NOTE: Ductility Class L reinforcement shall only be used in
accordance with Clause 1.2.
2.3.4 Strength check procedure for use with strut-and-tie analysis

The strength check procedure for use with strut-and-tie analysis shall be carried out as
follows:
(a) The strut-and-tie model shall satisfy the requirements of Section 7.
(b) The forces acting on all struts and ties and nodes shall be determined for the critical
combination of factored actions as specified in AS 5100.2 and Clause 2.5 by an
analysis of the strut-and-tie model in accordance with Section 7.
(c) The compressive force in any concrete strut shall not exceed the design strength of
that strut determined in accordance with Clause 7.2.3. The strength reduction factor
( st) to be used in determining the design strength shall be in accordance with

Table 2.3.4.
(d) The tensile force in any tie shall not exceed the design strength of the tie determined
in accordance with Clause 7.3.2 where the strength reduction factor ( st) is given in
Table 2.3.4.
(e) The reinforcement and/or tendons in the ties shall be anchored in accordance with
Clause 7.3.3.
(f) The design strength of nodes shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 7.4.2 and
shall not be exceeded. The strength reduction factor (s) shall be in accordance with
Table 2.3.4.
TABLE 2.3.4
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS FOR DESIGN
USING STRUT-AND-TIE ANALYSIS ( st)
Material Strength reduction factor ( st )
Concrete in compression 0.6
Steel in tension 0.8
2.3.5 Strength check procedure for use with non-linear analysis of framed structures
The strength check procedure for use with non-linear analysis of framed structures at
collapse shall be carried out as follows:
(a) It shall be confirmed that the design capacity of the structure (Rd) is equal to or
greater than the design action effect (Ed)—
Rd  Ed . . . 2.3.5
(b) The design action effect (Ed) is the critical combination of factored actions as
specified in AS 5100.2 and Clause 2.5.

37 AS 5100.5:2017
(c) The design capacity of the structure ( Rd = sys Ru.sys) shall be obtained using the
appropriate system strength reduction factor (sys ) given in Table 2.3.5, and the mean
capacity of the structure (Ru.sys) determined for the same combination of actions
adopted in Item (b) to evaluate Ed, by using non-linear frame analysis as specified in
Clause 6.5, with mean values of material properties.
TABLE 2.3.5
SYSTEM STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS FOR DESIGN USING NON-
LINEAR METHODS OF ANALYSIS ( sys )
System strength
Type of failure
reduction factor ( sys )
For structural systems in which the deflections and local deformations at high 0.7
overload are an order of magnitude greater than those for service conditions; and
yielding of the reinforcement and/or the tendon occurs well before the peak load
is reached
In all other cases 0.5 (see Note)
NOTE: Larger values than 0.5 may be used if it can be shown that, at high overload, adequate warning is given
of impending collapse.
2.3.6 Strength check procedure for use with non-linear stress analysis
The strength check procedure for use with non-linear stress analysis at collapse shall be
carried out as follows:

(a) It shall be confirmed that the design capacity of the structure or the component
member is equal to or greater than the design action effect—
Rd  Ed . . . 2.3.6
where
Rd = design capacity of the structure or component
Ed = design action effect on the structure or the design action effects for a
component
(b) The design action effect (Ed) shall be the critical combination of factored actions (or
action effects) as specified in AS 5100.2 and Clause 2.5.
(c) The design capacity of the structure (or component) (Rd = sysRu.sys) shall be obtained
using the appropriate system strength reduction factor (sys) given in Table 2.3.5, and
the mean capacity of the structure (or component) ( Ru.sys), which shall be determined
for the same combination of actions adopted for Ed, by non-linear stress analysis as
specified in Clause 6.6, with mean values of material properties.
2.4 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY

2.4.1 General
Design checks shall be carried out for all appropriate service conditions to ensure the
structure will perform in a manner appropriate for its intended function and purpose.
NOTE: Design limits given or implied in Clauses 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 are based on previous design
experience, and reflect requirements for normal structures. In special situations other limits may
be appropriate.
2.4.2 Deflection
A limit for the calculated deflection of the member shall be chosen and shall be appropriate
to the structure and its intended use. The chosen value shall be not greater than the
deflection limits as specified in AS 5100.2. Deflections shall be calculated in accordance
with Clause 8.5 or Clause 9.3, as appropriate.
AS 5100.5:2017 38
2.4.3 Cracking
2.4.3.1 General
Cracking in concrete structures shall be controlled by appropriate design, specification and
construction measures so that structural performance, durability and appearance of the
structure are appropriate to its intended use, which shall include cracking in both the pre-
hardened and hardened concrete states.
2.4.3.2 Control of cracking
The design requirements for the control of cracking in the hardened concrete state, as set
out in Clause 2.4.3.1, shall be deemed to be satisfied by designing the structure and
members to conform to the following requirements:
(a) Flexural cracking in concrete beams and slabs under service conditions shall be
controlled in accordance with Clause 8.6, 9.4.1, 9.4.2, 9.4.4 or 9.4.5, as appropriate.
(b) Cracking caused by shrinkage and temperature in concrete slabs shall be controlled in
accordance with Clause 9.4.3.
(c) Cracking in concrete walls under service conditions shall be controlled in accordance
with Clause 11.7.2.
(d) Cracking in D-regions under service conditions shall be controlled in accordance with
Clause 12.8.
(e) Early age thermal cracking of large and/or restrained members shall be controlled in
accordance with Clause 4.12.
Notwithstanding the above requirements, all concrete members shall be provided with a
minimum of reinforcement as follows:
(i) For members with a thickness of 150 mm or less, a single layer of reinforcement of
not less than 500 mm2/m shall be provided for each of two directions, at right angles
to each other.
NOTE: Reinforcement provided for structural reasons may be considered as contributing
towards this requirement.
(ii) For members with a thickness greater than 150 mm, each face of the member shall be
reinforced with not less than 500 mm2/m for each of two directions at right angles to
each other. The layers shall be placed, as close to each surface as cover and detailing
permit.
NOTE: Reinforcement provided for structural reasons and located within 80 mm of the face
may be considered as contributing towards this requirement (see Tables 4.13.3.2 and
4.13.3.3).
Reinforcement shall be provided in two directions at right angles to each other and with a
spacing that is less than or equal to 300 mm.
Where considered necessary for durability requirements (for example, for exposure
classifications B2 or more severe) or where crack width is considered detrimental to the
appearance of the structure, consideration shall be given to limiting the steel stresses near
the tension face to values less than those given in this Standard. In addition, in such
conditions consideration shall be given to the detailing of the structure to minimize
cracking due to restraint and shrinkage.
2.4.4 Vibration
Vibration in concrete structures and members shall comply with the dynamic behaviour
requirements as specified in AS 5100.2 so that the serviceability and structural performance
are not adversely affected.

39 AS 5100.5:2017
2.5 ACTIONS AND COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS

2.5.1 Actions and loads
The minimum actions and loads used in the design shall be those set out in AS 5100.2.
2.5.2 Combinations of actions and loads
The combinations of actions, loads and forces (including prestressing forces) used in the
design shall be in accordance with AS 5100.2.
NOTE: See also Clause 10.2.4.5.
2.6 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY BY PROTOTYPE

TESTING
Notwithstanding the requirements of Clause 2.2, a structure or a component may be
designed for strength provided the prototype is tested in accordance with Appendix A.
If this alternative procedure is adopted, the requirements of Clause 2.7 shall apply, as
appropriate.
2.7 OTHER DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Requirements, such as progressive collapse and any special performance requirements, shall
be considered where relevant and, if significant, shall be taken into account in the design of
the structure in accordance with the principles of this Standard and appropriate engineering
principles.
The use of reinforcing steels complying with AS/NZS 4671 having a yield strength (fsy) of
500 MPa and Ductility Class E shall be considered for members and structures requiring
increased ductility to satisfy seismic design requirements. Grade 500E reinforcement shall
not be subjected to welding or heating.
Beam stability during lifting and erection shall be in accordance with Appendix B.

AS 5100.5:2017 40
SECTI ON 3 DESIGN PROPERTIES OF

M A T E R I A L S
3.1 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

3.1.1 Strength
3.1.1.1 Characteristic compressive strength
The characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days ( f c ) shall be either—
(a) taken as equal to the specified strength grade, provided the appropriate curing is
ensured and that the concrete complies with Section 17; or
(b) determined statistically from compressive strength tests carried out in accordance
with AS 1012.9.
NOTE: The characteristic compressive strengths of the standard strength grades are 25 MPa,
32 MPa, 40 MPa, 50 MPa, 65 MPa, 80 MPa and 100 MPa.
3.1.1.2 Mean in situ compressive strength
In the absence of more accurate data, the mean value of the in situ compressive strength
(fcmi) shall be taken as 90% of the mean value of the cylinder strength (fcm) at the relevant
age or shall be taken as those given in Table 3.1.2.

3.1.1.3 Tensile strength
The uniaxial tensile strength (fct) is the maximum stress that concrete can withstand when
subjected to uniaxial tension.
The uniaxial tensile strength shall be determined from either the measured flexural tensile
strength (fct.f) or from the measured splitting tensile strength (fct.sp) using either—
fct = 0.6 fct.f
or
fct = 0.9 fct.sp
where fct.f and fct.sp are determined statistically from—
(a) flexural strength tests carried out in accordance with AS 1012.11; or
(b) indirect tensile strength tests carried out in accordance with AS 1012.10,
respectively.
In the absence of more accurate data, the characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete
 ) and the characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of concrete ( f ct ) shall be taken as—
( f ct.f
  0.6 f c and f ct  0.36 f c at 28 days and standard curing,
f ct.f
where the mean and upper characteristic values are obtained by multiplying these values by
1.4 and 1.8, respectively.
3.1.1.4 Supplementary cementitious materials
3.1.1.4.1 General
Values of fct.ef shall be obtained from 0.6 f cm but not less than 3.0 MPa and fcm is the mean
concrete compressive strength at the time cracking is expected to occur.

41 AS 5100.5:2017
3.1.1.4.2 Fly ash

Fly ash, which is the solid material extracted from the flue gases of a boiler fired with
pulverized coal, shall comply with AS/NZS 3582.1.
3.1.1.4.3 Ground granulated iron blast-furnace slag (slag)
Ground granulated iron blast-furnace slap, which is a material consisting essentially of
silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium produced simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace, shall comply with AS 3582.2.
3.1.1.4.4 Amorphous silica
Amorphous silica, which is a very fine pozzolanic material composed mostly of non-
crystalline silica, shall comply with AS/NZS 3582.3.
NOTE: The high specific surface area of amorphous silica can cause workability problems when
used in cement paste, mortar or concrete if suitable measures or precautions are not implemented.
3.1.2 Modulus of elasticity
The mean value of modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ecj) at the appropriate age j, in days,
shall be either one of the following:
(a) Taken as equal to—
(i)   0.043 f 
1.5
cmi (in megapascals) when fcmi  40 MPa; or
(ii)      0.12  0.024

1.5
f cmi  (in megapascals) when fcmi > 40 MPa.
(b) For Standard strength grades at 28 days determined from Table 3.1.2 and determined
by test in accordance with AS 1012.17.
NOTES:
1 Where Ecj is determined from Item (a) or (b) above, consideration should be given to the fact
that this value has a range of 20%.
2 Where a load is sustained and where the concrete deformation is unrestrained such that time-
dependent deflections or strains are produced, or where a deformation is sustained so that the
time-dependent stress reductions occur, the final value of the time-dependent effects may be
calculated by using an effective modulus of elasticity equal to Ec divided by (1 +  cc
*
) where
 cc* is taken at its final value.
TABLE 3.1.2
CONCRETE PROPERTIES AT 28 DAYS
f c , MPa 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
f cmi , MPa 22 28 35 43 53 68 82 99
E c , MPa 24 000 26 700 30 100 32 800 34 800 37 400 39 600 42 200
3.1.3 Density
The density of concrete (ρ) shall be either—
(a) taken as not less than 2400 kg/m3 for normal weight concrete; or
(b) determined by test in accordance with AS 1012.12.1 or AS 1012.12.2.
3.1.4 Stress-strain curves
The stress-strain curve for concrete shall be either—
(a) assumed to be of curvilinear form defined by recognized simplified equations; or
(b) determined from suitable test data.

AS 5100.5:2017 42
For design purposes, the shape of the in situ uniaxial compressive stress-strain curve shall
be modified so that the maximum stress is 0.9 f c .
The maximum stress specified above shall not apply when assessing the flexural strength of
plastic hinge zones of bridge columns in accordance with Clause 10.2.4.2.
3.1.5 Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio for concrete (v) shall be either—
(a) taken as equal to 0.2; or
(b) determined by test in accordance with AS 1012.17.
3.1.6 Coefficient of thermal expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete shall be either—
(a) taken as equal to 10  106/°C, consideration being given to the fact that this value
has a range of 20%; or
3.1.7 Shrinkage
3.1.7.1 Calculation of design shrinkage strain
The design shrinkage strain of concrete (εcs) shall be determined—
(a) from measurements on similar local concrete;

(b) by tests after eight weeks of drying, in accordance with AS 1012.13 and modified for
the appropriate age; or
(c) by calculation in accordance with Clause 3.1.7.2.
3.1.7.2 Design shrinkage strain
When the design shrinkage strain of concrete (εcs) is to be calculated, it shall be determined
as the sum of the chemical (autogenous) shrinkage strain (ε cse) and the drying shrinkage
strain (εcsd), as follows:
εcs = εcse + εcsd . . . 3.1.7.2(1)
The autogenous shrinkage strain shall be taken as—
 cse   cse
*

 1.0  e 0.1t  . . . 3.1.7.2(2)
where t is the time (in days) after setting and  cse
*
is the final autogenous shrinkage strain
given by—
 cse
*
 0.06 f c  1.0  50  10 6 . . . 3.1.7.2(3)
At any time (t), in days, after the commencement of drying, the drying shrinkage strain
shall be taken as—
 csd  k1k 4 csd.b . . . 3.1.7.2(4)
and k1 is obtained from Figure 3.1.7.2 and k4 is equal to 0.7 for an arid environment, 0.65
for an interior environment, 0.6 for a temperate inland environment and 0.5 for a tropical or
near-coastal environment.
The basic drying shrinkage strain (  csd.b ) shall be taken as—
 csd.b  1.0  0.008 f c    csd.b
*
. . . 3.1.7.2(5)
where the final drying basic shrinkage strain (  csd.b
*
) depends on the quality of the local
aggregates, which shall be taken as 800  10 for Sydney and Brisbane, 900  106 for
6
Melbourne and 1000  106 elsewhere.

43 AS 5100.5:2017
NOTES:
1 Based on a value of  csd.b
*
= 1000  10 6 this method gives the typical design shrinkage strains
after 30 years shown in Table 3.1.7.2.
Consideration should be given to the fact that ε cs has a range of 30%.
2 Concrete exposed to early drying undergoes shrinkage due to capillary suction. This can
result in cracking and poor service performance, particularly of exposed slabs. The amount of
shrinkage from suction depends on the ambient conditions and the concrete mix, and can
exceed the combined shrinkage from other causes. Therefore, it is important to prevent
excessive drying of concrete between the commencement of casting and the application of
curing at the completion of finishing.
1.8
th = 50 mm
1.6
α 1t 0 . 8
k1 = t h = 10 0 m m
t 0 . 8 + 0.15 t h
1.4
α 1 = 0.8 + 1. 2e - 0 .0 0 5 t h
t h = 20 0 m m
1. 2
W h ere t i s in d ays
1.0
k1 th = 400 mm
0.8
0.6
0.4
0. 2
0
1 3 10 30 10 0 1 3 10 30
DAYS YE ARS
TIM E SIN CE CO M M EN CEM ENT OF DRYIN G, t
FIGURE 3.1.7.2 SHRINKAGE STRAIN COEFFICIENT (k 1) FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF th

AS 5100.5:2017 44
TABLE 3.1.7.2
TYPICAL DESIGN SHRINKAGE STRAINS AFTER 30 YEARS (  csd.b
*
 1000  )
*
Design shrinkage strain  cs  10 6  
Tropical, near coastal
Temperate inland
f c Arid environment Interior environment and coastal
environment
MPa environment
t h , mm t h , mm t h , mm t h , mm
50 100 200 400 50 100 200 400 50 100 200 400 50 100 200 400
25 990 870 710 550 920 810 660 510 850 750 610 470 720 630 510 400
32 950 840 680 530 880 780 640 500 820 720 590 460 690 610 500 390
40 890 790 650 510 830 740 610 480 780 690 570 450 660 590 490 390
50 830 740 610 490 770 690 580 460 720 650 540 440 620 550 470 380
65 730 650 560 460 680 620 530 440 640 580 500 410 560 510 440 370
80 630 570 500 420 590 540 480 410 560 520 450 390 500 460 410 360
100 490 460 420 380 480 450 410 370 460 430 400 360 420 400 370 340
3.1.8 Creep
3.1.8.1 General
The creep strain at any time (t) caused by a constant sustained stress (σo) shall be calculated
from the following equation:
εcc = φcc σo/Ec . . . 3.1.8.1
where
Ec = mean value of the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at 28 days
φcc = design creep coefficient at time (t) determined in accordance with
Clause 3.1.8.3
3.1.8.2 Basic creep coefficient
The basic creep coefficient of concrete (φcc.b) is the mean value of the ratio of final creep
strain to elastic strain for a specimen loaded at 28 days under a constant stress of 0.4 f c ,
and shall be—
(a) determined from measurements on similar local concrete;
(b) determined by tests in accordance with AS 1012.16; or
(c) taken as the value given in Table 3.1.8.2.
TABLE 3.1.8.2
BASIC CREEP COEFFICENT
Characteristic strength ( f c ), MPa 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
Basic creep coefficient (φ cc.b) 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.5
3.1.8.3 Design creep coefficient

The design creep coefficient (φcc) for concrete at any time (t) shall be determined from the
basic creep coefficient (φcc.b) by any accepted mathematical model for creep behaviour,
calibrated such that φcc.b is also predicted by the chosen model.

45 AS 5100.5:2017
In the absence of more accurate methods, φcc at any time (t) shall be taken as—
φcc = k2 k3 k4 k5 φcc.b . . . 3.1.8.3
where k2 is obtained from Figure 3.1.8.3 and k3 depends on the age of the concrete ( ) at the
time of loading (in days) and is given by the following:
k3 = 2.7/[1+log()] for   1 day
k4 = 0.7 for an arid environment, 0.65 for an interior environment, 0.60 for a
temperate inland environment and 0.50 for a tropical or near-coastal
environment
k5 = a modification factor for high strength concrete, which shall be taken as—
k5 = 1.0 when f c  50 MPa; or
k5 = (2.0  α3)  0.02(1.0  α3) f c when 50 MPa < f c  100 MPa

the factor α3 = 0.7/(k4α2); and α2 is defined in Figure 3.1.8.3
Consideration shall be given to the fact that φcc has a range of approximately 30%. This
range is likely to be exceeded if—
(a) the concrete member is subjected to prolonged periods of temperature in excess of
25°C; or
(b) the member is subject to sustained stress levels in excess of 0.5 f c .

The final design creep coefficients (  cc*
) (after 30 years) predicted by this method for
concrete first loaded at 28 days are given in Table 3.1.8.3.
NOTE: It is recommended that the maximum compressive stress under permanent effects does not
exceed 0.45 f c .

AS 5100.5:2017 46
1.8
th = 50 mm
1.6
α 2t 0.8
k2 = t h = 10 0 m m
t 0.8 + 0.15 t h
1.4
α 2 = 0.8 + 1.12e - 0 .0 0 5 t h
t h = 20 0 m m
1. 2
W h ere t i s in d ays
th = 400 mm
1.0
k2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0. 2
0
1 3 10 30 10 0 1 3 10 30
DAYS YE ARS
TIM E SIN CE CO M M EN CEM ENT OF DRYIN G, t
FIGURE 3.1.8.3 COEFFICIENT (k 2)

47 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 3.1.8.3
FINAL DESIGN CREEP COEFFICIENTS (  cc* ) FOR CONCRETE FIRST LOADED
AT 28 DAYS
*
 cc
Tropical, near coastal

Temperate inland
f c Arid environment Interior environment and coastal
environment
MPa environment
t h , mm t h , mm t h , mm t h , mm
100 200 400 100 200 400 100 200 400 100 200 400
25 4.82 3.90 3.27 4.48 3.62 3.03 4.13 3.34 2.80 3.44 2.78 2.33
32 3.90 3.15 2.64 3.62 2.93 2.46 3.34 2.70 2.27 2.79 2.25 1.90
40 3.21 2.60 2.18 2.98 2.41 2.02 2.75 2.23 1.87 2.30 1.86 1.56
50 2.75 2.23 1.89 2.56 2.07 1.73 2.36 1.91 1.60 1.97 1.59 1.33
65 2.07 1.75 1.53 1.95 1.66 1.46 1.84 1.59 1.38 1.61 1.38 1.23
80 1.56 1.40 1.29 1.50 1.36 1.25 1.45 1.32 1.22 1.33 1.23 1.14
100 1.15 1.14 1.11 1.15 1.14 1.11 1.15 1.14 1.11 1.15 1.14 1.11
NOTE: For long span and deflection sensitive structures, reference should be made to specialist literature.
3.2 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCEMENT

3.2.1 Strength and ductility
For the purposes of design, the characteristic yield strength of reinforcement (fsy) shall be
taken as not greater than the value specified in Table 3.2.1 for the appropriate type of
reinforcement (see also Clause 17.4.1).
The ductility of the reinforcement shall be characterized by its uniform strain (εsu) and
tensile strength to yield stress ratio and designated as low (L) or normal (N) Ductility Class
as given in Table 3.2.1. For the purposes of design, values of these parameters for each
Ductility Class shall comply with AS/NZS 4671, and for stainless steel with BS 6744.
The physical and mechanical properties of stainless steel reinforcement shall be in
accordance with BS 6744 and the chemical composition conform to one of designations
1.4301, 1.4162, 1.4436, 1.4429, 1.4362 or 1.4462 to EN 10088-1 (as identified by
BS 6744).
Ductility Class L reinforcement may be prequalified and reclassified as Ductility Class LP
and used as shear and torsion reinforcement to Clauses 8.2.5 or longitudinal shear
reinforcement to Clause 8.4 provided the following requirements are satisfied:
(a) A minimum uniform strain of 0.025.
(b) A minimum tensile strength to yield stress ratio of 1.05.
Testing to determine Items (a) and (b) shall be undertaken in accordance with the
following:
(i) For individual fitments, 3 tests per coil or per 5 tonnes, whichever is the greater.
(ii) For transverse bars of welded mesh, 3 tests per coil or per 5 tonnes, whichever is the
greater.
(iii) For longitudinal bars of welded mesh, 1 test per coil or per 5 tonnes, whichever is the
greater.

AS 5100.5:2017 48
The minimum values of uniform strain for Ductility Class LP reinforcement are not lower-
characteristic values, but are lower limits placed on every tensile test result. The uniform
strain in any test shall be not less than 0.025, and the tensile strength to yield stress ratio
shall be not less than 1.05.
NOTE: In AS/NZS 4671, ε su is referred to as Agt, expressed as a percentage, and fsy is referred to
as Re .
TABLE 3.2.1
YIELD STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY CLASS OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Characteristic Uniform
Ductility
yield strength (f sy ) strain
Type Designation grade class
MPa (ε su )
Bar plain to AS/NZS 4671 R250N 250 0.05 N
Bar plain deformed or indented to D500L 500 0.015 L
AS/NZS 4671 D500N 500 0.05 E
D500E 500 0.10
Bar deformed to Clause 3.2.1 D500LP 500 0.0253 LP
Welded mesh, plain, deformed or R500L, D500L, I500L 500 0.015 L
indented to AS/NZS 4671
R500N, D500N, 500 0.05 N
I500N
Welded mesh, plain, deformed or R500LP, D500LP, 500 0.0253 LP

indented to Clause 3.2.1 I500LP
Stainless steel plain bar to BS 6744 200 200 0.05 N
(see Note 2)
Stainless steel ribbed bar to 500 650 0.05 N
BS 6744 (see Note 2)
NOTES:
1 Reference should be made to AS/NZS 4671 for explanation to designations applying to 500 MPa steels
and BS 6744 for stainless steels.
2 Stainless steel bars to BS 6744 are deemed to satisfy the requirements for Ductility Class N reinforcement
as in AS/NZS 4671.
3 Ductility Class LP is Ductility Class L reinforcement that is prequalified to meet the requirements of
Clause 3.2.1, that is minimum uniform strain of 0.025 and minimum tensile strength to yield stress ratio of
1.05.

The modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (Es) for all stress values not greater than the
yield strength (fsy) shall be either—
(a) taken as equal to 200  103 MPa; or
(b) determined by test.
A stress-strain curve for reinforcement shall be either—
(a) assumed to be of a form defined by recognized simplified equations; or
3.2.4 Coefficient of thermal expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion of reinforcement shall be—
(a) for reinforcement to AS/NZS 4671 ......................................................... 12  106/°C;
(b) for stainless steel designations 1.4362, 1.4162, 1.4462 to EN 10088-1 .... 13  106/°C;

49 AS 5100.5:2017
(c) for stainless steel designations 1.4301, 1.4429, 1.4436 to

EN 10088-1 ........................................................................................ 16  106/°C; or
(d) determined from suitable test data.
3.3 PROPERTIES OF TENDONS

3.3.1 Strength
The following applies:
(a) The characteristic minimum breaking strength (fpb) for commonly used tendons shall
be as specified in Table 3.3.1.
NOTE: For tendons of dimensions not covered in Clause 3.3, refer to AS/NZS 4672.1.
(b) The yield strength of tendons (fpy) shall be taken either as the 0.1% proof stress as
specified in AS/NZS 4672.1, or determined by test data. In the absence of test data it
shall be taken as follows:
(i) For wire used in the as-drawn condition ................................................. 0.80fpb.
(ii) For stress-relieved wire .......................................................................... 0.83fpb.
(iii) For all grades of strand ........................................................................... 0.82fpb.
(iv) For hot-rolled bars (super grade) ............................................................ 0.81fpb.
(v) For hot-rolled ribbed bars ....................................................................... 0.89fpb.
TABLE 3.3.1
TENSILE STRENGTH OF COMMONLY USED WIRE STRAND AND BAR
Characteristic Characteristic
Nominal
Material type and Area minimum breaking minimum breaking
diameter
Standard load strength (f pb )
mm mm 2 kN MPa
As-drawn wire, 5.0 19.6 34.7 1700
AS/NZS 4672.1 7.0 38.5 64.3 1670
Stress-relieved wire, 5.0 19.9 33.8 1700
AS/NZS 4672.1 7.0 38.5 64.3 1670
7 wire ordinary strand, 9.5 55.0 102 1850
AS/NZS 4672.1 12.7 98.6 184 1870
15.2 140 250 1790
15.2 143 261 1830
7 wire compacted strand, 15.2 165 300 1820
AS/NZS 4672.1 18.0 223 380 1700
Hot-rolled bars, 26 562 579 1030
AS/NZS 4672.1 29 693 714 1030
(Super grade only) 32 840 865 1030
36 995 1025 1030
40 1232 1269 1030
56 2428 2501 1030
75 4371 4502 1030

AS 5100.5:2017 50

The modulus of elasticity of commonly used tendons (Ep) shall be—
(a) determined by test; or
(b) taken as equal to—
(i) for as-drawn wire, to AS/NZS 4672.1 ........................................... 205 10 GPa;
(ii) for stress-relieved steel wire, to AS/NZS 4672.1 ........................... 205 10 GPa;
(iii) for stress-relieved steel strand, to AS/NZS 4672.1 .......................... 200 5 GPa;
(iv) for hot-rolled high tensile alloy steel bars, to AS/NZS 4672.1....... 205 10 GPa.
NOTE: Consideration should be given to the fact that the modulus of elasticity of tendons will
vary more when a multi-strand or multi-wire tendon is stressed as a single cable. This will
influence the calculated extension.
A stress-strain curve for tendons shall be determined from appropriate test data.
3.3.4 Relaxation of tendons
3.3.4.1 General
This Clause applies to the relaxation, at any age and stress level, of low-relaxation wire,
low-relaxation strand, and alloy-steel bars.

3.3.4.2 Basic relaxation
The basic relaxation of a tendon (Rb) after one thousand hours at 20°C and 0.8fpb shall be
determined in accordance with AS/NZS 4672.1.
3.3.4.3 Design relaxation
Subject to Clause 3.3.4.4, the design relaxation of a tendon (R) shall be determined from the
following equation:
R = k6 k7 k8 Rb . . . 3.3.4.3
where
k6 = a coefficient, dependent on the duration of the prestressing force
= log [5.4(j)1/6]
j = time after prestressing, in days
k7 = a coefficient, dependent on the stress in the tendon as a proportion of fpb,
determined from Figure 3.3.4.3
k8 = a coefficient, dependent on the average annual temperature (T) in degrees
Celsius, taken as T/20 but not less than 1.0
Rb = basic relaxation of a tendon after one thousand hours at 20°C, as specified in
Clause 3.3.4.2
3.3.4.4 Design relaxation for elevated temperature curing
Where curing of a prestressed member is carried out at elevated temperatures, ultimate
relaxation shall be deemed to have occurred during the curing cycle. In such cases, the
design relaxation shall be taken as either—
(a) the value determined from suitable test data; or
(b) for low relaxation strand stressed to 0.8fp, a value of 7% to 10%.

51 AS 5100.5:2017
COEFFICIENT k 7
A llll oy sste
te e l b
bar
ar
W ire an d str an d
0
0.4 0. 5 0.6 0.7 0.8
STRESS IN TEN D O N AS PRO PORTIO N O F f p b
FIGURE 3.3.4.3 COEFFICIENT k 7
3.4 LOSS OF PRESTRESS IN TENDONS

3.4.1 General
The loss of prestress in tendons, at any given time, shall be taken to be the sum of the
immediate loss of prestress and the time-dependent loss of prestress, calculated in
accordance with Clauses 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 respectively.

NOTE: Revision of these values will be necessary in the estimation of total loss of prestress for
unusual conditions of exposure or where new processes or materials are introduced.
3.4.2 Immediate loss of prestress
3.4.2.1 General
The immediate loss of prestress shall be estimated by adding the calculated losses of
prestress due to elastic deformation of concrete, friction, anchoring and other immediate
losses as are applicable.
3.4.2.2 Loss of prestress due to curing conditions
Where curing of a prestressed member is carried out at ambient conditions, the design
relaxation shall be as determined by Clause 3.3.4.3.
Where curing of a prestressed member is carried out at elevated temperature (such as steam
curing), the design relaxation shall be determined from Clause 3.3.4.4 and shall be
considered as an immediate loss.
3.4.2.3 Loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of concrete
Calculation of the immediate loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of the concrete at
transfer shall be based on the value of modulus of elasticity of the concrete at that age. For
multi-stage prestressing, elastic deformation losses resulting from each stage of stressing
shall be determined.
3.4.2.4 Loss of prestress due to friction
The stress variation along the design profile of a tendon due to friction in the jack, the
anchorage and the duct shall be assessed in order to obtain an estimate of the prestressing
forces at the critical sections considered in the design.

AS 5100.5:2017 52
The extension of the tendon shall be calculated allowing for the variation in tension along
its length, as follows:
(a) Friction in the jack and anchorage The loss of prestress due to friction in the jack
and anchorage shall be determined for the type of jack and anchorage system to be
used.
(b) Friction along the tendon Friction loss shall be calculated from an analysis of the
forces exerted by the tendon on the duct. In the absence of more detailed calculations,
the stress in the tendon at a distance (a) measured from the jacking end (σpa) shall be
taken as—
 pa   pje  
    p Lpa
tot
. . . 3.4.2.4
where
σpj = maximum stress in the tendon at the jacking end
e = base of Napierian logarithms
μ = friction curvature coefficient for different conditions
In the absence of specific data and when all tendons in contact in the
one duct are stressed simultaneously, μ shall be taken as—
(i) for greased-and-wrapped coating, 0.15;
(ii) for bright and zinc-coated metal sheathing, 0.15 to 0.20;

(iii) for bright and zinc-coated flat metal ducts, 0.20; and
(iv) for polyethylene ducts, 0.14.
αtot = sum in radians of the absolute values of successive angular deviations of
the prestressing tendon over a length of the tendon from the jacking end
to a point at distance (a) from that end (Lpa)
p = an estimate of the angular deviation due to wobble effects, in radians per
metre (rad/m)
As a first approximation, βp shall be taken as—
(i) for sheathing containing tendons other than bars and having an
internal diameter—
50 mm: 0.024 to 0.016 rad/m
>50 mm but 90 mm: 0.016 to 0.012 rad/m
>90 mm but 140 mm: 0.012 to 0.008 rad/m;
(ii) for flat metal ducts containing tendons other than bars, 0.024 rad/m
to 0.016 rad/m;
(iii) for sheathing containing bars and having an internal diameter of
50 mm or less, 0.016 rad/m to 0.008 rad/m; and
(iv) for bars of any diameter in a greased-and-wrapped coating,
0.008 rad/m.
Lpa = length of the tendon from the jacking end to a point at a distance (a)
from that end
The magnitude of the friction due to duct curvature and wobble used in the design shall be
verified during the stressing operation.

53 AS 5100.5:2017
3.4.2.5 Loss of prestress during anchoring

In a post-tensioned member, allowance shall be made for loss of prestress when the
prestressing force is transferred from the tensioning equipment to the anchorage. This
allowance shall be checked on the site and any correspondingly required adjustment shall
be made.
3.4.2.6 Loss of prestress due to other considerations
Where applicable, loss of prestress due to the following shall be taken into account in
design:
(a) Deformation of the forms for precast members.
(b) Differences in temperature between stressed tendons and the actual stressed structures
during heat treatment of the concrete.
(c) Changes in temperature between the time of stressing the tendons and the time of
casting concrete.
(d) Deformations in the construction joints of precast structures assembled in sections.
3.4.3 Time-dependent losses of prestress
3.4.3.1 General
The total time-dependent loss of prestress shall be estimated by adding the calculated losses
of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete, creep of the concrete, tendon relaxation, and
other considerations as applicable.
3.4.3.2 Loss of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete
The loss of prestress in the tendon due to shrinkage of the concrete shall be taken as Epεcs,
modified to allow for the effects of reinforcement, provided the shrinkage restraint effects
of the reinforcement are included in the serviceability design of the member, where εcs is
determined in accordance with Clause 3.1.7.2.
Where reinforcement is distributed throughout the member so that its effect on shrinkage is
mainly axial, the loss of prestress in the tendons may be taken as—
E p  cs
. . . 3.4.3.2
1  15 As / Ag
3.4.3.3 Loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete

The loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete shall be calculated from an analysis of the
creep strains in the concrete. In the absence of more detailed calculations and provided the
sustained stress in the concrete at the level of the tendons at no time exceeds 0.5 f c , the loss
of stress in the tendon due to creep of the concrete may be taken as Epεcc, in which εcc is
given by—
εcc = 0.8φcc(σci/Ec) . . . 3.4.3.3
where
φcc = design creep coefficient at any time, calculated in accordance with
Clause 3.1.8.3
σci = sustained stress in the concrete at the level of the centroid of the tendons,
calculated using the initial prestressing force prior to any time-dependent losses
and the sustained portions of all the service loads

AS 5100.5:2017 54
3.4.3.4 Loss of prestress due to tendon relaxation

The loss of stress in a tendon due to relaxation of the tendon in the member shall be
determined by modifying the percentage loss of stress due to the design relaxation of the
tendon (R) to take into account the effects of shrinkage and creep.
In the absence of more detailed calculations, the percentage loss of stress in the tendon in
the member shall be taken as—
 the loss of prestress due to creep and shrinkage 
R 1   . . . 3.4.3.4
  pi
 
where
σpi = stress in the tendon immediately after transfer
3.4.3.5 Loss of prestress due to other considerations
Account shall be taken, if applicable, of—
(a) losses due to deformations in the joints of precast structures assembled in sections;
and
(b) losses due to the effects of any increase in creep caused by frequently repeated loads.
3.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR NON-LINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Where the structure is to be analysed in design in accordance with Clause 6.5 and 6.6, mean
values of all relevant material properties shall be used in the form of the stress-strain curve
for the material.

55 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 4 DESIGN FOR DURABILITY
4.1 GENERAL
The requirements of this Section apply to plain, steel fibre reinforced, and steel reinforced
and prestressed concrete structures and members with a design life of 100 years in
For structures with design life of 50 (20%) years, the durability requirements of AS 3600
may be adopted.
NOTES:
1 More stringent requirements may be appropriate for structures with a design life in excess of
100 years (for example, monumental structures or high risk significant structures crossing
major waterways), while some relaxation of the requirements may be acceptable for structures
with a design or service life of less than 40 years (for example, temporary structures).
2 Durability is a complex topic and compliance with these requirements may not be sufficient
to ensure a durable structure.
3 Design life is defined in Clause 1.4.3.19 and is the period assumed in design for which a
structure or structural element is required to perform its intended purpose with minor
maintenance and without replacement or major structural repairs.
4.2 METHOD OF DESIGN FOR DURABILITY

Durability shall be allowed for in design by determining the exposure classification in
accordance with Clause 4.3 and, for that exposure classification, complying with the
appropriate requirements for concrete quality and curing, in accordance with Clauses 4.4
and 4.5. In addition—
(a) members subject to abrasion from traffic (for example, pavements and bridge decks)
shall satisfy the requirements of Clause 4.6;
(b) members subject to cycles of freezing and thawing shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 4.7;
(c) members subject to aggressive sulfate or acid sulfate soils and members in acidic or
saline soils shall satisfy the requirements of Clause 4.8;
(d) members subject to marine exposure conditions shall satisfy the requirements of
Clause 4.9;
(e) members susceptible to damage due to alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) shall satisfy
the requirements of Clause 4.10;
(f) early age thermal cracking of concrete for large and restrained members shall be
controlled in accordance with the requirements of Clause 4.11;
(g) members containing steel fibres, steel reinforcement and/or tendons, the chemical
content restrictions of the concrete shall satisfy the requirements of Clause 4.12;
(h) cover to reinforcement and tendons shall satisfy the requirements of Clause 4.13; and
(i) the effects of all types of concrete cracking shall be considered, in accordance with
the requirements of Clause 4.14.

AS 5100.5:2017 56
4.3 EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION

The following are applicable:
(a) The exposure classification for a surface of a member shall be determined from
Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3.
(b) For determining concrete quality requirements in accordance with Clauses 4.4 to 4.12
as appropriate, the exposure classification for the member shall be taken as the most
severe exposure of any of its surfaces.
(c) For determining cover requirements for corrosion protection in accordance with
Clause 4.13.3, the exposure classification shall be taken as the classification for the
surface from which the cover is measured.
(d) Members that do not contain steel reinforcement and/or tendons shall have an
exposure classification of A, unless the environment is aggressive to the concrete
NOTE: See also Clause 4.2, Items (b), (c), (d) and (e).
TABLE 4.3
EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATIONS
Exposure classification
reinforced or prestressed
Surface and exposure environment
concrete members
(see Notes 1 and 13)
1 Surface of members in contact with the ground (see Notes 2 and 3):
(a) Members protected by a damp-proof membrane in non-aggressive A
soils
(b) Members in non-aggressive soils (see Note 4) B1
(c) Members in aggressive soils:
(i) Sulfate bearing (magnesium content <1g/L) See Table 4.8
(ii) Sulfate bearing (magnesium content 1g/L) (see Notes 5and 6) U
(iii) Other U
(d) Salt-rich soils and soils in areas affected by salinity See Table 4.8
2 Surfaces of members in interior environments:
Fully enclosed within a structure except for a brief period of weather A
exposure during construction (see Note 14)
3 Surfaces of members in above-ground exterior environments in areas that
are:
(a) Inland (>50 km from coastline) environment being:
(i) Non-industrial and arid climatic zone (see Notes 7 and 8) A
(ii) Non-industrial and temperate climatic zone A
(iii) Non-industrial and tropical climatic zone B1
(iv) Industrial (see Note 8) and any climatic zone B1
(b) Near-coastal (1 km to 50 km from coastline), any climatic zone B1
(c) Coastal (see Note 9) and any climatic zone B2
4 Surfaces of members in water (see Note 3):
(a) In fresh water (chloride content <300 ppm) B1
(b) In brackish water (chloride content 300–6000 ppm) B2
(c) In soft or running water U
(continued)

57 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 4.3 (continued)

Exposure classification
reinforced or prestressed
Surface and exposure environment
concrete members
(see Notes 1 and 13)
5 Surfaces of maritime structures in sea water or in brackish water with
chloride content >6000 ppm:
(a) Permanently submerged B2
(b) In spray zone (see Note 10) C1
(c) In tidal/splash zone (see Note 11) C2
6 Surfaces of members in other environments, i.e. any exposure environment
U
not specified in Items 1 to 5 above (see Notes 12 and 13)
NOTES:
1 In this context, reinforced concrete includes any concrete containing metals that rely on the concrete for
protection against environmental degradation. Plain concrete members containing metallic embedments
should be treated as reinforced members when considering durability.
2 Exposure classifications and durability design of concrete piles shall be in accordance with this Standard.
3 Members below ground without permanent steel casing shall be classified as members in water unless it is
proved by geotechnical investigation that no part of the member is below the permanent water table level.
4 For the purposes of this Table, a non-aggressive soil is defined as within the limits noted in row 1 of
Table 4.8. If testing has been undertaken to ascertain that the soil in contact with concrete is non-
aggressive, exposure classification A may be used, provided the soil is not subject to wetting and drying.
Typically, members in the top 500 mm of soil would not qualify for this reduction.
5 Permeable soils with a pH less than 4.5, or with groundwater containing more than 1 g per litre of sulfate-
bearing magnesium ions, should be considered highly aggressive.
6 Severity of sulfate attack depends on the type of sulfate. For example, magnesium sulfate is more
aggressive than sodium sulfate. The use of concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials may
be adequate for sodium sulfate conditions. For the magnesium sulfate conditions, specific consideration
should be given to concrete containing not only supplementary cementitious materials but also other
protective measures that are likely to resist this type of sulfate.
7 The climatic zones referred to are those given in Figure 4.3, which is based on the Bureau of Meteorology
map, Major seasonal rainfall zones of Australia, Commonwealth of Australia, 2005.
8 Industrial refers to areas that are within 3 km of industries that discharge atmospheric pollutants.
9 For the purpose of this Table, the coastal zone includes locations within 1 km of the shoreline of large
expanses of saltwater. Where there are strong prevailing winds or vigorous surf, the distance should be
increased beyond 1 km and higher levels of protection should be considered.
10 The spray zone is the zone from 1 m above wave crest level.
11 The tidal/splash zone is immediately below the spray zone and includes the zone 1 m below lowest
astronomical tide (LAT) and up to 1 m above highest astronomical tide (HAT) on vertical structures, and all
exposed soffits of horizontal structures over the sea.
12 Further guidance on measures appropriate in exposure classification U may be obtained from AS 3735 and
AS 3735 Supp l respectively which cover exposure classifications and aggressiveness of various liquids and
ground environments in contact with a concrete surface.
13 In this Table, classifications A, B1, B2, C1 and C2 represent increasing degrees of severity of exposure,
while classification U represents an exposure environment not specified in this Table but for which a
degree of severity of exposure should be appropriately assessed. Protective surface coatings may be taken
into account in the assessment of the exposure classification.
14 The interior of a box girder or voided member is typically determined to be a classification A, unless a
more detailed assessment is carried out identifying a different exposure classification. Where the exterior of
a box girder or voided member is exposed to a salt spray, the interior should be at least a classification B1.
This Note does not apply to the internal surfaces of the segmental box girders.

AS 5100.5:2017 58
13 0 ° 14 0 °
C L AS S I FI CAT I O N 15 0 °
10 ° T h u r s d ay I s
T R O PI CA L 10 °
Yirrkala
Ashmore Is DA RW I N We i p a
T E M PER AT E
Tr o u g h t o n I s Katherine
ARID
Wyndham Cook town
Cairns Willis Is
D e r by
TROPICAL Normanton
Broome Halls Creek
To w n s v i l l e
Camooweal
Te n n a n t C r e e k
Pt Hedland Mt Isa
Hughenden 20°
20° M a c k ay
North West
Cape Wittenoom
Alice Springs Longreach
Rockhampton
Mundiwindi
Giles Bundaberg
ARID Birdsville Ta r o o m
C a r n a r vo n
C h a r l ev i l l e
Meekatharra Wiluna Oodnadatta
BRISBANE
L ave r t o n Marree
Moree
Geraldton Grafton
Fo r r e s t Cook Ta r c o o l a B o u r ke
Kalgoorlie
30°
Eu c l a Cobar Ta m w o r t h
30° Ceduna Po r t A u g u s t a
Dubbo
PER T H TEMPER ATE TEMPER ATE Newcastle
Wa g i n Mildura
Esperance SY D N E Y
ADEL AIDE
CA N B ER R A Wo l l o n g o n g
Cape Leeuwin
A l b a ny Horsham Ec h u c a
Kangaroo Is.
Cooma
MELBOURNE
Po r t l a n d Sale
CLIMATIC ZO NES
AUSTR ALIA Currie Burnie
40°
Launceston
40° Queenstown
Kilometres 200 0 200 400 600 800 Kilometres
PR O J EC T I O N A L B ER S C O N I CA L EQ UA L A R E A Hobar t
110 ° 12 0 ° 13 0 ° 14 0 ° 15 0 °
FIGURE 4.3 CLIMATIC ZONES
4.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE FOR EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATIONS A,

B1, B2, C1 AND C2
4.4.1 General
Members subject to exposure classifications A, B1, B2, C1 and C2 shall have minimum f c
cement material content and maximum water/cement (W/C) material ratio as specified in
Table 4.4.1(A) (columns 2, 3 and 4 respectively) and be cured as specified in
Table 4.4.1(A) (column 5), unless stated otherwise in this Clause, and have a minimum
average compressive strength of the concrete at the completion of accelerated curing and at
the time of stripping of forms or removal from moulds as specified in Table 4.4.1(A)
(column 6).
NOTE: In addition to the minimum requirements of f c , minimum cement material content and
maximum water/cement (W/C) material ratio, testing for the penetrability and absorption of
concrete in accordance with specified test methods such as VPV (volume of permeable voids) to
AS 1012.21 and sorptivity may be required to further enhance the durability performance of
concrete.
All concrete shall be specified as special class in accordance with AS 1379.
In addition to the requirements of Table 4.4.1(A), all concrete for members subject to
exposure classifications A, B1, B2, C1 and C2 shall be constructed in accordance with the
minimum compliant cement material proportions specified in Table 4.4.1(B).

59 AS 5100.5:2017
An alternative concrete mix for durability may be used if approved by the authority. The
concrete mix and associated testing shall demonstrate that the concrete can provide a level
of durability at least equal to that provided by this Standard for the concrete structure over
its required design life.
Where self-compacting concrete (SCC) as defined in Clause 1.4.3.57 is used, it shall also
comply with the required properties specified in Table 4.4.1(C) for slump flow, T500 time
and passing ability as determined by test method AS 1012.3.5.
TABLE 4.4.1(A)
MINIMUM STRENGTH AND CEMENT MATERIAL CONTENT,
MAXIMUM WATER/CEMENT (W/C) MATERIAL RATIO
AND CURING REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6
Minimum
average
compressive
strength at the
Minimum Minimum
completion of
Maximum water/ initial curing
Exposure Minimum cement accelerated
cement material requirement
classification f c material curing and/or at
(W/C) ratio (see
content the time of
Clause 17.3.5.1)
stripping of
forms or
removal from
moulds
MPa kg/m 3 MPa

Cure
A 25 280 — continuously for 15
at least 3 days
B1 32 330 0.50 Cure 20
continuously for
B2 40 400 0.45 at least 7 days 25
C1 50 450 0.40 Cure 32

continuously for
C2 50 470 0.36 at least 14 days 35
NOTE: For acidic and sulfate deterioration mechanisms in exposure classifications C1 and C2, a water
cementitous material (w/c) ratio of less than or equal to 0.4 and with a limit for the minimum cement material
content of 420 kg/m3 may be used.

AS 5100.5:2017 60
TABLE 4.4.1(B)
COMPLIANT CEMENT MATERIAL PROPORTIONS (MINIMUM TO MAXIMUM
RANGE)
Proportioning of cement material
Exposure (% mass) in concrete mixes
classification Fly ash Amorphous silica
Slag Triple blends
(FA) (SF)
Up to 60 * /up to 40 ‡ , up to
A 100 * /0 to 70 * /30 † 100 * /0 to 60 * /40 ‡ 100 * /0 to 90 * /10 §
25 † , up to 10 §
Up to 60 * /up to 40 ‡ , up to
B1 100 * /0 to 70 * /30 † 100 * /0 to 60 * /40 ‡ 100 * /0 to 90 * /10 §
25 † , up to 10 §
70 * /30 ‡ to Up to 60 * /up to 40 ‡ , up to
B2 80 * /20 † to 70 * /30 † 92 * /8 § to 90 * /10 §
60 * /40 ‡ 25 † , up to 10 §
C1 75 * /25 † to 60 * /40 † 50 * /50 ‡ to 92 * /8 § to 90 * /10 § 25 *  30 * /60 ‡  67 ‡ /8 §  10 §
30 * /70 ‡ 70 *  75 * /17†  20† /8 §  10 §
C2 75 * /25 † to 60 * /40 † 50 * /50 ‡ to 92 * /8 § to 90 * /10 § 25 *  30 * /60 ‡  67 ‡ /8 §  10 §
30 * /70 ‡ 70 *  75 * /17†  20† /8 §  10 §
* % of GP (general purpose Portland cement to AS 3972)
† % of FA
‡ % of slag
§ % of SF
NOTES:
1 The Table is by percent (%) of total combined cement (by weight).
2 Where proportioning of cement material in concrete mixes utilizes replacement levels of supplementary
cementitious materials outside of these limits, a more detailed methodology may be mandated by the
authority, addressing potential lower early strength development, curing and stripping times and concrete
strength requirements for early lifting.
3 The cement material proportions in this Table are based on the replacement of type GP cement with a
supplementary cementitious material. The use of special purpose cement as defined in AS 3972 on its own
may be considered for particular applications if approved by the relevant authority.
4 Where a member is located in more than one exposure environment, the concrete mix shall either comply
with the relevant mix requirements for each environment, or the mix requirements for the more severe
environment may apply to the whole member, provided the additional cover for the more severe
environment is demonstrated to provide equivalent durability for the mix in then less severe environment.
TABLE 4.4.1(C)
REQUIRED PROPERTIES OF SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC)
Properties of SCC Measurement Observations
Slump flow 550–750 mm spread The aggregate shall be evenly distributed
throughout the concrete paste within the spread
and shall not exhibit signs of segregation
T 500 time Achieve a spread of 500 mm The final spread shall not exceed 750 mm in
(measure of viscosity) within 2 to 5 seconds diameter
Passing ability 10 mm The concrete shall not exhibit signs of
segregation

61 AS 5100.5:2017
4.4.2 Curing
4.4.2.1 General
Concrete shall be cured, using one or a combination of the methods set out in
Clauses 4.4.2.2 to 4.4.2.6 and as stated in Table 4.4.
The concrete shall be protected from moisture loss until the commencement of the curing.
Curing shall not be interrupted for more than half an hour when a combination of curing
methods is used.
For accelerated curing methods, the concrete strength for checking the adequacy of curing
shall be determined by test specimens cured with and in the same manner as the concrete
member.
4.4.2.2 Moist curing
Concrete shall be kept continuously moist and the concrete maintained at a temperature
above 5°C.
4.4.2.3 Membrane curing
Where curing compounds are permitted by the authority, they shall be correctly applied to
all exposed concrete surfaces. The concrete shall be maintained at a temperature above 5°C.
Curing compounds shall not be used on concrete surfaces of structures in seawater or
brackish water.
4.4.2.4 Polyethylene sheet

Polyethylene sheet may be used, provided its application ensures effective sealing.
4.4.2.5 Retaining formwork in place
Where formwork is left in place to satisfy formwork removal times, either as stated in the
relevant Standard or as required by the authority, or where formwork is left in place for
curing purposes, any exposed surfaces of the concrete shall be cured by other means in
accordance with the Clause 4.4.2.1.
Where formwork is removed prior to the completion of the curing period, curing shall
recommence within half an hour of formwork stripping and continue until the total curing
time is achieved or the required minimum average compressive strength is achieved.
4.4.2.6 Accelerated curing
Accelerated curing shall be carried out by low-pressure steam curing in accordance with
AS 1597.2.
NOTE: Other methods, such as radiant heat accelerated curing, may be used if approved by the
authority.
4.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE FOR EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION U

Members subject to exposure classification U shall have the concrete quality, cover to
reinforcement/tendons, application of protective surface coatings and other parameters
specified, as appropriate, to ensure durability under the particular exposure environment to
the approval of the relevant authority.
4.6 ABRASION
In addition to the other durability requirements of this Section, concrete for members
subject to abrasion from traffic shall have a characteristic compressive strength not less
than the applicable value given in Table 4.6.

AS 5100.5:2017 62
TABLE 4.6
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS FOR ABRASION
Minimum
characteristic
Member type and/or traffic condition compressive strength
( f c )
MPa
Footpaths and cyclist paths 25
Combined pedestrian pavements and cyclist paths, subject to 32
occasional pneumatic tyre traffic
Pavement and bridge decks subject to the following:
(a) Pneumatic tyre traffic 40
(b) Non-pneumatic tyre traffic (excluding studded tyres) 50
(c) Studded tyres To be assessed
but not less than 50
NOTE: f c refers to the characteristic compressive strength of the required member subject
to abrasion.
4.7 FREEZING AND THAWING

In addition to the other durability requirements of this Section, where the surface exposure
includes exposure to cycles of freezing and thawing, concrete in the member shall—
(a) have an f c not less than—
(i) 40 MPa for occasional exposure (<25 cycles per annum); or
(ii) 50 MPa for frequent exposure (25 cycles per annum); and
(b) contain a percentage of entrained air within the range—
(i) for 10 mm to 20 mm nominal size aggregate .................................. 4% to 8%; or
(ii) for 40 mm nominal size aggregate ..................................................... 3% to 6%,
where the percentage of entrained air is determined in accordance with AS 1012.4.
4.8 CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN AGGRESSIVE SOILS

4.8.1 Sulfate and acidic soils
includes exposure to acidic soils or to sulfate soils with a magnesium content of less than
1000 ppm, the exposure classification shall be as specified in Table 4.8, and concrete shall
be in accordance with Table 4.5.
Steel reinforcement shall be supported by premium grade extruded fibre concrete supports
and spacers manufactured under factory-controlled conditions. The proposed steel
reinforcement supports and spacers shall provide equivalent performance to the concrete
used in the works.
The minimum reinforcement cover shall be the greater of the values given in
Tables 4.13.3.2 and 4.13.3.3, as varied by Clause 4.13.3.5, for the appropriate exposure
classification, placement conditions and characteristic strength of concrete.
Further to the requirements in Table 4.5, for exposure classifications C1 and C2 with a pH
lower than 4.5 and, where highly mobile groundwater conditions exist or a high level of
exchangeable soil acid conditions prevail, additional protective measures shall be provided
comprising the application of suitable coatings and/or other physical barriers.

63 AS 5100.5:2017
4.8.2 Saline soils

includes exposure to saline soils, the exposure classification shall be as specified in
Table 4.8.
Concrete structures exposed to saline soils shall be constructed in accordance with the
minimum compliant cement material proportions specified in Table 4.5.
Steel reinforcement shall be supported by premium grade extruded fibre concrete supports
and spacers manufactured under factory-controlled conditions. The proposed steel
reinforcement supports and spacers shall provide equivalent performance to the concrete
used in the works.
The minimum reinforcement cover shall be the greater of the values given in
Tables 4.13.3.2 and 4.13.3.3, as varied by Clause 4.13.3.5, for the appropriate exposure
classification, placement conditions and characteristic strength of concrete.
TABLE 4.8
EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION FOR CONCRETE IN SULFATE, ACIDIC
AND SALINE SOILS
Exposure conditions * Exposure classification
Sulfates (expressed as SO 4 ) † Chlorides in Soil
Soil conditions
In soil ** In groundwater pH groundwater conditions
A‡
ppm ppm ppm B§
<1000 <400 >5.5 <2000 B1 A

1000–3000 400–1500 4.5–5.5 2000–8000 B2 B1
3000–20 000 1500–10 000 4–4.5 8000–18 000 C1 B2
>20 000 >10 000 <4 >18 000 C2 C1
* Acid sulfate soils or sulfate soils with a magnesium ions content of less than 1000 mg/l.
† Approximately 100 ppm SO 4 = 80 ppm SO 3
‡ Soil conditions A—high permeability soils (for example, sands and gravels) that are in groundwater
§ Soil conditions B—low permeability soils (for example, silts and clays) or all soils above groundwater
** 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 mg of sulfate to 1 kg of dried soil.
NOTES:
1 This is a simplified approach to the complex response of concrete to a range of aggressive soil
conditions. It is common to find more than one chemical in the service environment and the effect of
these chemicals may be modified in the presence of others. For example, sulfate ions become
aggressive at levels of 600 to 1000 ppm when combined with magnesium or ammonium ions. In the
presence of chloride ions, however, attack by sulfate ions generally exhibits little disruptive expansion
with the exception of conditions of wetting and extreme drying where crystallization can cause surface
fretting of concrete.
2 If magnesium ions exceed 1000 mg/l together with sulfate ions (SO 4 ) more than 1000 ppm in soil or
400 ppm in ground water, an aggressivity or exposure classification of one higher class should be
adopted, additional protective measures should be considered and expert advice should be sought.
3 Corrosion damage by chlorides is only relevant to the steel reinforcement and steel inclusions in
concrete and not to steel fibres. If there is no reinforcement or the reinforcement is otherwise
adequately protected (for example, by a coating or cathodic protection), the chloride content is not
relevant to the exposure classification.
4 Chemical concentrations relate only to the proportion of chemical present that is water soluble.
5 Acidic ground conditions can be caused by dissolved ‘aggressive’ carbon dioxide, pure and very soft
waters, organic and mineral acids, and bacterial activity. Care is required in the assessment of pH
under concrete element installation and lifetime conditions since pH can change over the lifetime of the
concrete element. Therefore, the pH should not be assessed only on the basis of a present-day test
result, rather the ground chemistry should be considered over the design life of the concrete element.
Testing for pH should be carried out either in situ or immediately after sampling as there is otherwise a
risk of oxidation with time, leading to apparent acidity, which does not correctly represent in situ
conditions.

AS 5100.5:2017 64
6 pH alone may be a misleading measure of aggressivity without a full analysis of causes (for example,
still vs running water).
7 Contamination by the tipping of mineral and domestic wastes or by spillage from mining, processing or
manufacturing industries presents special durability risks due to the presence of certain aggressive
acids, salts and solvents, which can either chemically attack concrete or lead to a corrosion risk.
Certain ground conditions cannot be properly addressed by reference only to Table 4.8. These
conditions include, for example, areas where acid-sulfate soils exist, contamination by industrial and
domestic waste, or spillage from mining, processing or manufacturing industries. This presents special
durability risks due to the presence of certain aggressive acids, alkalis, salts and solvents that can lead
to either chemical attack of concrete or lead to a corrosion risk. In the absence of site-specific chemical
information, the exposure condition should be assessed as ‘exposure classification C1’ for domestic
refuse and ‘exposure classification C2’ for industrial/mining waste tips. Chemical analysis of the latter
may allow a lower risk classification.
8 For piles and other concrete elements in disturbed soil where accelerated corrosion may occur, the
exposure classification shall be for soil conditions A in the above Table.
9 Attention is drawn to regions of dry land salinity where the chloride concentrations in the soil can be
greater than seawater (for example, Murray River basin). This can affect the upper few metres of a
concrete element where the aggressive salts accumulate.
10 Cathodic protection should not fall below the levels recommended in AS 2832.5.
11 Testing for pH shall be in accordance with AS 1289.4.3.1. Testing for sulfate shall be in accordance
with BS 1377.
4.9 CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

The exposure classification of surfaces of structures exposed to the effects of sea water
shall be as shown in Table 4.3. In addition, the following protective measures shall be
implemented to retard the ingress of chlorides into the concrete in its early maturing and
strength-developing period:
(a) Protection against ingress of chlorides All reinforcement and embedded metallic
fixtures shall be protected against chloride contamination prior to and during concrete
placement.
(b) Curing Further to the requirements of this Section, the period of continuous curing
for all cast-in-place concrete shall be not less than 14 days.
Curing compounds shall not be used on structures within tidal and splash zones of a
marine environment.
(c) Electrical continuity of the steel reinforcement Steel reinforcement shall be made
electrically continuous in concrete members, including piles, below 1 m above the
highest astronomical tide to allow for future application of a cathodic protection
system.
(d) Application of protective coatings Where required by the authority, a protective
coating against chloride ingress shall be applied to exposed concrete surfaces
subjected to an exposure classification C2 environment.
NOTE: Concrete surfaces exposed to an exposure classification C1 environment may also
require additional protection.
(e) Reinforcement Steel reinforcement shall be supported by premium grade extruded
fibre concrete supports and spacers manufactured under factory-controlled conditions
and of material compatible with the surrounding concrete.
NOTE: Other measures that may be considered to enhance concrete durability include the use
of controlled permeability formwork, use of stainless steel reinforcement in high exposure
locations, the addition of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures in the concrete and the installation
and maintenance of a cathodic protection system.

65 AS 5100.5:2017
4.10 ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY (AAR)

All coarse and fine aggregates used in concrete required to comply with this Clause shall be
assessed for any unstable silica minerals by petrographic examination in accordance with
ASTM C295, and tested for alkali aggregate reactivity using either the accelerated mortar
bar or the concrete prism test methods as required by the relevant authority.
NOTE: Test methods for testing alkali aggregate reactivity include the following:
(a) RC 376.03.
(b) RC 376.04.
(c) AS 1141.60.1.
(d) AS 1141.60.2.
Subject to the approval of the relevant authority and where it is proposed to use aggregates
that have been classed as reactive, the following requirements shall be satisfied:
(a) A blended cement that satisfies the requirements of Table 4.10 shall be used in the
concrete mix.
(b) The concrete mix shall be designed such that the alkali content does not exceed
2.8 kg/m3 (Na2O equivalent).
NOTE: Guidance on appropriate management measures may be found in HB 79.
Aggregates classified as reactive by the concrete prism test method shall not be used in the
concrete mix design.
TABLE 4.10
SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL LIMITS IN THE CONCRETE
MIX TO MITIGATE ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVITY (AAR)
Proportion of supplementary cementitious material
Supplementary cementitious material
%
Fly ash 20 to 30
Slag 50 to 70
Amorphous silica 8 to 10
NOTE: The table is by percent of total combined weight (Portland cement portion not shown).
4.11 DELAYED ETTRINGITE FORMATION

To control the risk of delayed ettringite formation at later ages, the maximum concrete
temperature during the curing period shall not exceed 75°C except where analysis has been
performed that justifies a particular maximum temperature limit for concrete.
4.12 EARLY AGE THERMAL CRACKING OF LARGE AND RESTRAINED

CONCRETE MEMBERS
Early age thermal cracking of large and restrained concrete members shall be controlled
where—
(a) the least dimension of a member exceeds 500 mm and the volume of placed concrete
cast is greater than 5 m3; or
(b) one or more edges of a concrete member is restrained by previously placed hardened
concrete or by other external restraints and the cross-sectional area of the member is
equal to or less than the cross-sectional area of the restraining element.
The temperature differential across the cross-section of the concrete member being
constructed shall not exceed 20°C during the curing period.

AS 5100.5:2017 66
NOTE: Thermocouples should be located within the concrete member being constructed to
monitor the maximum temperature and differential temperature across the concrete. Typical large
and restrained members include crossheads, diaphragms, columns, abutments, footings and pile
caps.
4.13 RESTRICTIONS ON CHEMICAL CONTENT IN CONCRETE

4.13.1 Restriction on chloride-ion content for corrosion protection
When determined in accordance with AS 1012.20.2, the mass of acid-soluble chloride-ion
per unit volume of concrete as placed shall be not greater than the values given in
Table 4.13.1. Chloride salts shall not be used and chemical admixtures added to concrete to
be used in structures or members designed in accordance with this Standard shall comply
with the requirements of AS 1478.1.
4.13.2 Restriction on sulfate content
When determined in accordance with AS 1012.20.1, the sulfate content of concrete as
placed, expressed as the percentage by mass of acid-soluble SO3 to cement material, shall
be not greater than the values given in Table 4.13.1.
4.13.3 Restriction on other salts
Other strongly ionized salts, such as nitrates, shall not be added to concrete unless it can be
shown that they do not adversely affect durability.
TABLE 4.13.1
MAXIMUM VALUES OF ACID-SOLUBLE CHLORIDE AND SULFATE ION
CONTENT IN CONCRETE AS CAST
Mass of maximum acid soluble Mass of maximum acid-soluble
Form of construction chloride ion content, sulfate ion content, % by mass of
kg/m 3 of concrete cement material
Concrete cured at ambient
temperature not containing 2.0 5.0
material requiring protection
Reinforced concrete cured at
0.6 5.0
ambient temperature
Prestressed concrete cured at
0.4 5.0
ambient temperature
Prestressed concrete cured by
0.4 4.0
steam or other accelerated methods
Reinforced concrete cured by
0.6 4.0
steam or other accelerated methods
4.14 REQUIREMENTS FOR COVER TO REINFORCING STEEL AND TENDONS

4.14.1 General
The cover to reinforcing steel and tendons shall be the greatest of the values determined
from Clauses 4.14.2 and 4.14.3, as appropriate.
For pre-tensioned systems, the ends of individual pre-tensioned tendons shall be cut off
flush with the end face of the member. The exposed ends of tendons shall be sealed against
corrosion.
NOTE: The ends of individual pre-tensioned tendons do not normally require concrete cover.

67 AS 5100.5:2017
4.14.2 Cover for concrete placement

Concrete cover shall be specified to ensure that the concrete can be satisfactorily placed and
compacted around the reinforcement, tendons or ducts, or any combination thereof. The
concrete cover shall be not less than the greatest of the following:
(a) 1.5 times the maximum nominal size of the aggregate.
(b) The diameter of the reinforcing bar being protected. For bundled bars, an equivalent
diameter shall be taken as twice the diameter of the largest bar in the bundle.
(c) Twice the diameter of the tendon and not less than 40 mm.
NOTE: Where tendons are grouped together, specially in a horizontal plane, the cover should
be increased beyond the above minimum values to facilitate placing and compaction of the
concrete.
(d) For a post-tensioning duct, the maximum of—
(i) 50 mm from the surface for any duct in the soffit of a member; and
(ii) 40 mm elsewhere.
Where external tendons are initially located outside the structural concrete and are to be
subsequently protected by additional concrete, the minimum cover shall be the same as for
tendons embedded in structural concrete. Where the tendons are grouped together in a
horizontal plane or where the ducts are used in thin members, special consideration shall be
given to increasing the cover to facilitate the placing and compaction of the concrete.
The minimum cover at the ends of post-tensioned tendons or anchorage devices shall be
50 mm.
NOTES:
1 Where anchorage recesses are to be filled with materials other than concrete, appropriate dual
shrinkage compensating cement materials should be used as they provide the same
compatibility as concrete.
2 Due to the significant differences between the physical properties of epoxy resin and epoxy
materials and concrete, they do not act monolithically under physically or chemically applied
loadings, and may result in the failure of the seal. In particular, differences in the coefficient
of thermal expansion may result in excessive stresses at the bond interface. This could
eventually result in failure at the interface or within the concrete substrate (lower strength),
unless a balance is achieved between the sizes of the cross-sectional area of the repair and the
bond area required at the interface, to sustain the stresses generated.
In the determination of an appropriate cover, consideration shall be given to—
(i) the size and shape of the member;
(ii) the size, type and configuration of the reinforcement and, if present, the tendons or
ducts; and
(iii) the aggregate size, the workability of the concrete and the direction of concrete
placement.
4.14.3 Cover for corrosion protection
4.14.3.1 General
For corrosion protection, the cover shall be not less than the appropriate value given in
Clauses 4.14.3.2 to 4.14.3.7.
4.14.3.2 Standard formwork and compaction
Where concrete is cast in formwork complying with AS 3610.1 and transported, placed and
compacted so as to—
(a) limit segregation or loss of materials;

AS 5100.5:2017 68
(b) limit premature stiffening;

(c) produce a monolithic mass between planned joints or the extremities of members, or
both;
(d) completely fill the formwork to the intended level, expel entrapped air and closely
surround all reinforcement, tendons, ducts, anchorages and embedments; and
(e) provide the specified finish to the formed areas of the concrete,
then the cover shall be not less than the value given in Table 4.14.3.2, as appropriate to the
exposure classification and f c .
TABLE 4.14.3.2
REQUIRED COVER WHERE STANDARD FORMWORK
AND COMPACTION ARE USED
Exposure Required cover, mm

classification Characteristic strength ( f c )
25 MPa 32 MPa 40 MPa 50 MPa 55 MPa
A 45 35 30 30 30
B1 50 45 40 40
B2 60 50 50
C1 — 70 70
C2 — 80
NOTES:
1 Cover requirements are based on effective, continuous and uninterrupted curing
in accordance with Clause 4.4.2.1. Where curing compounds are used, the cover
shall be increased by 5 mm for classifications A and B1, and 10 mm for other
classifications.
2 In construction, the specified position of reinforcements and tendons shall not
deviate from the required cover by more than the fixing tolerances specified in
Clause 17.7.3.
4.14.3.3 Rigid steel formwork and intense compaction

Where concrete members such as precast are cast in rigid steel formwork and subjected to
intense compaction under repetitive procedures and with demonstrated process control
systems in place, the cover shall be not less than the value given in Table 4.14.3.3, as
appropriate to the exposure classification and f c .
Cover to screeded surfaces of members shall be in accordance with Table 4.14.3.2.
Rigid steel formwork shall be designed for intense compaction of the concrete during
placement. Forms shall be constructed to provide the shapes, dimensions and surface finish
in the end product. The forms shall be mortar-tight, braced and tied together so that they
maintain position and shape during placing and compaction of the concrete.
NOTES:
1 Intense compaction of fresh concrete can be achieved with the use of vibrating tables or
external form vibration in conjunction with internal vibrators in rigid forms.
2 A high level of supervision is necessary to ensure the level of compaction is achieved and
rigidity of formwork is maintained during concrete placement.

69 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 4.14.3.3
REQUIRED COVER WHERE INTENSE COMPACTION
IS USED IN RIGID STEEL FORMWORK
Exposure Required cover, mm

classification Characteristic strength ( f c )
25 MPa 32 MPa 40 MPa 50 MPa 55 MPa
A 45 35 30 25 25
B1 40 35 30 30
B2 — 50 40 40
C1 — — 65 65
C2 — — 75
NOTES:
1 Cover requirements are based on effective, continuous and uninterrupted curing
in accordance with Clause 4.4.2.1. Where curing compounds are used, the cover
shall be increased by 5 mm for classifications A and B1 and 10 mm for other
classifications.
2 In construction, the specified position of reinforcements and tendons shall not
deviate from the required cover by more than the fixing tolerances in
Clause 17.7.3.
4.14.3.4 Required cover where self-compacting concrete is used

Where concrete members are cast with self-compacting concrete in accordance with the
requirements of Clause 4.4.1 and Table 4.4.1(C), the cover shall be not less than the value
given in Table 4.14.3.2. Cover to screeded surfaces of members shall be in accordance with
Table 4.14.3.2.
4.14.3.5 Cast on or against ground
Where concrete is cast on or against ground and compacted in accordance with
Clause 4.14.3.2 or where self-compacting concrete is used without formwork, the cover to a
surface in contact with the ground shall be as given in Table 4.14.3.2 but increased by—
(a) 10 mm if the concrete surface is protected by a damp-proof membrane; or
(b) 30 mm otherwise.
4.14.3.6 Structural members manufactured by spinning or rolling
Where structural members are manufactured by spinning or rolling concrete, having a total
water cementitious material (w/c) ratio of less than 0.35, and provided that negative
tolerance is not allowed on the fixing of reinforcement, the cover for corrosion protection
shall be not less than the values given in Table 4.14.3.6 for the appropriate exposure
classification.

AS 5100.5:2017 70
TABLE 4.14.3.6
REQUIRED COVER FOR SPUN OR ROLLED MEMBERS
Concrete characteristic Cover
Exposure classification compressive strength ( f c )
MPa mm
A, B1 32 30
40 35
B2
50 30
C1 50 40
C2 50 45
4.14.3.7 Required cover for stainless steel reinforcement

Where stainless steel reinforcement is used, the cover shall be not less than the cover given
in Tables 4.14.3.2 and 4.14.3.3.
4.14.3.8 Embedded items cover
Embedded items, as defined in Clause 14.4, shall be protected from corrosion or
deterioration. The cover to embedded items that are not corrosion resistant shall be as given
in Tables 4.14.3.2 and 4.14.3.3, as applicable.
Metals such as aluminium shall not be embedded in structural concrete unless effectively
coated, covered, or treated to prevent chemical action between the metal and the concrete
and electrolytic action between the metal and steel.
4.15 CRACKING OF CONCRETE

Cracking is permissible in reinforced and partially prestressed concrete structures subject to
bending, shear, tension or torsion resulting from either direct loading or restraint to
imposed deformations.
Structures shall be designed and constructed with adequate quantities of reinforcement
and/or tendons to control cracks such that cracking does not compromise—
(a) the durability of the structure by premature reinforcement corrosion;
(b) the serviceability of the structure by excessive water leakage or damage;
(c) the appearance of the structure; and
(d) the strength of the structure.
NOTE: Cracks due to the restraint of early thermal effects and due to sustained (for example,
dead load) load effects can remain open for the entire structure life and, therefore, are often more
significant than those due to transient effects such as live load and environmental loads. Cracks
that pass through the entire section can be more significant than those that appear on only one
face of the structural element.
Surface cracks may also not be representative of internal cracking. Some crack types are largest at
the surface and narrower at the reinforcement level. Other crack types, especially those due to
early thermal restraint in large thick sections, can be larger inside the section than at the surface.
Cracking of concrete is a complex process with numerous variables. Consequently the design
process to control cracking is simplified. The prediction of cracking is, therefore, not precise and
it is reasonable to expect the need for limited crack repair in some structures with a design life of
100 years.
4.16 PROVISIONS FOR STRAY CURRENT CORROSION

The effects of possible stray current corrosion shall be considered where necessary.
NOTE: Stray current corrosion is of particular concern for rail bridges carrying electrified rail
and tramways, specially where they are powered by direct current, concrete structures located in
the vicinity of high voltage power lines and where impressed current cathodic protection is
installed.

71 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 5 DESIGN FOR FI RE RESISTANCE
5.1 GENERAL
The relevant authority shall determine whether a bridge is required to be designed for fire
resistance, and nominate the type of fire loading to be applied and fire resistance rating as
applicable.
5.2 HYDROCARBON FIRE

The structural performance for a hydrocarbon fire shall be determined as follows:
NOTE: Refer also to AS 5100.2.
(a) Assess the depth of potential spalling of concrete as a result of the fire, based on a
fire test or by a risk assessment.
(b) Analyse the convective and radiative heat transfer at the concrete surface as
quantified by the selected design time-temperature curve.
(c) Analyse the structure using the developed time-temperature profile in conjunction
with the permanent effect loads. The structural analysis shall consider the effect of
high temperatures on the material properties and forces induced by restraints to
temperature-induced expansion of the structure.

NOTE: For ultimate limit state (ULS) load combinations, refer to AS 5100.2.
(d) Design each member taking into account the section reduction due to spalling and the
representative materials strength and stiffness under the imposed temperature
conditions.
5.3 NON-HYDROCARBON FIRE

Where the relevant authority determines that a non-hydrocarbon design fire resistance is
required, the relevant provisions of AS 3600 shall apply.
5.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

5.4.1 Properties of concrete
5.4.1.1 Characteristic compressive strength
The design characteristic compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperatures ( f cθ )
shall be either—
(a) taken as f cθ  k θ1  f c where kθ1 shall be as given in Table 5.4.1.1; or
(b) determined statistically from compressive strength tests.
TABLE 5.4.1.1
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FACTOR
Temperature of concrete, °C 0 100 200 900 1200
k θ1 1.0 1.0 0.95 0.09 0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between values is permissible.

AS 5100.5:2017 72
5.4.1.2 Coefficient of thermal expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete at elevated temperatures shall be either—
(a) taken as given in Table 5.4.1.2; or
(b) determined statistically from tests.
TABLE 5.4.1.2
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
Temperature of concrete, °C 0 to 200 200 to 700 700 to 1200
Coefficient of thermal expansion (10 -6 ), /°C 10 24 0
NOTE: Coefficient has a range of 20%.
5.4.1.3 Specific heat

Where the moisture content of the concrete is not considered explicitly in the calculation
then the specific heat of the concrete shall be either—
(a) taken as 1000 J/kg K; or
5.4.1.4 Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of concrete at elevated temperatures shall be either—

(a) taken as given in Table 5.4.1.4; or
TABLE 5.4.1.4
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Temperature of concrete (°C) 0 400 700 1000 1200
Thermal conductivity, W/m K 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.6
5.4.2 Properties of reinforcement

5.4.2.1 Characteristic yield strength
The characteristic yield strength of reinforcement (including stainless steel reinforcement)
at elevated temperatures (fsyθ) shall be either—
(a) taken as fsyθ = kθ2  fsy where kθ2 shall be as given in Table 5.4.2.1(A) or
Table 5.4.2.1(B) as appropriate; or
TABLE 5.4.2.1(A)
TENSION REINFORCEMENT WITH STRAIN 2%
Temperature of reinforcement, °C 0 400 800 1200
k θ2 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.0

73 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 5.4.2.1(B)
TENSION REINFORCEMENT WITH STRAIN 2%
OR COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT
Temperature of reinforcement, °C 0 100 500 700 1200
k θ2 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.1 0.0
5.4.2.2 Modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement at elevated temperatures (Esθ) for all stress
values not greater than fsyθ shall be either—
(a) taken as Esθ = kθ3  Es where kθ3 shall be as given in Table 5.4.2.2; or
TABLE 5.4.2.2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FACTOR
Temperature of reinforcement, °C 0 100 500 700 1200
k θ3 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.13 0.0
5.4.3 Properties of tendons

5.4.3.1 Minimum tensile strength
The minimum tensile strength of tendons at elevated temperatures (fpθ) shall be either—
(a) taken as fpθ = kθ4  fp where kθ4 shall be as given in Table 5.4.3.1; or
TABLE 5.4.3.1
MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH FACTOR
Temperature of tendon, °C 0 100 700 1000
k θ4 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.0
5.4.3.2 Modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of tendons at elevated temperatures (Epθ) shall be either—
(a) taken as Epθ = kθ5  Ep where kθ5 shall be as given in Table 5.4.3.2; or
TABLE 5.4.3.2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FACTOR
Temperature of tendon, °C 0 100 400 700 1000
k θ5 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.1 0.0

AS 5100.5:2017 74
SECTI ON 6 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL

ANAL YSIS
6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 Basis for structural analysis
Analysis of concrete structures shall take into account the following:
(a) The strength and deformational properties of the member materials.
(b) The equilibrium requirements for all forces acting on and within the structure.
(c) The requirements of compatibility of deformations within the structure.
(d) The support conditions and, where appropriate, interaction of the structure with the
foundation and other connecting or adjacent structures.
6.1.2 Interpretation of the results of analysis
Irrespective of the method chosen for structural analysis, the simplifications, idealizations
and assumptions implied in the analysis shall be considered in relation to the real, three-
dimensional nature of the structure when the results of the analysis are interpreted.
NOTE: Users of software packages for analysis should ensure the package is appropriate for the
analysis being undertaken.

6.1.3 Methods of analysis
For the purpose of complying with the requirements for strength, serviceability, fatigue and
robustness specified in Section 2, it shall be permissible to determine the action effects and
deformations in a reinforced or prestressed structure and its component members using the
following methods, as appropriate:
(a) Static analysis for determinate structures.
(b) Linear elastic analysis, in accordance with Clause 6.2.
(c) Linear elastic frame analysis incorporating secondary bending moments due to lateral
joint displacement, in accordance with Clause 6.3.
(d) Linear elastic stress analysis of members and structures, in accordance with
Clause 6.4.
(e) Non-linear frame analysis, in accordance with Clause 6.5.
(f) Non-linear stress analysis of members and structures, in accordance with Clause 6.6.
(g) Plastic methods of analysis for slabs and frames, in accordance with Clause 6.7.
(h) Strut-and-tie method of analysis, in accordance with Clause 6.8.
(i) Structural model tests designed and evaluated in accordance with the principles of
mechanics.
(j) Seismic analysis, in accordance with AS 5100.2 and Clause 6.9.
NOTE: Clause 2.3 allows different strength check procedures and different methods of analysis to
be used for different members in a structure and for the whole structure, provided it can be shown
that all external actions and forces and calculated internal stress resultants are consistent with the
requirements of equilibrium and compatibility of the entire structure.

75 AS 5100.5:2017
6.2 LINEAR ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE CONTINUOUS BEAMS

AND FRAMED STRUCTURES
6.2.1 General
This Clause applies to the analysis of indeterminate continuous beams and framed
structures in which secondary geometric effects are insignificant.
The framework shall be analysed in its entirety, making due allowance for the effects of
shear lag. In the absence of more accurate methods, allowance for shear lag shall be made
by determining the effective width of beams in accordance with Clause 8.8.
In any framed structure, the span lengths shall be determined from the intersections of the
centroidal axes of the various members comprising the frame.
6.2.2 Critical sections for negative moments
For flexural members, the critical section for negative moments shall be a distance from the
support face toward the centre-line of the support of 0.15 times the dimension of the
support in the direction of bending, or half the overall depth of the member, whichever is
less.
NOTE: Circular or regular polygon-shaped supports may be treated as square supports having the
same cross-sectional area.
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffnesses of members shall be chosen to represent the conditions at the limit state
being analysed.
The effect of haunching and other variations of cross-section along the axis of a member
shall be considered and, where significant, taken into account in the determination of the
member stiffness.
Any assumptions regarding the relative stiffness of members shall be applied consistently
throughout the analysis. Particular account shall be taken of the effect of cracking on
torsional stiffness, which, in the absence of additional information, shall be not greater than
20% of the uncracked torsional stiffness at the strength ULS when checking for flexure of
slabs and beams.
NOTES:
1 For strength design of a regular rectangular framed structure, the cross-sectional stiffness of
the flexural members and columns may be taken as 0.4Ec If and 0.8EcI c respectively.
2 When modelling single cell box girders, account should be taken of the effect of torsion on
the distribution of shear between the webs (for example, adding the torsion divided by the
distance between the webs to the shear in one web).
6.2.4 Deflections
Deflection calculations shall take into account the effects of cracking, tension stiffening,
shrinkage, creep, thermal effects, relaxation of tendons, elastic shortening and settlement of
supports. Calculations in accordance with the requirements of Clauses 8.5 and 9.3 shall be
deemed to satisfy this requirement for beams and slabs respectively. Consideration shall be
given to any deformations that may result from construction staging and any deflection or
settlement of supporting temporary works.
6.2.5 Secondary bending moments and shears resulting from prestress
The secondary bending moments and shears and the associated deformations that are
produced in an indeterminate structure by prestressing shall be taken into account in the
design calculations for fatigue and serviceability.
The secondary bending moments and shears due to the effects of prestress may be
determined by elastic analysis of the unloaded uncracked structure.

AS 5100.5:2017 76
When assessing strength of a prestressed member at transfer, the secondary bending

moment and shears due to prestress shall be included.
6.2.6 Moment redistribution in reinforced and prestressed members for strength
design
6.2.6.1 General requirements
In design calculations for strength of statically indeterminate members, the elastically
determined bending moments at any interior support may be reduced or increased by
redistribution, provided an analysis is undertaken to show there is adequate rotation
capacity in critical moment regions to allow the assumed distribution of bending moments
to be achieved.
The analysis shall take into account—
(a) the stress-strain curves of the steel reinforcement and tendons as specified in
Clauses 3.2.3 and 3.3.3, respectively, assuming that fracture of the reinforcement and
tendon occur at εsu and εpu respectively;
(b) static equilibrium of the structure after redistribution of the moments; and
(c) the properties of the concrete as defined in Clause 3.1.
6.2.6.2 Deemed-to-comply approach for reinforced and prestressed members
The requirement of Clause 6.2.7.1 shall be deemed to be satisfied if the following
requirements are satisfied:

(a) All of the main reinforcement in the member shall be Ductility Class N, which
includes stainless steel specified in Clause 3.2.1.
(b) The bending moment distribution before redistribution shall be determined in
accordance with elastic analysis.
(c) Where the neutral axis parameter, ku, is less than or equal to 0.2 in all peak moment
regions, the redistribution of the moment at a support shall not exceed 30%.
(d) Where ku exceeds 0.2 in one or more peak moment regions, but does not exceed 0.4,
the redistribution shall not exceed 75 (0.4  ku)%.
(e) The positive bending moment shall be adjusted to maintain equilibrium.
(f) Where ku exceeds 0.4 in any peak moment region, no redistribution shall be made.
(g) Static equilibrium of the structure after redistribution of the moments shall be used to
evaluate all action effects for strength design.
(h) At column supports, the out of balance moment ( M v* ) shall not be varied during
moment redistribution.
NOTES:
1 The values of ku are calculated for cross-sections that have been designed on the basis of the
redistributed moment diagram.
2 The amount of redistribution is measured as a percentage of the bending moment before
redistribution.
3 Extra checks should be made on ductility and the possibility of punching shear failures.

77 AS 5100.5:2017
6.2.7 Unbonded prestress

6.2.7.1 Actions for unbonded prestress
Where prestressing tendons are not bonded (external or internal unbonded tendons), the
effects of prestressing shall be considered as a set of forces exerted on the concrete as
follows:
(a) Concentrated forces at anchorages.
(b) Concentrated radial forces at deviators.
(c) Radial distributed forces of intensity p/(Apr), r being the radius of curvature of the
prestressing tendon where p is the stress in the prestressing tendon at the time under
consideration.
NOTE: At each location, a check should be undertaken considering the peak force in the tendon at
jacking.
6.2.7.2 Strain compatibility analysis
The strain compatibility analysis shall account for the differences in strain between the
tendons and the concrete section, and the effect of deflection geometry changes on the
effective stress in the tendons.
Strain compatibility analysis shall not be used for computation of the flexural resistance of
bridges with unbonded or partially bonded tendons.
6.3 ELASTIC ANALYSIS OF FRAMES INCORPORATING SECONDARY

BENDING MOMENTS
6.3.1 General
This Clause (6.3) applies to the elastic analysis of frames not restrained by bracing or shear
walls, or both, for which the relative displacement at the ends of compressive members is
less than Lu/250 under the design load for strength.
6.3.2 Analysis
An elastic analysis incorporating secondary bending moments shall comply with the
requirements of Clause 6.2 and the following:
(a) The effect of lateral joint displacements shall be taken into account.
(b) For very slender members, the change in bending stiffness of a member due to axial
compression shall be considered.
6.4 LINEAR ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS OF MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES

6.4.1 General
This Clause (6.4) applies to the linear elastic stress analysis of structures and parts of
structures using numerical methods, including finite element analysis.
6.4.2 Analysis
The analysis shall comply with the requirements of Clause 6.1.1. The results of the analysis
shall be interpreted in accordance with the requirements of Clause 6.1.2.
6.4.3 Sensitivity of analysis to input data and modelling parameters
Checks shall be made to investigate the sensitivity of the results of a linear elastic stress
analysis to variations in input data and modelling parameters.

AS 5100.5:2017 78
6.5 NON-LINEAR FRAME ANALYSIS

6.5.1 General
This Clause (6.5) applies to the non-linear analysis of framed structures at SLS, at strength
limit state and at collapse. Non-linear analysis shall be carried out in accordance with the
requirements of Clauses 6.1.1 and 6.1.2.
6.5.2 Non-linear material effects
The analysis shall take into account all relevant non-linear and inelastic effects in the
materials, such as—
(a) non-linear relationship between stress and strain for the reinforcement, the tendons
and the concrete;
(b) cracking of the concrete;
(c) the tension stiffening effect in the concrete between adjacent tensile cracks;
(d) creep and shrinkage of the concrete; and
(e) relaxation of tendons.
6.5.3 Non-linear geometric effects
Equilibrium of the structure in the deformed condition shall be considered whenever joint
displacements or lateral deflections within the length of members significantly affect the
action effects or overall structural behaviour.

6.5.4 Values of material properties
When non-linear frame analysis is used as the basis for design, the calculations shall be
undertaken using the mean values of all relevant material properties, such as concrete
strength, initial elastic moduli and yield stress, and yield strain of the steel reinforcement
and tendons.
Additional analysis shall be considered using other values of material properties to allow
for variability of material properties and the effects of non-proportionality in non-linear
analysis.
Checks shall be made to investigate the sensitivity of the results of a non-linear frame
6.6 NON-LINEAR STRESS ANALYSIS

6.6.1 General
This Clause (6.6) applies to the non-linear stress analysis of structures and parts of
structures using numerical methods, including finite element analysis.
6.6.2 Analysis
The analysis shall comply with the requirements of Clause 6.1.1. The results of the analysis
shall be interpreted in accordance with the requirements of Clause 6.1.2.
6.6.3 Non-linear material and geometric effects
The analysis shall take into account all relevant non-linear and inelastic effects, such as—
(a) non-linear relation between stress and strain for the reinforcement, the tendons and
the concrete;
(b) cracking of the concrete;
(c) the tension stiffening effect in the concrete between adjacent tensile cracks;

79 AS 5100.5:2017
(d) creep and shrinkage of the concrete;

(e) relaxation of tendons; and
(f) geometric non-linear effects.
6.6.4 Values of material properties
When non-linear stress analysis is used as the basis for design, the calculations shall be
undertaken using the mean values of all relevant material properties chosen taking account
the effect of non-proportionality of the results, such as concrete strength, initial elastic
moduli, and yield stress and yield strain of the steel reinforcement. Additional analysis shall
be considered using other values of material properties to allow for variability.
Checks shall be made to investigate the sensitivity of the results of a non-linear stress
6.7 PLASTIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS

6.7.1 General
This Clause (6.7) applies to the plastic collapse analysis of frames, beams and slabs. The
method may be used, provided Ductility Class N reinforcement, which includes stainless
steel specified in Clause 3.2.1, is used throughout for flexural reinforcement.
Where plastic methods are used in the strength design of structures, the reinforcement shall
also be designed to satisfy the fatigue and serviceability requirements of the structure.
6.7.2 Methods for beams and frames
Plastic methods of analysis may be used for the strength design of continuous beams and
frames, provided it is shown that the high-moment regions possess sufficient moment-
rotation capacity to achieve the plastic redistribution implied in the analysis.
6.7.3 Methods for slabs
6.7.3.1 Lower-bound method for slabs
The design bending moments obtained using lower-bound theory shall satisfy the
requirements of equilibrium and the boundary conditions applicable to the slab.
6.7.3.2 Yield line method for slabs
A yield line analysis for strength design of a slab shall satisfy the following requirements:
(a) The design bending moments shall be obtained from calculations based on the need
for a mechanism to form over the whole or part of the slab at collapse.
(b) The mechanism that gives rise to the most severe design bending moments shall be
used for the design of the slab.
6.8 ANALYSIS USING STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS

6.8.1 General
Strut-and-tie modelling is a lower bound plasticity method to determine the conditions at
the strength limit state of members, including non-flexural members and in non-flexural
regions of members. The method may be used provided Ductility Class N reinforcement or
suitable stainless steel grades as specified in Clause 3.2.1 is used throughout. When strut-
and-tie modelling is used the relevant requirements of Section 7 shall be satisfied.
Checks shall be made to investigate the sensitivity of the results of a strut-and-tie analysis
to variations in geometry and modelling parameters.
AS 5100.5:2017 80
SECTI ON 7 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING
7.1 GENERAL
It shall be permissible to use strut-and-tie models to represent the conditions at overload
and at failure in non-flexural members and in non-flexural regions of members, as a basis
both for strength design and for evaluating strength.
A strut-and-tie model shall consist of compression elements (struts) and tension elements
(ties) that are connected together at nodes to form a load-resisting structural system.
Strut-and-tie models shall satisfy the following requirements:
(a) Loads shall be applied at nodes, and the struts and ties shall be subjected only to axial
force.
(b) The model shall provide load paths to carry the loads and other actions to the supports
or into adjacent regions.
(c) The model shall be in equilibrium with the applied loads and the reactions.
(d) In determining the geometry of the model, the dimensions of the struts, ties, and
nodal zones shall be taken into account.
(e) Ties shall be permitted to cross struts.

(f) Struts shall cross or intersect only at nodes.
(g) For reinforced concrete members at a node point, the angle between the axes of any
strut and any tie shall be not less than 30°.
(h) For prestressed concrete members at a node point, the angle between the axes of any
strut and any tie with a tendon acting as the reinforcement shall be not less than 20°.
7.2 CONCRETE STRUTS

7.2.1 Types of struts
Struts shall be of prismatic, fan or bottle shape, depending on the geometry of the
compression field, as shown in Figure 7.2.1. Prismatic struts shall be used only where the
compressive stress field cannot diverge.
7.2.2 Strut efficiency factor
For prismatic struts, the strut efficiency factor (s) that is used to determine the design
strength shall be taken as 1.0.
For fan- and bottle-shaped compression fields that are unconfined, the strut efficiency
factor shall be taken as—
1
s  (within the limits 0.3  s  1.0) . . . 7.2.2
1.0  0.66 cot 2 
where
 = angle, measured between the axis of the strut and the axis of a tie passing
through a common node, as shown in see Figure 7.2.2
Where more than one tie passes through a node, or where the angle ( ) is
different for nodes at each end of a strut, the smallest value of  shall be
used in determining s.

81 AS 5100.5:2017
(a) Pr i s m at i c c o m pre s s i o n (b) Fan - s ha p e d c o m pre s s i o n fi e l d

field (n o bur st in g for c e s)
B ur st i n g for c e s
(c) B ot t l e - s ha p e d c o m pre s s i o n fi e l d
FIGURE 7.2.1 TYPES OF STRUTS

AS 5100.5:2017 82
A x i s of str ut
A x i s of t i e
θ
T
FIGURE 7.2.2 DETERMINATION OF 
7.2.3 Design strength of struts

The design strength of a concrete strut shall be taken as—

 st  s 0.9 f c Ac . . . 7.2.3
where
Ac = smallest cross-sectional area of the concrete strut at any point along its length
and measured normal to the line of action of the strut
s = strut efficiency factor given in Clause 7.2.2
The value of the strength reduction factor (st) shall be obtained from Table 2.3.4.
Longitudinal reinforcement may be used to increase the strength of a strut. Such
reinforcement shall be placed parallel to the axis of the strut, located within the strut and
enclosed in ties or spirals satisfying Clause 10.7. The longitudinal reinforcement shall be
properly anchored. The strength of a longitudinally reinforced strut may be calculated as for
a prismatic, pin-ended short column of similar geometry.
7.2.4 Bursting reinforcement in bottle-shaped struts
The design bursting force at both the SLS Tb.s*
   
and ULS Tb* shall be calculated using an
equilibrium model consistent with the bottle shape shown in Figure 7.2.4(A). The
divergence angle () for the bottle-shaped strut shall be assessed for each situation but shall
be not less than—
(a) tan = 0.5 ................................................................................ for serviceability; and
(b) tan = 0.2 ............................................................................................... for strength.
The bursting force across the strut at cracking shall be taken as—
Tb.cr  0.7bl b f ct . . . 7.2.4(1)
where
b = width of rectangular cross-section or member
lb = length of the bursting zone [see Figure 7.2.4(A)]

83 AS 5100.5:2017
 
If the calculated bursting force Tb* is greater than 0.5Tb.cr with tan  taken as 0.5,
transverse reinforcement shall be provided in either—
(i) two orthogonal directions at angles 1 and 2 to the axis of the strut
[see Figure 7.2.4(B)]; or
(ii) one direction at an angle 1 to the axis of the strut, where 1 shall be not less than 40°
and shall satisfy—
(A) for serviceability A f si si  

sin  i  max Tb* , Tb.cr ; and . . . 7.2.4(2)
(B) for strength  A

st si f sy sin  i  Tb* . . . 7.2.4(3)
where
Asi = area of reinforcement in directions 1 and 2 crossing a strut at an angle
1 to the axis of the strut [see Figure 7.2.4(B)]
fsi = serviceability limit stress in the reinforcement as specified in
Clause 12.7
The transverse reinforcement shall be evenly distributed throughout the length of the
bursting zone (lb), which shall be calculated from the following equation:
lb  z 2  a 2  d c
. . . 7.2.4(4)
where
a = shear span [see Figure 7.2.4(A)]
dc = width of the idealized strut [see Figure 7.2.4(A)]
z = projection of the inclined compressive strut normal to the shear span, [see
Figure 7.2.4(A)]

AS 5100.5:2017 84
a
Id ealize d parallel - s i d e d
str ut
CCC N o d e
Tb
/2 dc
/2
C
D z
/2
Tb
α C
/2
θ
CCT N o d e B ot t l e - s ha p e d str ut
L
) a
dc
+
(I b w w
2 5
0.
Ω Ω
d
c /2
d c /4
Tb
/2
/2
C d c /4
D z
/2
Tb
α C
/2
Ib
Ω
w dc = w2 + Ω 2
d c /4
d c /4
FIGURE 7.2.4(A) MODEL OF BURSTING FORCES IN BOTTLE-SHAPED STRUTS

85 AS 5100.5:2017
A S1
A x i s of
str ut
γ1
γ2 S tr u t
A S2
FIGURE 7.2.4(B) BURSTING REINFORCEMENT
7.3 TIES
7.3.1 Arrangement of ties
Ties shall consist of reinforcing steel and/or prestressing tendons. The reinforcement and/or
tendons shall be evenly distributed across the nodal regions at each end of the tie, and
arranged such that the resultant tensile force coincides with the axis of the tie in the strut-
and-tie model.
7.3.2 Design strength of ties
The design strength of a tie shall be taken as st [Astfsy + Ap(p.ef + p)] where ( p.ef + p)
shall not exceed fpy. The value of st shall be obtained from Table 2.3.4.
7.3.3 Anchorage of ties
To provide adequate anchorage at each end of the tie, the reinforcement or tendon shall be
extended beyond the node to achieve the design strength of the tie at the node and anchored
in accordance with Clause 13.1. At least 50% of the development length (Lst) shall extend
beyond the nodal zone.
NOTE: Alternatively, anchorage of reinforcement may be achieved by a welded or mechanical
anchorage, located entirely beyond the nodal zone.
7.3.4 Design stress of reinforcement
The maximum stress in tie reinforcement at SLS shall be not greater than fscr given in
Table 8.6.1(A) for the largest nominal diameter (d b) of the bars in the tie.
7.4 NODES
7.4.1 Types of nodes
Three types of node are distinguished by the arrangement of the entering struts and ties, and
the confinement thus provided, as follows:
(a) CCC—there are only struts entering the node.
(b) CCT—there are two or more struts and a single tension tie entering the node.
(c) CTT—there are two or more tension ties entering the node.

AS 5100.5:2017 86
7.4.2 Design strength of nodes

Where confinement is not provided to the nodal region, the design strength of the node shall
be such that the principal compressive stress on any nodal face, determined from the normal
and shear stresses on that face, is not greater than st  n 0.9 f c where—
(a) for CCC nodes n = 1.0; or
(b) for CCT nodes n = 0.8; or
(c) for CTT nodes n = 0.6.
The value of the strength reduction factor (st) shall be taken from Table 2.3.4.
Where confinement is provided to the nodal region, the design strength of the node may be
determined by tests or calculation, considering the confinement, but shall not exceed a
value corresponding to a maximum compressive principal stress on any face of st 1.8 f c .
7.5 ANALYSIS OF STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS

In the analysis of a strut-and-tie model to determine the internal forces in the struts and ties,
the requirements of Clause 6.1.1 shall be satisfied, and Clauses 6.1.2 and 6.8.2 shall be
complied with.
7.6 DESIGN BASED ON STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING

7.6.1 Design for strength

When strut-and-tie modelling is used for strength design, the requirements of Clause 2.3.4
shall be satisfied.
7.6.2 Serviceability checks
When design for strength is based on strut-and-tie modelling, separate checks shall be
undertaken to ensure that the design requirements for serviceability are satisfied.
7.6.3 Specific non-flexural members
In addition to the requirements of Section 7, the design of specific non-flexural members
such as deep beams, end zones, nibs, and corbels shall also comply with the requirements of
Section 12.

87 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 8 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR

STRE NGTH AND S ERVIC EABIL I TY
8.1 STRENGTH OF BEAMS IN BENDING

8.1.1 General
The strength of a beam cross-section under bending shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 8.1.2 to 8.1.9 and the material properties given in Section 3. Beam properties for
T-beams and L-beams shall be as specified in Clause 8.8.
This Clause (8.1) does not apply to non-flexural members covered by Sections 7 and 12.
NOTE: For standard precast prestressed concrete girders, see Appendix D.
8.1.2 Basis of strength calculations
Calculations for strength of cross-sections in bending for reinforced and bonded prestressed
concrete members shall incorporate equilibrium and strain-compatibility considerations and
be consistent with the following assumptions:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending, except for unbonded
tendons (see Clause 8.1.8).
(b) The concrete has no tensile strength.

(c) The distribution of compressive stress is determined from a stress-strain relationship
for the concrete in accordance with Clause 3.1.4 (see Note).
(d) The strain in compressive reinforcement does not exceed 0.003.
NOTE: If a curvilinear stress-strain relationship is used, then—
(a) Clause 3.1.4 places a limit on the value of the maximum concrete stress; and
(b) the strain in the extreme compression fibre may be adjusted to obtain the maximum bending
strength.
8.1.3 Rectangular stress block
Clause 8.1.2 shall be deemed to be satisfied for the concrete provided—
(a) the maximum strain in the extreme compression fibre is taken as 0.003; and
(b) a uniform compressive stress of  2 f c acts on an area bounded by—
(i) the edges of the cross-section; and
(ii) a line parallel to the neutral axis under the loading concerned, and located at a
distance kud from the extreme compressive fibre, where—
 2  1.0  0.003 f c (within the limits of 0.67  2  0.85) . . . 8.1.3(1)
  1.05  0.007 f c (within the limits 0.67    0.85) . . . 8.1.3(2)

NOTE: The modification of 0.9 f c given in Clause 3.1.4 is included in the rectangular stress
block assumptions.
8.1.4 Dispersion angle of prestress
In the absence of a more exact calculation, the dispersion angle of the prestressing force
shall be formed with side slopes of 2 longitudinal to 1 transverse, with respect to the
direction of the prestressing force.
8.1.5 Design strength in bending
The design strength in bending of a section shall be taken as not greater than Muo, where 
is determined from Item (b) of Table 2.3.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 88
Sections with kuo greater than 0.36 and M* > 0.6Muo shall be used only when—
(a) the structural analysis is carried out in accordance with Clauses 6.2 to 6.6; and
(b) compressive reinforcement of at least 0.01 times the area of concrete in compression
is used and restrained by fitments as specified in Clause 10.7.4.
8.1.6 Minimum strength requirements
8.1.6.1 General
The ultimate strength in bending (Muo), without axial force, at critical cross-sections shall
be not less than (Muo)min, the minimum required strength in bending at a critical cross-
section, and calculated using the following equation:
M uo min  1.2 [ Z  f ct.f 
 Pe / Ag  Pe e] . . . 8.1.6.1(1)
where
Z = section modulus of the uncracked cross-section, referred to the extreme fibre
at which flexural cracking occurs
 = characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete at 28 days
f ct.f
Pe = total effective prestress force allowing for all losses of prestress
e = eccentricity of the prestressing force (Pe), measured from the centroidal axis
of the uncracked section

This requirement may be waived at critical sections of a statically indeterminate member,
provided it can be demonstrated this will not lead to sudden collapse of a span or a reduced
collapse load.
For reinforced concrete cross-sections, this requirement shall be deemed to be satisfied for
the direction of bending being considered if tensile reinforcement of the cross-sectional
area (Ast) is provided such that—
Ast  [ b ( D/d ) 2 f ct.f
 /f sy ] bw d . . . 8.1.6.1(2)
where
For rectangular sections:
b = 0.20
For T-sections and L-sections with the web in tension:
1/ 4
b  D  b 
 b  0.20   ef  1  0.4 s  0.18   0.20  ef 
 bw  D   bw 
For T-sections and L-sections with the flange in tension:
2/3
b  D  b 
 b  0.20   ef  1  0.25 s  0.08   0.20  ef 
 bw  D   bw 
8.1.6.2 Prestressed beams at transfer
The strength of a prestressed beam at transfer shall be checked using the load combinations
specified in AS 5100.2 and a capacity reduction factor () for the section of 0.6.
This requirement shall be deemed to be satisfied if the maximum compressive stress in the
concrete, under the loads at transfer, does not exceed 0.5fcp for a rectangular distribution of
stress or 0.6fcp for a triangular distribution of stress, and flexural cracking is controlled in

89 AS 5100.5:2017
8.1.7 Stress in reinforcement and bonded tendons at ultimate strength

The stress in the reinforcement at ultimate strength shall be taken as not greater than fsy.
In the absence of a more accurate calculation and provided the minimum effective stress in
the tendons is not less than 0.5fpb, the maximum stress that would be reached in bonded
tendons at ultimate strength (pu) shall be taken as—
 k1 k 2 
 pu  f pb 1   . . . 8.1.7(1)
  
where
k1 = 0.4 if f py f pb  0.9 ; or
if f py f pb  0.9 ,
k1 = 0.28;
k2 
1
bef d p f c

Apt f pb   Ast  Asc  f sy  . . . 8.1.7(2)
Compressive reinforcement may be taken into account only if dsc, the distance from the
extreme compressive fibre of the concrete to the centroid of compressive reinforcement, is
not greater than 0.15dp, in which case k2 shall be taken as not less than 0.17.
8.1.8 Stress in tendons not yet bonded

Where the tendon is not bonded, the stress in the tendon at the strength ULS (pu) shall be
determined from the following equation, but in no case shall pu be greater than fpy:
 d p  ku d 
 pu   p.cf  6200   . . . 8.1.8(1)
 L
 pc 
where
p.cf = effective stress in the tendon (after losses)
kud = neutral axis depth
 Ap f py   Ast  Asc  f sy  0.85  b  bw  d f f c
=  for a T-section . . . 8.1.8(2)
0.85 bw f c
k2 d p
= for a rectangular section . . . 8.1.8(3)
0.85
df = thickness of the compression flange
k2 = as given in Equation 8.1.7(2)
Lpa
Lpe = . . . 8.1.8(4)
1   s 
n
 2
Lpa = length of the tendons
ns = number of support hinges crossed by the tendon (draped tendons only)

AS 5100.5:2017 90
8.1.9 Spacing of reinforcement and tendons

8.1.9.1 General
The minimum clear distance between parallel bars (including bundles of bars), ducts and
tendons shall be such that the concrete can be properly placed and compacted in accordance
with Clause 17.3.3. The maximum spacing of longitudinal reinforcement shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 8.6.1(b).
8.1.9.2 Grouping of tendons and ducts
Ducts shall not be placed in contact in a vertical plane.
The maximum number of ducts to be placed in contact in a horizontal plane shall be two.
Where tendons or ducts are grouped together in contact, the spacing and concrete cover
shall be detailed to facilitate the placing and compaction of the concrete.
Deflected pre-tensioned tendons may be grouped together provided—
(a) they are grouped only in the middle third of the span or, in the case of a cantilever,
they are grouped over the support; and
(b) where they diverge, they do so as rapidly as practicable.
8.1.9.3 Curvature and deviations of tendons and ducts
Where curved ducts are used, their position and sequence of tensioning and grouting shall
be such that when a tendon is stressed, it cannot burst either into another duct or through
the adjacent concrete.
To ensure that as a result of curvature a tendon cannot break through into an ungrouted
duct, the spacing shall be such that—
0.73
sd  . . . 8.1.9.3
r
where
sd = centre-to-centre distance between lines of ducts in the plane of the curvature
Pi = prestressing force after initial losses
r = radius of curvature of the duct
At all other locations where tendons curve or deviate, the adequacy of the concrete to carry
the lateral force shall be assessed and, where necessary, the lateral load shall be carried by
reinforcement designed in accordance with Section 12.
8.1.9.4 Out-of-plane forces
Curved tendons with multiple strands or wires also induce out-of-plane forces perpendicular
to the plane of the tendon curvature. The distributed splitting force along the line of the
tendon may be estimated as 0.16P/r in addition to any bursting forces calculated in
The out-of-plane splitting force shall be deemed to be resisted over a distance dsp from the
duct, that is, towards the centre of curvature, equal to the lesser of—
(a) twice the distance between the centre-line of the duct and the closest outer layer of
non-prestressed reinforcement parallel to the plane of curvature of the duct; and
(b) the clear distance between two ducts in the same or similar planes of curvature.

91 AS 5100.5:2017
The splitting force may be resisted by the concrete in tension or by reinforcement designed
in accordance with Section 12. The concrete tensile capacity may be taken as f ct , where ϕ
is equal to 0.6. Transverse reinforcement, if required, shall be spaced at no greater than the
lesser of 300 mm and dsp.
NOTE: For guidance, see EN 1992-2.
8.2 STRENGTH OF BEAMS IN SHEAR AND TORSION

8.2.1 General
8.2.1.1 Scope of clause
This Clause (8.2) applies to reinforced and prestressed beams subjected to any combination
of torsion, flexure, shear and axial loads. It does not apply to non-flexural members covered
by Sections 7 and 12.
8.2.1.2 Consideration of torsion
A1 Torsional effects shall be considered in regions where—
T* > 0.25Tcr . . . 8.2.1.2(1)
where
2
Acp   cp 
Tcr  0.33 f c  1   . . . 8.2.1.2(2)
uc  0.33 f c 
and
Acp = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete section
Tcr = torsional cracking moment
uc = the length of the outside perimeter of concrete cross-section
cp = average intensity of effective prestress in concrete at the centroid, or at the
junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies inside the flange
where T* is calculated on an uncracked sectional analysis.
Where torsional effects need to be considered but torsional strength is not required for the
equilibrium of the structure and the torsion in a member is induced solely by the angular
rotation of adjoining members, the structure may be reanalysed with a torsional stiffness of
20% of the uncracked stiffness and the members designed for the reduced torsion and
corresponding moment and shear, provided the minimum torsion reinforcement
requirements of Clause 8.2.5.5 and the detailing requirements of Clause 8.3.3 are satisfied.
For cellular structures:
2
Acp
 2 Ao bv . . . 8.2.1.2(3)
pc
where
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, including any area of holes therein
bv = effective width of the critical web (see Clause 8.2.1.5)

AS 5100.5:2017 92
A1 The equivalent factored shear force ( Veq* ) at any section for co-existing applied shear (V*)
and applied torsion (T*) shall be taken equal to the following:
(a) For solid sections:
2
 0.9T *uh 
Veq*  V 
* 2
  . . . 8.2.1.2(4)
 2 Ao 
(b) For box sections:
T *d s
Veq*  V *  . . . 8.2.1.2(5)
2 Ao
where
uh = perimeter of the centre-line of the closed transverse torsion reinforcement
ds = distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of non-prestressed
tensile reinforcement
8.2.1.3 Vertical component of prestress
Where the vertical component of the prestressing force (Pv) at the section under
consideration is greater than the minimum design shear force (V* min), the following
additional design action shall be considered:
V* = 1.2Pv  V*min . . . 8.2.1.3

where
V*min= minimum design shear force for all load combinations
A1 In this case, Pv shall be taken as zero for the determination of the shear capacity in
Clauses 8.2.1.6, 8.2.3.1, 8.2.3.3, 8.2.4.5 and 8.2.7.
8.2.1.4 Tapered members
In members that are tapered along their length, the components of inclined tension or
compressive forces shall be taken into consideration in the calculation of shear strength.
8.2.1.5 Effective web width
A1 The effective web width (bv) at a section in a member shall be taken as the sum of the width
of the webs within the effective shear depth (dv). In determining bv at a particular level, for
prestressing ducts with dd  bw/8:
bv = (bw  kddd) . . . 8.2.1.5
where
bw = width of a single web
dd = sum of the diameters of prestressing ducts, if any, in a horizontal plane across
the web
kd = 0.5 for grouted steel duct
= 0.8 for grouted plastic duct
= 1.2 for ungrouted duct
NOTES:
1 kd may be reduced in the presence of reinforcement transverse to the plane of the web.
2 For solid circular sections, b w may be taken as the diameter.

93 AS 5100.5:2017
8.2.1.6 Requirements for transverse shear reinforcement

Except for slabs less than 300 mm in depth and walls, transverse shear reinforcement shall
be provided in all regions where:
(a) V* > 0.5ϕ(Vuc + Pv); or
(b) T* > 0.25ϕTcr; or
(c) the overall depth of the member D  750 mm.
8.2.1.7 Minimum transverse shear reinforcement
The cross-sectional area of minimum shear reinforcement (Asv.min) provided in a beam shall
be calculated from the following equation:
A1 Asv.min  0.08 f cbv s f sy.f  0.35bv s f sy.f . . . 8.2.1.7
where
s = centre-to-centre spacing of shear reinforcement, measured parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the member
8.2.1.8 Design yield strength of tendons as transverse shear reinforcement
The design yield strength of tendons used as transverse shear reinforcement shall be taken
as the effective prestress plus 500 MPa, but shall not be taken greater than fpy.
8.2.1.9 Effective shear depth

The effective shear depth (dv) shall be taken as the distance between the resultants of the
tensile and compressive forces due to flexure in Clause 8.1.2 but not less than the greater of
0.72D or 0.9d, where d is taken as the distance from the extreme compression fibre to the
centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement in the half-depth of the section
containing the flexural tension zone.
8.2.2 Design procedures
8.2.2.1 Flexural regions
Where it is reasonable to assume that plane sections remain plane after loading, regions of
members shall be designed for shear and torsion using either the sectional model in
A1 Clause 8.2.3 or the strut-and-tie model in Section 7. The requirements of Clause 8.2.1 shall
apply.
Members in which the distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support is less
than 2d, or members in which a concentrated load causing more than 50% (or 33% for
segmental box girders) of the design shear at a support is closer than 2d from the face of the
support, may be considered to be deep components for which the provisions of Section 12
apply.
8.2.2.2 Regions near discontinuities
Where the plane sections assumption of flexural theory is not valid, regions of members
shall be designed for shear and torsion using the strut-and-tie model as specified in
Section 7, and Clause 12.2 shall apply.
8.2.2.3 Interface regions
Interfaces between elements shall be designed for shear transfer in accordance with
Clause 8.4.

AS 5100.5:2017 94
8.2.2.4 Detailed analysis

In lieu of the methods specified in Clauses 8.2.2.1 to 8.2.2.3, the resistance of members in
shear or in shear combined with torsion may be determined by satisfying the applicable
conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains, using appropriate stress-strain
relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally cracked concrete.
8.2.3 Sectional design of a beam
8.2.3.1 Design shear strength of a beam
The design shear strength of a beam (ϕVu) shall satisfy the expression:
ϕVu  Veq*
where
Vu = Vuc + Vus + Pv . . . 8.2.3.1
where
Vuc = determined from Clause 8.2.4
Vus = determined from Clause 8.2.5
Pv = vertical component of prestress crossing the section under consideration (see
Clause 8.2.1.2)
8.2.3.2 Maximum transverse shear near a support

The maximum transverse shear near a support shall be taken as the shear at—
(a) the face of the support; or
(b) a distance of do from the face of the support, provided—
(i) the member is directly supported and diagonal cracking cannot take place at the
support or extend into it; and
(ii) the transverse shear reinforcement required at do from the support is continued
unchanged to the face of the support.
For concentrated loads near a support, either the maximum transverse shear shall be taken
at the face of the support or more refined modelling techniques shall be used to consider the
enhanced effect of loads taken directly to a support such as strut-and-tie action (see
Clause 8.2.2.1).
8.2.3.3 Shear strength limited by web crushing
In no case shall the ultimate shear strength (Vu) at any section be taken as greater than—
A1
Vu.max  cot  v   cot  v  
0.55 f cbv d v   P ; or
=  1  cot 2    v . . . 8.2.3.3(1)
 v 
  cot  v   cot  v   
0.55 0.9 f cpbv d v   P , at transfer
=  1  cot 2     v . . . 8.2.3.3(2)
  v  
where
Vu.max = ultimate shear strength limited by web crushing failure
dv = effective shear depth (see Clause 8.2.1.9)
and
v = angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the
longitudinal axis of the member (see Clause 8.2.4.2)

95 AS 5100.5:2017
A1
αv = angle between the inclined shear reinforcement and the longitudinal tensile
reinforcement
8.2.4 Concrete contribution to ultimate shear strength of a beam (Vuc)
8.2.4.1 General
A1 The shear strength shall be calculated as follows:
Vuc  k v f cbv d v . . . 8.2.4.1
where f c shall not exceed 8.0 MPa; and
k v shall be determined in accordance with either—

(a) Clause 8.2.4.2—modified compression field theory (general); or
(b) Clause 8.2.4.6—modified compression field theory (simplified).
8.2.4.2 Determination of kv and v (general method)
A1 The value of kv shall be calculated as follows:
(a) For sections with transverse reinforcement less than minimum shear reinforcement
(Asv < Asv.min)—
  
0.4 1300
kv     . . . 8.2.4.2(1)
 1  1500 x   1000  kdg d v 
where
(i) f c  65 MPa —
32
kdg  but not less than 0.80
16  d g  . . . 8.2.4.2(2)
where
dg = maximum nominal aggregate size
or
(ii) f c  65 MPa —
kdg = 2.0 . . . 8.2.4.2(3)
Provided the maximum nominal aggregate size (dg) is not less than 16 mm, kdg may be
taken as 1.0.
(b) For sections with transverse reinforcement equal or greater than minimum shear
reinforcement (Asv  Asv.min)—
 0.4 
kv    . . . 8.2.4.2(4)
 1  1500 x  
The angle of inclination of the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal axis of the
member (v) shall be calculated as follows:
v = (29 + 7000x) . . . 8.2.4.2(5)

AS 5100.5:2017 96
8.2.4.3 Determination of the longitudinal strain in concrete (εx) for shear

A1 In lieu of more accurate calculations, the longitudinal strain (x) in the concrete at the
mid-depth of the section shall be calculated as follows:
M * d v  V *  Pv  0.5N *  Apt f po
x  . . . 8.2.4.3(1)
2  Es Ast  Ep Apt 
x shall be taken within the following the limits:

x  0
x  +3.0  103
Where x as calculated above is negative, x shall either be taken as zero or recalculated as
follows:
M * d v  V *  Pv  0.5N *  Apt f po
x  . . . 8.2.4.3(2)
2  Es Ast  Ep Apt  Ec Act 
x shall be taken within the following limits:

x  0.2  103
x  0
where
(a) V* and M* are absolute values and M*  (V*  Pv)dv.
(b) N* is taken as positive for tension and negative for compression.
NOTE: For rigid frames and rectangular culverts, the value of N*, used to determine x, may
be taken as twice the compressive axial thrust calculated by elastic analysis.
(c) Ast and Apt are the areas of reinforcing bars and prestressing tendons in the half-depth
of the section containing the flexural tension zone.
NOTES:
1 fpo may be taken as 0.7fpb for bonded tendons outside the transfer length and  p for
unbonded tendons.
2 In calculating Ast, the area of bars that terminate less than their development length from
the section under consideration shall be reduced in proportion to their lack of full
development.
NOTE: For sections closer than d o to the face of the support, the value of x calculated at d o from
the face of the support may be used in evaluating  and kv.
If the axial tension is large enough to crack the flexural compression face of the section, the
resulting increase in x shall be taken into account. In lieu of more accurate calculations, x
calculated from the equation shall be doubled.
v and kv may be determined from Clause 8.2.4.2 using a value of x that is greater than that
calculated from the equation in this Clause. x shall be taken as not greater than 3.0  103.

97 AS 5100.5:2017
8.2.4.4 Determination of εx for combined shear and torsion

A1 In lieu of more accurate calculations, the longitudinal strain (x) in the concrete at the
mid-depth of the section subjected to shear and torsion shall be calculated as follows:
2
 0.9T *uh 
 
* * 2 *
M dv  V  Pv     0.5 N  Apt f po
 2 Ao  . . . 8.2.4.4(1)
x 
2  Es Ast  Ep Apt 

x  0
x  +3.0  103
Where x as calculated above is negative, x shall either be taken as zero or recalculated as
follows:
2
 0.9T *uh 
 
* * 2
M dv  V  Pv     0.5N *  Apt f po
 2 Ao  . . . 8.2.4.4(2)
x 
2  Es Ast  Ep Apt  Ec Act 

x  0.2  103
x  0
where
(a) V* and M* are absolute values; and
2
 0.9T *uh 
V 
* * 2
M  dv  Pv   . . . 8.2.4.4(3)
 2 Ao 
(b) N* is taken as positive for tension and negative for compression.
NOTE: For rigid frames and rectangular culverts, the value of N* used to determine x may be
taken as twice the compressive axial thrust calculated by elastic analysis.
(c) Ast and Apt are the areas of reinforcing bars and prestressing tendons in the half-depth
of the section containing the flexural tension zone.
NOTES:
1 fpo may be taken as 0.7fpb for bonded tendons outside the transfer length and  p for
unbonded tendons.
2 In calculating Ast, the area of bars that terminate less than their development length from
the section under consideration may be reduced in proportion to their lack of full
development.
(d) Act = area of concrete calculated from the mid-depth of the section on flexural tension
side.
NOTE: For sections closer than d o to the face of the support, the value of x calculated at d o from
the face of the support may be used in evaluating v and kv.
If the axial tension is large enough to crack the flexural compression face of the section, the
resulting increase in x shall be taken into account. In lieu of more accurate calculations, x
calculated from the equation shall be doubled.
v and kv may be determined from Clause 8.2.4.2 using a value of x that is greater than that
calculated from the equation in this Clause. However, x shall be taken as not greater than
+3.0  103.

AS 5100.5:2017 98
8.2.4.5 Web crushing due to combined shear and torsion

A1 The wall thickness (tw) to avoid crushing from combined shear and torsion shall be
calculated as follows:
(a) For box sections:
(i) Where wall thickness tw > Aoh/uh
V *  Pv T *uh V
 2
 u,max . . . 8.2.4.5(1)
bv d v 1.7 Aoh bv d v
(ii) Where wall thickness tw  Aoh/uh
V *  Pv T* V
  u,max . . . 8.2.4.5(2)
bv d v 1.7tw Aoh bv d v
(b) For other sections:
2 2
V *  Pv   T *uh  V
   2 
 u,max . . . 8.2.4.5(3)
 bv d v   1.7 Aoh  bv d v
where
Aoh = area enclosed by centre-line of exterior closed transverse torsion
reinforcement, including area of holes (if any)

uh = perimeter of the centre-line of the closed transverse torsion reinforcement
Vu,max = ultimate shear strength limited by web crushing failure, in accordance with
Clause 8.2.3.3
8.2.4.6 Determination of v and kv for non-prestressed components (simplified method)
For non-prestressed components not subjected to axial tension, and provided the specified
yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcement does not exceed 500 MPa, the design
concrete strength does not exceed 65 MPa and the size of maximum aggregate particle is
not less than 10 mm, the angle of inclination (v) shall be taken as 36°, and the value of kv
shall be determined as follows:
A1 (a) For Asv < Asv.min kv = 200/(1000 + 1.3dv)  0.10 . . . 8.2.4.6
(b) For Asv  Asv.min kv = 0.15
8.2.4.7 ‘Text deleted’
A1
8.2.4.8 Secondary effects on Vuc

Where stresses due to secondary effects such as creep, shrinkage and differential
temperature are significant, they shall be taken into account in the calculation of Vuc both
for reinforced and prestressed concrete beams.
8.2.4.9 Reversal of loads
Where loading cases occur which result in cracking in a zone usually in compression, the
value of Vuc obtained from Clause 8.2.4 may not apply. In this case, Vuc shall be assessed or
be taken as zero.
A1 8.2.4.10 ‘Text deleted’

99 AS 5100.5:2017
A1 8.2.5 Transverse shear and torsional reinforcement contribution to the ultimate shear
strength of a beam (Vus )
8.2.5.1 General
Where the spacing (s) of the transverse shear reinforcement changes, the quantity Asv/s may
be assumed to vary linearly over a length, D, centred on the location where the spacing
changes.
8.2.5.2 Transverse reinforcement for shear
A1
The contribution to the design shear strength (Vu) by shear reinforcement in a beam (Vus)
shall be determined from the following equations:
(a) For perpendicular shear reinforcement:
Vus = (Asvfsy.fdv/s)cotv . . . 8.2.5.2(1)
(b) For inclined shear reinforcement:
Vus = (Asvfsy.fdv/s)(sinvcotv + cosv) . . . 8.2.5.2(2)
where
v = angle between the inclined shear reinforcement and the longitudinal
tensile reinforcement
8.2.5.3 Transverse reinforcement for combined shear and torsion
For sections subjected to combined shear and torsion, the transverse reinforcement that is
provided shall be at least equal to the sum of that required for shear and that required for
the coexisting torsion.
8.2.5.4 Transverse reinforcement for torsion
The amount of transverse reinforcement required for torsion shall be such that T*  ϕTus.
8.2.5.5 Minimum torsional reinforcement
A1 Minimum torsional reinforcement shall consist of the following:
(a) Closed tie reinforcement, satisfying the lesser of—
(i) Tus  Tcr; and . . . 8.2.5.5(1)
Asw 0.2 yl
(ii)  . . . 8.2.5.5(2)
s f sy.f
where y1 is the larger dimension of the closed tie.

NOTE: Reinforcement provided for this requirement may be included in the requirement for
minimum shear reinforcement (see Clause 8.2.1.6).
and
(b) Longitudinal reinforcement in accordance with Clauses 8.2.7, 8.2.8 and 8.2.9.
8.2.5.6 Torsional resistance
The value of Tus shall be determined from the following equation:
Asw f sy.f
Tus  2 Ao cot  v  . . . 8.2.5.6
s
where
Ao = 0.85Aoh
v = as calculated in Clause 8.2.4

AS 5100.5:2017 100
8.2.6 Hanging reinforcement

Loads applied to a member other than at the top chord of the member shall be transferred to
the top chord, within the load application region, by the provision of hanging reinforcement
of area consistent with strut-and-tie modelling.
8.2.7 Proportioning longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side
A1 Additional longitudinal reinforcement and tendons on the flexural tension side of a beam
section shall be proportioned such that the additional force is greater than or equal to Ftd,
calculated as follows:
(a) Shear with torsion:
2
 0.45T *uh 
 
2
Ftd   V   p Pv  0.5Vus     cot  v 
*
. . . 8.2.7(1)
 
 2 Ao 
where
p = 0.9 when Pv reduces the shear;
= 1.15 when Pv increases the shear.
(b) Shear without torsion:
 
Ftd   V *   p Pv  0.5Vus  cot  v  . . . 8.2.7(2)
 
where V* is the absolute value of shear force.
Additional reinforcement (As) and/or additional tendons (Ap) shall be fully anchored and
proportioned such that the following is satisfied:
Asfsy + Appu  Ftd/ . . . 8.2.7(3)
where
 = 0.7 [see Table 2.3.2(c)]
At simply supported end supports, the longitudinal reinforcement and tendons on the
flexural tension side of the beam shall be capable of resisting a tensile force of
(Ftd + 0.5N*)/. The tension force in the reinforcement and the tendons shall be developed
at the points where a line inclined at v from the longitudinal axis extending from the front
face of the bearing intersects the centroid of the reinforcement and tendons respectively.
Any lack of full development length shall be accounted for in accordance with
Clauses 13.1.2.3 and 13.3.
NOTE: The reinforcement and tendons calculated in this Clause are additional to reinforcement
provided bending and axial effects.
8.2.8 Proportioning longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural compression side
A1 Additional longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural compression side of the beam section
shall be proportioned such that the additional force is greater than or equal to the force
Fcd, calculated as follows:
(a) Shear with torsion:
2
 0.45T *uh 
 
2
Fcd   V *   p Pv  0.5Vus     cot  v   Fc
*
. . . 8.2.8(1)
 
 2 Ao 
but not less than zero.
or

101 AS 5100.5:2017
A1 (b) Shear without torsion:
 
Fcd  V *   p Pv  0.5Vus  cot  v   Fc* . . . 8.2.8(2)
where Fc* is the absolute value of the design force in the compressive zone due to flexure
and axial actions.
Additional reinforcement (As) and/or additional tendons (Ap) shall be anchored and
proportioned such that the following is satisfied:
Asfsy + Appu  Fcd/
where
 = 0.7 [see Table 2.3.2(c)]
Reinforcement and tendons shall be developed in accordance with Clause 13.1.
NOTE: The reinforcement and tendons calculated in this Clause are additional to that calculated
for bending and axial actions.
8.2.9 Extension of longitudinal reinforcement and tendons
8.2.9.1 General
A1 At every section, the longitudinal reinforcement and tendons shall be designed to resist the
flexural design force determined in Clause 8.1.5, axial design force determined in
accordance with Section 10 and additional longitudinal forces caused by shear and torsion
as specified in Clause 8.2.7, Clause 8.2.8 and Figure 8.2.9.1.
For members not subjected to significant direct tension or torsion, these requirements may
be satisfied by extending the flexural tension reinforcement and tendons to develop the
flexural tensile force beyond the location required by flexure alone as follows:
(a) Where transverse reinforcement is not required, a distance D.
(b) Where transverse reinforcement is required, a distance docot(v).
where D and do are taken at the section under consideration.

AS 5100.5:2017 102
LEGEN D:
A
A = Enve l o p e of M */z + N */2
B = Ac t i n g te n s i l e for c e Δ F t d
C = R e s i s t i n g te n s i l e for c e ØT u
B Δ F td
C
d 0 c ot(θ v )
d 0 c ot(θ v ) A
Δ F td
C B
FIGURE 8.2.9.1 ILLUSTRATION OF THE CURTAILMENT OF LONGITUDINAL

REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE EFFECT OF

INCLINED CRACKS AND THE RESISTANCE OF REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS
WITHIN ANCHORAGE LENGTHS
8.2.9.2 Compression fan regions

In regions adjacent to maximum moment locations, the cross-sectional area of longitudinal
reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall not exceed the
cross-sectional area required to resist the maximum moment acting alone, where the support
or the load at the maximum moment location introduces direct compression into the flexural
compression face of the member and the member is not subject to significant torsion.
A1 8.2.9.3 ‘Text deleted’
8.3 GENERAL DETAILS

8.3.1 Detailing of flexural reinforcement
8.3.1.1 Distribution of reinforcement and tendons
Tensile reinforcement and tendons shall be uniformly distributed in zones of maximum
concrete tension, including those portions of flanges of T-beams, L-beams and I-beams over
a support.
8.3.1.2 Continuation of negative moment reinforcement and tendons
Not less than one-third of the total negative moment tensile reinforcement and tendons
required at a support shall be extended a distance into the span equal to the overall depth of
the cross-section (D) beyond the point of contra-flexure.
8.3.1.3 Shear strength requirements near terminated flexural reinforcement
Where tensile reinforcement is terminated, the shear strength shall be assessed by strut-and-
tie modelling or other suitable model.

103 AS 5100.5:2017
This requirement shall be deemed to be satisfied if any one of the following conditions is
met:
(a) Not more than a quarter of the maximum tensile reinforcement or tendons is
terminated within any distance 2D.
(b) At the cut-off point, ϕVu  Veq* .
(c) Stirrups are provided to give an area of shear reinforcement of Asv + Asv.min for a
distance equal to the overall depth of the cross-section (D) along the terminated bar
beyond the cut-off point, where Asv.min and Asv are determined in accordance with
Clause 8.2.1.7 and Clause 8.2.5.2 respectively.
8.3.1.4 Anchorage of flexural reinforcement
Notwithstanding the requirements of Clause 8.2.9, the anchorage of longitudinal flexural
reinforcement for the positive moment tensile reinforcement provided at midspan shall be—
(a) not less than one half shall extend into a simple support for a length of 12db; and
(b) not less than one quarter shall extend into a support where the beam is continuous or
flexurally restrained.
8.3.1.5 Restraint of compressive reinforcement
Compressive reinforcement required for strength in beams shall be restrained by fitments in

8.3.1.6 Bundled bars
Groups of parallel longitudinal bars bundled to act as a unit shall—
(a) have not more than four bars in any one bundle;
(b) be tied together in contact; and
(c) be enclosed within stirrups or fitments.
Within the span of a flexural member, individual bars in a bundle shall be terminated so
that the points of termination are staggered by a distance greater than or equal to 40 times
the diameter of the largest bar within the bundle.
Bundled bars shall be treated as an equivalent single bar of diameter equal to the total area
of the bars in the bundle.
8.3.1.7 Detailing of tendons
Anchorages and stress development shall be provided for tendons in accordance with
Clause 12.7 and Section 13, respectively.
Notwithstanding the requirements of Clause 8.2.9, at a simple support, at least 50% of the
tendons required at the section of maximum positive moment shall be continued to the end
of the member without debonding.
8.3.2 Detailing of shear reinforcement
8.3.2.1 General
Shear reinforcement shall comprise of—
(a) stirrups or fitments making an angle of between 45° and 90° with the longitudinal
bars;
(b) helices; or
(c) welded wire mesh.
Ductility Class L reinforcement shall only be used in accordance with Clause 1.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 104
NOTE: Straight reinforcement or tendons may be permissible provided they are fully anchored at
both the top and bottom of a member.
8.3.2.2 Spacing
Shear reinforcement shall be spaced longitudinally not further apart than 0.5D or 300 mm,
whichever is less.
The maximum transverse spacing across the width of the member shall not exceed the lesser
of 600 mm and D.
8.3.2.3 Extent
The shear reinforcement required at the critical cross-section shall be carried to the face of
the support.
Shear reinforcement of area not less than that calculated as being necessary at any cross-
section shall be provided for a distance (D) from that cross-section in the direction of
decreasing shear. The first fitment at each end of a span shall be positioned not more than
50 mm from the face of the adjacent support.
Shear reinforcement shall extend as close to the compression face and the tension face of
the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement and tendons
will permit.
8.3.2.4 Anchorage of shear reinforcement
The anchorage of shear reinforcement transverse to the longitudinal flexural reinforcement

may be achieved by a hook or cog complying with Clause 13.1.2.7 or by lapped splices.
Where lapped splices are used, the lap lengths shall be calculated in Clause 13.1.2, except
that for stirrups or fitments adjacent to the cover concrete a hook shall be provided at the
end of each lapped bar, and the lap length calculated in Clause 13.1.2 shall be multiplied by
1.3.
Shear reinforcement shall be deemed to be anchored provided the following criteria are
met:
(a) Bends in bars used as fitments shall enclose a longitudinal bar with a diameter not
less than the diameter of the fitment bar. The enclosed bar shall be in contact with the
fitment bend.
Where a fitment hook is located in the compression zone of the structural member,
where anchorage conditions are most favourable, the stirrup spacing shall comply
with Clause 8.3.2.1. Provided the hook complies with Clause 13.1.2.7, anchorage
shall be deemed to be satisfied.
(b) Where a fitment hook is located in the tension zone, the anchorage specified in
Item (b) shall be deemed to be satisfied, provided the stirrup spacing calculated in
accordance with Clause 8.2.5.1 is multiplied by 0.8 and the maximum spacing
specified in Clause 8.3.2.1 is multiplied by 0.8.
(c) Fitment cogs shall not be used when the anchorage of the fitment is solely in the outer
layer of reinforcement. In this case fitment hooks shall be used.
NOTE: The type of anchorage used should not induce splitting or spalling of the concrete cover.
8.3.2.5 End anchorage of mesh
Where mesh is used as shear reinforcement, the ends shall be anchored—
(a) in accordance with Clause 8.3.2.3, if the wires are bent at least to the dimensions of a
standard fitment hook; or
(b) by embedding two or more transverse wires at least 25 mm within the compressive
zone.

105 AS 5100.5:2017
8.3.2.6 Horizontal curvature of tendons

The designer shall assess the bursting and/or splitting capacity of the beam due to forces
generated by the horizontal curvature of tendons.
8.3.3 Detailing of torsional reinforcement
Torsional reinforcement shall be detailed in accordance with Clause 8.3.2 and the
following:
(a) Torsional reinforcement shall consist of both closed fitments and longitudinal
reinforcement and tendons.
(b) The closed ties shall be continuous around all sides of the cross-section and anchored
so as to develop full strength at any point, unless a more refined analysis shows that
full anchorage is not required over part of the tie. The spacing of the closed ties shall
be not greater than the lesser of 0.12ut and 300 mm.
In large members where a single closed loop of reinforcement is not possible, bars
shall extend in one length over the full depth of the web, or width of the flange, with
adequate anchorage by means of hooks or cogs at the intersection of webs and
flanges.
Lapped splices shall not be used.
(c) Additional longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed as close as practicable to the
corners of the cross-section, and in all cases at least one longitudinal bar shall be
provided at each corner of the closed ties.
(d) The section shall be capable of distributing axial torsional tensile force equally to the
corners of the torsion cell.
8.4 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR IN COMPOSITE AND MONOLITHIC BEAMS

8.4.1 General
This Clause applies to the transfer of longitudinal shear forces, across interface shear planes
through webs and flanges of—
(a) composite beams constructed of precast concrete sections and cast in situ toppings or
flanges; and
(b) beams constructed monolithically.
8.4.2 Design shear stress
The design shear stress ( *) acting on the interface shall be taken as follows:
* = Veq*/(zbf) . . . 8.4.2
where
z = internal moment lever arm of the section
For a shear plane that passes through a region in compression—
 = ratio of the compressive force in the member (calculated between the
extreme compressive fibre and the shear plane) and the total compression
force in the section

AS 5100.5:2017 106
For a shear plane that passes through a region in tension—

 = ratio of the tensile force in the longitudinal reinforcement (calculated
between the extreme tensile fibre and the shear plane) and the total tension
force in the section
and
*   u
where
 = 0.7
8.4.3 Shear stress capacity
The shear stress capacity (u) at the shear interface shall be determined as follows:
 Asf f sy g p 
u =      k co f ct . . . 8.4.3
 sbf bf 
 lesser of (0.2 f c , 10 MPa)
where
gp = permanent distributed load normal to the shear interface per unit length,
newtons per millimetre
 = coefficient of friction, given in Table 8.4.3

kco = cohesion coefficient, given in Table 8.4.3
bf = width of the shear plane, in millimetres
Asf = area of fully anchored shear reinforcement crossing the interface, in
millimetres square
fsy = characteristic yield strength of shear reinforcement not exceeding 500 MPa
s = spacing of anchored shear reinforcement crossing interface
TABLE 8.4.3
SHEAR PLANE SURFACE COEFFICIENTS
Coefficients
Surface condition of the shear plane
 k co
A smooth surface, as obtained by casting against a form, or finished to a similar
0.6 0.1
standard
A surface trowelled or tamped, so that the fines have been brought to the top, but
where some small ridges, indentations or undulations have been left; slip-formed 0.6 0.2
and vibro-beam screeded; or produced by some form of extrusion technique
A surface deliberately roughened—
(a) by texturing the concrete to give a pronounced profile;
(b) by compacting but leaving a rough surface with coarse aggregate protruding
but firmly fixed in the matrix; 0.9 0.4
(c) by spraying when wet, to expose the coarse aggregate without disturbing it;
or
(d) by providing mechanical shear keys.
Monolithic construction 0.9 0.5
NOTE: Where a beam is subjected to high levels of differential shrinkage, temperature effects,
tensile stress or fatigue effects across the shear plane, the values of  and k co in the above Table do
not apply.

107 AS 5100.5:2017
8.4.4 Shear plane reinforcement

Where reinforcement is required to increase the longitudinal shear strength, the
reinforcement shall consist of shear reinforcement anchored to develop its full strength
across the shear plane. Shear and torsional reinforcement already provided, and which
crosses the shear plane, may be taken into account for this purpose.
The centre-to-centre spacing (s) of the shear reinforcement shall not exceed the maximum
spacing—
s max = 3.5tf . . . 8.4.4
where
tf = thickness of topping or flange anchored by the shear reinforcement
8.4.5 Minimum thickness of structural components
The thickness of structural components subject to interface shear shall be not less than
70 mm.
8.5 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

8.5.1 General
The deflection of a beam shall be determined in accordance with Clause 8.5.2 or
Clause 8.5.3.
8.5.2 Beam deflection by refined calculation

The calculation of the deflection of a beam by refined calculation shall make allowance for
the following:
(a) Cracking and tension stiffening.
(b) Shrinkage and creep properties of the concrete.
(c) Expected load history.
(d) Expected construction procedure.
(e) Deflection of formwork or settlement of props during construction, particularly when
the beam formwork is supported on suspended floors or beams below.
8.5.3 Beam deflection by simplified calculation
8.5.3.1 Short-term deflection
The short-term deflections due to external loads and prestressing, which occur immediately
on their application, shall be calculated using the value of Ecj determined in accordance
with Clause 3.1.2 and the value of the effective second moment of area of the member (Ief).
This value of Ief may be determined from the values of Ief at nominated cross-sections as
follows:
(a) For a simply supported span, the value at midspan.
(b) In a continuous beam—
(i) for an interior span, half the midspan value plus one quarter of each support
value; or
(ii) for an end span, half the midspan value plus half the value at the continuous
support.
(c) For a cantilever, the value at the support.

AS 5100.5:2017 108
For the purpose of the above determinations, the value of Ief at each of the cross-sections
nominated in Items (a) to (c) above shall be given by the following:
A1
I cr
I ef  2
 I ef.max
 I   M cr.t  . . . 8.5.3.1
1   1  cr  * 
 I   Ms 
where
Ief.max = maximum effective second moment of area, taken as I for reinforced
sections when p = Ast/(bd)  0.005 and prestressed sections
= 0.6 I, for reinforced sections when p = Ast/(bd) < 0.005
b = width of the rectangular cross-section at the compression face
M s* = maximum bending moment at the section, based on the short-term
serviceability load or the construction load
Mcr 
  σ cs  P / Ag  Pe  0
= Z f ct.f 
Z = section modulus of the uncracked section, referred to the extreme
fibre at which cracking occurs
 = characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete
f ct.f
cs = maximum shrinkage-induced tensile stress on the uncracked section

at the extreme fibre at which cracking occurs
In the absence of more refined calculation, cs may be taken as—
= 2.5 pw  0.8 pcw
Es cs
1  50 pw
pw = web reinforcement ratio for tensile reinforcement
= (Ast + Apt)/(bwd)
pcw = web reinforcement ratio for compressive reinforcement
= Asc/(bwd)
 cs* = design shrinkage strain of concrete, at the time when
deflection is to be calculated
NOTE: If the short-term portion of the final long-term deflection
is to be calculated, cs is the final long-term shrinkage strain
determined in accordance with Clause 3.1.7.
Where appropriate, cs shall be increased to account for axial tension
induced by restraint to shrinkage by the support to the beams.
8.5.3.2 Long-term deflection
For reinforced and prestressed beams, that part of the deflection that occurs after the short-
term deflection shall be calculated as the sum of—
(a) the shrinkage component of the long-term deflection, determined from the design
shrinkage strain of concrete (cs) (see Clause 3.1.7) and the principles of mechanics;
and
(b) the additional long-term creep deflections, determined from the design creep
coefficient of concrete (cc) (see Clause 3.1.8) and the principles of mechanics.

109 AS 5100.5:2017
8.6 CRACK CONTROL OF BEAMS

8.6.1 Crack control for tension and flexure in reinforced beams
For the purpose of this Clause, the resultant action is considered to be primarily tension
when the whole of the section is in tension, or primarily flexure when the tensile stress
distribution within the section prior to cracking is triangular with some part of the section in
compression.
Cracking in reinforced beams subjected to tension, flexure with tension or flexure shall be
deemed to be controlled if the appropriate requirements in Items (a) and (b), and either
Item (d) for beams primarily in tension or Item (e) for beams primarily in flexure are
satisfied.
(a) The minimum area of reinforcement in a tensile zone of a beam shall comply with
Clause 8.1.6.1.
(b) The distance from the side or soffit of a beam to the centre of the nearest longitudinal
bar shall not exceed 100 mm. Bars with a diameter less than half the diameter of the
largest bar in the section shall be ignored. The centre-to-centre spacing of bars near a
tension face of the beam shall not exceed 300 mm. For T-beams and L-beams, the
reinforcement required in the flange shall be distributed across the effective width.
(c) Load effects shall be considered for the following two cases:
(i) SLS load combinations.
(ii) For beams designed for exposure classifications B2, C1, C2 and U only,
permanent effects at the SLS.
(d) For beams primarily subject to tension, the calculated steel stress (scr) shall not
exceed the maximum steel stress given in Table 8.6.1(A) for the largest nominal
diameter (db) of the bars in the section.
(e) For beams primarily subject to flexure, the calculated tensile steel stress (scr) shall
not exceed the larger of the maximum steel stresses given in—
(i) Table 8.6.1(A) for the largest nominal diameter (db) of the bars in the tensile
zone; and
(ii) Table 8.6.1(B) for the largest centre-to-centre spacing of adjacent parallel bars
in the tensile zone.
Bars with a diameter less than half the diameter of the largest bar in the section shall
be ignored when determining spacing.
NOTE: Design bending moments M s* at the SLS are typically estimated using elastic analysis.
Significant errors may result if they are determined from the design bending moments M* at the
strength limit state when the amount of moment redistribution is unknown; for example, if plastic
methods of analysis are used for strength design.

AS 5100.5:2017 110
TABLE 8.6.1(A)
MAXIMUM STEEL STRESS FOR TENSION OR FLEXURE
Loading case specified in Loading case specified in
Nominal bar diameter (db ) Item (c)(i) Item (c)(ii)
mm Maximum steel stress (f scr )
MPa
10 360 275
12 330 250
16 280 215
20 240 185
24 210 160
28 185 140
32 160 125
36 140 110
40 120 95
NOTES: Values for other bar diameters may be calculated using the appropriate equations, as
follows:
(a) f scr = [760 – 173log e (d b )] MPa for loading case specified in Item (c)(i).
(b) f scr = [575 – 130log e (d b )] MPa for loading case specified in Item (c)(ii).
TABLE 8.6.1(B)
MAXIMUM STEEL STRESS FOR FLEXURE
Loading case specified in Loading case specified in
Centre-to-centre spacing Item (c)(i) Item (c)(ii)
mm Maximum steel stress (f scr )
MPa
50 360 280
100 320 240
150 280 200
200 240 160
250 200 120
300 160 80
NOTES: Values for other centre-to-centre spacings may be calculated using the appropriate
equation, as follows:
(a) f scr = [400 (0.8  centre-to-centre spacing)] MPa for loading case specified in
Item (c)(i).
(b) f scr = [320 (0.8  centre-to-centre spacing)] MPa for loading case specified in
Item (c)(ii).
8.6.2 Crack control for flexure in prestressed beams

8.6.2.1 General
Flexural cracking in a prestressed beam shall be deemed to be controlled if, under SLS load
combinations, the resulting maximum tensile stress in the concrete does not exceed 0.25 f c
and 0.25 f cp , or, if this stress is exceeded, by providing reinforcement or bonded tendons,
or both, near the tensile face with a centre-to-centre spacing not exceeding 200 mm and
limiting either—
(a) the calculated maximum flexural tensile stress under SLS load combination, including
transfer limited to 0.5 f c and 0.5 f cp ; or

111 AS 5100.5:2017
(b) the increment in steel stress near the tension face to that given in Table 8.6.2.1, as the
load increases from its value when the extreme concrete tensile fibre is at zero stress
to the SLS load combinations values.
TABLE 8.6.2.1
MAXIMUM INCREMENT OF STEEL STRESS
FOR FLEXURE IN PRESTRESSED BEAMS
Nominal reinforcement Maximum increment

bar diameter (d b ) of steel stress
mm MPa
12 330
16 280
20 240
24 210
28 200
All bonded tendons 200
8.6.2.2 Segmental members at unreinforced joints

Under all SLS load combinations, the residual compression at the joint shall be not less than
1.0 MPa.
8.6.2.3 Prestressed members in exposure classification B2, C1, C2 or U
For exposure classifications C1, C2 or U, the concrete at the level of each tendon shall be in
compression under a SLS load combination that comprises permanent effects plus 50% of
the transient serviceability load(s).
For exposure classification B2, the concrete at the level of each tendon shall be in
compression under a SLS load combination that comprises permanent effects plus 25% of
the transient serviceability load(s).
8.6.3 Crack control in the side face of beams
For crack control in the side face of beams where the overall depth exceeds 750 mm,
longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of 12 mm bars at 200 mm centres or 16 mm bars at
300 mm centres, shall be placed in each side face.
8.6.4 Crack control at openings and discontinuities
Reinforcement shall be provided for crack control at openings and discontinuities in a
beam.
8.7 VIBRATION OF BEAMS

Vibration of beams shall be considered and appropriate measures shall be taken, where
necessary, to ensure that vibrations induced by machinery, or vehicular and pedestrian
traffic, will not adversely affect the serviceability of the structure.
8.8 T-BEAMS AND L-BEAMS

8.8.1 General
Where a slab is assumed to provide the flange of a T-beam or L-beam, the longitudinal
shear capacity of the flange-web connection shall be checked in accordance with
Clause 8.4.
For isolated T-beams or L-beams, the shear strength of the slab flange on vertical sections
parallel to the beam shall also be checked in accordance with Clause 8.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 112
8.8.2 Effective width of flange for strength and serviceability for T-beams and
L-beams
In the absence of a more accurate determination, the effective width of the flange for
strength and serviceability shall be taken as—
(a) for T-beams .................................................................................. bef = bw + 0.2a; and
(b) for L-beams ........................................................................................ bef = bw + 0.1a,
where a is the distance between points of zero bending moment, which, for continuous
beams, may be taken as 0.7L.
In both Items (a) and (b) above, the overhanging part of the flange considered effective
shall not exceed half the clear distance to the next parallel member. The effective width so
determined may be taken as constant over the entire span.
8.9 SLENDERNESS LIMITS FOR BEAMS

8.9.1 General
Unless a detailed analysis is carried out, beams shall comply with the limits specified in
Clauses 8.9.2 to 8.9.4, as appropriate.
8.9.2 Simply supported and continuous beams
For a simply supported or continuous beam, the distance Ll between points at which lateral
restraint is provided shall be such that Ll/bef does not exceed the lesser of 240bef/D and 60.
8.9.3 Cantilever beams
For a cantilever beam having lateral restraint only at the support, the ratio of the clear
projection (Ln) to the width (bef) at the support shall be such that Ln/bef does not exceed the
lesser of 100bef/D and 25.
8.9.4 Reinforcement for slender prestressed beams
For a prestressed beam in which Ll/bef exceeds 30, or for a prestressed cantilever beam in
which Ln/bef exceeds 12, the following reinforcement shall be provided:
(a) Stirrups providing a steel area Asv.min in accordance with Clause 8.2.6.
(b) Additional longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of at least one bar in each corner of
the compression face, such that—
Asc  0.35Apt fpb/fsy . . . 8.9.4
8.10 COMPOSITE MEMBERS

8.10.1 General
Composite flexural members shall consist of precast prestressed concrete beams connected
to cast-in-place reinforced concrete such that the two components function as a monolithic
unit.
NOTES:
1 Typical cross-sections of composite members are depicted in Figure 8.10.1.
2 For standard precast prestressed concrete beam sections, see Appendix D.
A continuous composite member can consist of a succession of simply supported
prestressed concrete beams made continuous by the provision of non-prestressed
reinforcement in the cast-in-place concrete over the intermediate supports.
Monolithic action of composite beams up to the strength ULS in bending of the member
shall be deemed to comply where—
(a) longitudinal shear at the contact surface can be transferred without excessive slip;
113 AS 5100.5:2017
(b) separation of the elements normal to the contact surface is prevented.

NOTE: The transfer of shear can be achieved by a combination of bond, roughness, steel ties and
shear keys.
Ca st- in - p l ac e
c o n c rete
Pl anks Inver te d T- b eam
Ca st- in - p l ac e
c o n c rete
Pre c ast prestres se d

beam
I-beam with slab T- b e a m s w i t h i n f i l l s l a b s
FIGURE 8.10.1 TYPICAL CROSS-SECTIONS OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS
8.10.2 Design requirements

8.10.2.1 General
The following design requirements shall be met:
(a) The construction sequence that influences the design of composite members shall be
indicated on the drawings.
(b) The individual elements of the composite member shall be investigated for any
critical loads during construction (for example, handling and erection as well as for
the loads applied after their interconnection).
(c) The effects of residual creep in the precast beam and differential shrinkage between
the precast beam and the cast-in-place concrete shall be considered, and the member
shall be designed for the following two cases:
(i) Final residual creep with final differential shrinkage.
(ii) Zero residual creep with zero differential shrinkage.
NOTE: Zero residual creep and differential shrinkage represent conditions at a time shortly
after completion of construction.

AS 5100.5:2017 114
Methods of calculating the effects of residual creep and differential shrinkage shall be as
specified in Clause 8.10.3.2.
Residual creep and differential shrinkage in a composite member shall be regarded as
always acting together.
8.10.2.2 Analysis
The following assumptions shall be applied:
(a) The effective width of the concrete slab shall be used in the design of a concrete
member and shall be determined in accordance with Clause 8.8.
(b) The effective cross-sectional area of the concrete slab shall be transformed to an
equivalent area of beam concrete by applying the modular ratio factor (αc) of the slab
concrete and the beam concrete in the composite member.
8.10.3 Design for applied loads
8.10.3.1 General
All components and composite members shall be designed in accordance with this Section
for all loads to which they are subjected.
NOTE: Particular attention should be given to the validity of any assumptions about concrete
stress-strain relationships being adopted when high compression stresses occur at SLS.
8.10.3.2 Effects due to residual creep and differential shrinkage
8.10.3.2.1 General
Residual creep is that portion of the creep that occurs in the precast element after
establishing composite action.
The procedures in Clauses 8.10.3.2.2 and 8.10.3.2.3 shall be used to determine the effects
of residual creep in a composite member subject to dead load and prestress only, and the
effects of differential shrinkage respectively.
NOTE: If a more refined solution is required or where spans in excess of 30 m are envisaged,
consideration should be given to other methods, such as superposition or rate of flow method.
8.10.3.2.2 Effect of creep
The calculation of stresses between the precast beam and the cast-in-place concrete slab
shall be as follows:
(a) Simply supported members Calculation of stresses due to sustained loads shall be
based on the assumption that the stresses in any cross-section lie between the
following extreme distributions:
(i) The stress distribution due to dead load (beam and cast-in-place concrete) and
the prestress after all losses, acting on the precast beam.
(ii) The stress distribution due to dead load (beam and cast-in-place concrete) and
prestress after all losses acting on the composite section. The member shall be
considered monolithic, and the eccentricity of the prestressing force shall be
measured to the centroid of the composite section.
The stresses in the composite section caused only by residual creep in the precast
beam shall be calculated multiplying the difference in stress between Items (i) and (ii)
by:
1  e cc.j  . . . 8.10.3.2.2
 

115 AS 5100.5:2017
where
cc.j residual creep coefficient, which depends on the amount of creep strain
= that will occur after the precast beam and the cast-in-place concrete are
made composite
The final stresses in the composite section due to dead load (precast beam and cast-
in-place concrete), prestress and creep shall be the sum of stresses in Item (i) and the
stresses due to residual creep.
(b) Continuous members Stresses in a continuous composite member due to dead load,
prestress after all losses and creep shall be calculated by considering the continuous
member separated into simply supported spans, and then restoring continuity by
applying restraint moments at the supports. The final stresses at any section shall be
the sum of the stresses occurring in each simply supported span calculated in
accordance with Item (a) above and those stresses caused by 1  e cc.j  the continuity

 
restraint moments resulting from the application of both the dead load and prestress to
the continuous composite section [described in Item (a)(ii)].
The restraint moments may be calculated by any method using elastic analysis. The restraint
moment calculation shall be based on the assumption that continuity and composite action
are established in all spans simultaneously at time (tj). A minimum and maximum estimated
value of tj shall be used in the calculation of creep and shrinkage effects.
NOTE: In a composite member, creep occurring in the precast beam results in a redistribution of
stresses between the beam and the cast-in-place concrete slab. The magnitude of these stresses
depends on the age of the precast beam when composite behaviour is established. If a large
proportion of the creep in the beam has taken place by the time the slab is cast, the effect of
subsequent creep will be small.
8.10.3.2.3 Effect of differential shrinkage
Differential shrinkage effects between the precast beam and the cast-in-place concrete shall
be evaluated as follows:
(a) Simply supported members Stresses and deformations in the composite member, due
to differential shrinkage, shall be evaluated assuming a uniform differential shrinkage
force along the member calculated as follows:
 1  e cc.j 
differential shrinkage force = Ec Acscs.j   . . . 8.10.3.2.3
 cc.j 
where
Acs = area of cast-in-place concrete
cc.j = differential shrinkage

 1  ecc.j 
NOTE: The term   accounts for the influence of residual creep in the beam, and
 
 cc.j 
some values of this factor are given in Table 8.10.3.2.3.
The stresses in the composite beam shall be obtained from the sum of a direct tensile
force equal to the differential shrinkage force acting at the centroid of the cast-in-
place concrete only and a corresponding compressive force equal to the differential
shrinkage force at the centroid of the cast-in-place concrete, and acting on the
composite section.

AS 5100.5:2017 116
(b) Continuous members Stresses and deformation in a continuous member due to

differential shrinkage shall be calculated by considering the continuous member as
separated into simply supported spans, and then restoring continuity by applying
restraint moments at the supports. The final stresses at the cross-section shall be the
sum of the stresses occurring in the section in the simply supported span, calculated
in accordance with Item (a) and those stresses caused by the continuity moments.
NOTE: In the cast-in-place concrete directly over the piers, stresses are produced only by the
continuity restraint moments.
The restraint moment calculation shall be based on the same time of establishment of
continuity assumptions as in Clause 8.10.3.2.2(a).
TABLE 8.10.3.2.3
FACTORS USED FOR RESIDUAL CREEP AND DIFFERENTIAL SHRINKAGE
CALCULATIONS IN COMPOSITE MEMBERS
cc.j 0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
cc.j
1 e 0 0.393 0.632 0.865 0.950 0.982 0.993
cc.j
1 e
1.0 0.787 0.632 0.432 0.317 0.245 0.199
cc.j
8.10.3.3 Design for continuity at a support

8.10.3.3.1 General
This Clause applies to the design of composite structures erected as single spans of precast
prestressed concrete beams of uniform depth and made continuous afterwards for live load
and superimposed dead load.
The analysis of the continuous member shall be based on the assumption of uniform
moment of inertia using the uncracked cross-section including the actual width of the
member.
The time-dependent effects of creep and shrinkage shall be calculated in accordance with
Clause 8.10.3.2.
8.10.3.3.2 Positive moment connection at supports
In addition to those positive moments due to live load, support settlement and thermal
effects, positive moments can develop due to the combined effects of differential creep and
shrinkage. Where positive moments occur at supports, fully anchored non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement shall be cast into the ends of the precast beams to permit the
connection of the bottom flanges of adjoining beams at supports. Reinforcement shall be
designed for the SLS in accordance with Clause 8.6.1.
The reinforcement shall be spliced in accordance with Section 13.
NOTE: If overlapping cogged bars or hooked bars are used, the distance between the end face of
the beam and the inside edge of the leg of the bar projecting from the beam should be not less
than 12 times the bar diameter.
8.10.3.3.3 Negative moment zones
The value of f c for the beam concrete and the width of the bottom flange of the beam shall
be used in the strength calculation for the cross-section directly over internal supports.
The negative moment reinforcement shall be distributed evenly within the effective width
and extended at the same rate beyond that area.

117 AS 5100.5:2017
8.10.4 Shear
The shear resistance of a composite section shall be in accordance with Clause 8.2.
The interface shear connection shall be in accordance with Clause 8.4.

AS 5100.5:2017 118
SECTI ON 9 DESIGN OF SLABS FOR

STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY
9.1 STRENGTH OF SLABS IN BENDING

9.1.1 General
The strength of a slab in bending shall be determined in accordance with Clause 8.1, except
that minimum tensile steel Ast shall be provided such that—
Ast = 0.0025bd . . .9.1.1
NOTE: AS 3600 should be referred to where the two-way design of a flat slab is required.
9.1.2 Distribution reinforcement for slabs
Reinforcement shall be placed in the bottom of all slabs transverse to the main
reinforcement.
For road bridges, unless a more accurate analysis is carried out, the amount of distribution
reinforcement shall be a percentage of the main reinforcement required for positive moment
as follows:
(a) Main reinforcement parallel to traffic:
1750
Percentage = . . . 9.1.2(1)
L
(Minimum 30%)
(b) Main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:
3500
Percentage = . . . 9.1.2(2)
L
(Minimum 30%)
For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic, the amount of distribution
reinforcement in the outer quarters of the span may be reduced by a maximum of
50%.
For rail bridges, the distribution reinforcement for slabs shall be based on a rational
analysis using rail traffic loading as specified in AS 5100.2.
9.1.3 Edge stiffening
Edge stiffening of slabs shall be considered as follows:
(a) Longitudinal Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs having main reinforcement
parallel to traffic. An edge beam may consist of a kerb section, a beam integral with
the slab, or a slab edge additionally reinforced or extended.
(b) Transverse Transverse edges at the ends of the bridge and at intermediate points
where the continuity of the slab is disrupted shall be additionally reinforced or
supported by edge beams or diaphragms designed for the full effects of the wheel
loads.
The need for longitudinal or transverse edge stiffening of slabs shall be based on a rational
analysis of the slab using the specified loadings plus any other loading that may be applied
to the edge of the slab during the life of the structure.

119 AS 5100.5:2017
9.1.4 Detailing of tensile reinforcement

Tensile reinforcement shall be arranged as follows:
(a) The termination and anchorage of flexural reinforcement shall be based on a
hypothetical bending-moment diagram formed by displacing the calculated positive
and negative bending-moment envelopes a distance D along the slab from each side
of the relevant sections of maximum moment.
(i) Not less than one-third of the total negative moment reinforcement required at a
support shall be extended a distance 12db or D, whichever is greater, beyond the
point of contraflexure.
(ii) At a simply supported discontinuous end of a slab, not less than one half of the
total positive moment reinforcement required at midspan shall be anchored by
extension past the face of the support for a distance of 12db or D, whichever is
greater, or by an equivalent anchorage.
Where no shear reinforcement is required in accordance with Clause 9.2, the
extension of the midspan positive moment reinforcement past the face of the
support may be reduced to—
(A) 8db provided at least one half of the reinforcement is so extended; or
(B) 4db provided all the reinforcement is so extended.
(iii) At a support where the slab is continuous or flexurally restrained, not less than
one quarter of the total positive moment reinforcement required at midspan
shall continue past the near face of the support.
(b) At an exterior restrained corner of a slab supported on beams or walls and restrained
against uplift, reinforcement shall be provided in both the top and the bottom of the
slab for the induced torsional moments based on a rational analysis. For an orthogonal
corner, in the absence of a rational analysis, the following reinforcement arrangement
shall be deemed to comply:
(i) The reinforcement shall consist of two layers perpendicular to the edges of the
slab and extend from each edge for a distance not less than 0.2 times the shorter
span.
(ii) The area of the reinforcement in each of the four layers shall be not less than
0.75Ast where Ast is the area of the maximum positive moment reinforcement
required at midspan.
(c) At an exterior corner of a two-way rectangular slab supported on four sides and
restrained against uplift, reinforcement shall be provided in both the top and the
bottom of the slab. This reinforcement shall consist of two layers perpendicular to the
edges of the slab and extend from each edge for a distance not less than 0.2 times the
shorter span. The area of the reinforcement in each of the four layers shall be not less
than—
(i) for corners where neither edge is continuous ................................... 0.75Ast; and
(ii) for corners where one edge is continuous ................................................. 0.5Ast,
where Ast is the area of the maximum positive moment reinforcement required at
midspan.
NOTE: All reinforcement provided in a section may be included as part of this reinforcement
requirement at an exterior corner.

AS 5100.5:2017 120
9.1.5 Spacing of reinforcement and tendons

The minimum clear distance between parallel bars (including bundled bars), ducts and
tendons shall be such that the concrete can be properly placed and compacted in accordance
with Clause 17.3.3.
The maximum spacing of reinforcement and tendons shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 9.4.
9.2 STRENGTH OF SLABS IN SHEAR

9.2.1 General
The strength of a slab in shear shall be calculated as follows:
(a) Where a slab acts essentially as a wide beam and shear failure may occur across the
entire width or over a substantial width, the strength shall be calculated in accordance
with Clause 8.2.
(b) Where the potential failure surface may form a truncated cone or pyramid around the
support or loaded area, the strength of the slab shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 9.2.3 and 9.2.4.
Where failure modes specified in Items (a) and (b) are possible, the shear strength shall be
calculated in accordance with both Items (a) and (b), and the smaller value shall be taken as
the critical strength.
9.2.2 Design shear strength of slabs

The design shear strength of a slab shall be taken as ϕVu, where Vu shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 8.2, Clause 9.2.3 or Clause 9.2.4 as appropriate.
9.2.3 Shear strength of slabs without moment transfer
The ultimate shear strength of a slab with no moment transfer (Vuo) shall be taken equal to
Vu and shall be calculated as follows:
(a) Where no shear reinforcement or fabricated shear head is provided—
Vuo 
 ud om f cv  0.3 cp  . . . 9.2.3(1)
(b) Where shear reinforcement or a fabricated shear head is provided—

Vuo  
 ud om 0.5 f c  0.3 cp  0.2ud om f c . . . 9.2.3(2)
where
u = length of the critical shear perimeter as defined below
dom = mean value of do, averaged around the critical shear perimeter (u)
fcv = concrete shear strength, given by
 2  . . . 9.2.3(3)
0.171   f c  0.34 f c
 h 
σcp = average intensity of effective prestress in the concrete
h = ratio of the longest overall dimension of the effective loaded area (Y) to the
shortest overall dimension (X) measured perpendicular to Y (see
Figure 9.2.3)

121 AS 5100.5:2017
For the purpose of this Clause, the critical shear perimeter (u) is defined by a line
geometrically similar to the boundary of the effective area of a support or load and located
at a distance of dom/2 from the boundary as shown in Figure 9.2.3. The effective area of a
support or load shall be that area totally enclosing the actual support or load for which the
perimeter is a minimum.
That part of the critical shear perimeter that is enclosed by radial projections from the
centroid of the support or load to the extremities of any critical opening shall be regarded as
ineffective.
An opening shall be regarded as critical if it is located at a clear distance of less than 2.5bo
from the critical shear perimeter, where bo is the width of the critical opening as shown in
Figure 9.2.3(b).
bo
Cr it i c al s h ear
p er i m eter
Cr it i c al s h ear
p er i m eter In ef fe c t i ve
< 2 . 5b o portion
dom
2
dom dom
In ef fe c t i ve
X 2 2 portion
Y
Y < 2 . 5b o
dom
2
B o u n d ar y of ef fe c t i ve X
area s of su p p or t or l oad dom bo
B o u n d ar y of ef fe c t i ve
area s of su p p or t or l oad 2
(a) W it h o ut c r it i c al o p e nin g s (b) W it h c r it i c al o p e nin g s
FIGURE 9.2.3 CRITICAL SHEAR PERIMETER
9.2.4 Shear strength of slabs with moment transfer

If a bending moment is designated to be transferred from a slab to a support, it shall comply
with the relevant provisions of AS 3600.
9.3 DEFLECTION OF SLABS

9.3.1 General
The deflection of a slab shall be determined in accordance with Clause 9.3.2 or
Clause 9.3.3.
9.3.2 Slab deflection by refined calculation
The calculation of the deflection of a slab by refined calculation shall make allowance for
the following:
(a) Two-way action, where existing.
(b) Cracking and tension stiffening.
(c) Shrinkage and creep properties of the concrete.

AS 5100.5:2017 122
(d) Expected load history.

(e) Expected construction procedure.
(f) Deflection of formwork or settlement of props during construction.
9.3.3 Slab deflection by simplified calculation
The deflection of a slab spanning one way shall be calculated in accordance with
Clause 8.5.3 on the basis of an equivalent slab strip taken as a prismatic beam of unit width.
9.4 CRACK CONTROL OF SLABS

9.4.1 Crack control for flexure in reinforced slabs
Cracking in reinforced slabs subject to flexure shall be deemed to be controlled if the
following requirements are satisfied:
(a) The minimum area of reinforcement in a tensile zone of a slab shall comply with
Clause 9.1.1.
(b) The centre-to-centre spacing of bars in each direction shall not exceed the lesser of
2.0Ds or 300 mm. Bars with a diameter less than half the diameter of the largest bar in
the cross-section shall be ignored.
(c) The calculated tensile steel stress at the SLS (scr) shall not exceed the larger of the
maximum steel stresses given in—
(i) Table 9.4.1(A) for the largest nominal diameter (db) of the bars in the tensile
zone; and
(ii) Table 9.4.1(B) for the largest centre-to-centre spacing of adjacent parallel bars
in the tensile zone and, when determining spacing, bars with a diameter less
than half the diameter of the largest bar in the section shall be ignored.
For areas of slabs fully enclosed within a building except for a brief period of weather
exposure during construction and, where it is assessed that crack control is not required,
only Item (a) and Item (b) shall be satisfied.
NOTE: Design bending moments M s* at the SLS are typically estimated using elastic analysis.
Significant errors may result if they are determined from the design bending moments M* at the
strength limit state when the amount of moment redistribution is unknown; for example, if plastic
methods of analysis are used for strength design.

123 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 9.4.1(A)
IN REINFORCED SLABS—NOMINAL DIAMETER
Nominal bar diameter (db ) Maximum steel stress (f scr ), MPa

mm D s  300, mm D s > 300, mm
8 345 400
10 320 360
12 300 330
16 265 280
20 240
24 210
NOTE: Values for other bar diameters may be calculated using the
appropriate equation, as follows:
(a) = 173log e (d b ) + 760 MPa for d b  20 mm
(b) = 173log e (d b ) + 760 MPa for d b < 20 mm and D s > 300 mm
(c) = 114log e (d b ) + 580 MPa for d b < 20 mm and D s  300 mm
TABLE 9.4.1(B)

IN REINFORCED SLABS—CENTRE-TO-CENTRE SPACING
Centre-to-centre spacing Maximum steel stress (f scr )
mm MPa
50 360
100 320
150 280
200 240
250 200
300 160
NOTE: Intermediate values may be calculated using the following equation:
Maximum steel stress = 0.8  centre-to-centre spacing + 400 MPa.
9.4.2 Crack control for flexure in prestressed slabs

Flexural cracking in a prestressed slab shall be deemed to be controlled provided, under
SLS the serviceability limit state load combinations, the resulting maximum tensile stress in
the concrete does not exceed 0.25 f c or, if this stress is exceeded, by providing
reinforcement or bonded tendons, or both, near the tensile face with a centre-to-centre
spacing not exceeding the lesser of 300 mm or 2.0Ds and limiting—
(a) the calculated maximum flexural tensile stress in the concrete under SLS load
combinations to 0.5 f c and 0.5 f cp ; or
(b) the increment in steel stress near the tension face to that given in Table 9.4.2, as the
load increases from its value when the extreme concrete tensile fibre is at zero stress
to the SLS load combination value.
For prestressed members in exposure classifications B2, C1, C2 or U, the concrete at the
level of each tendon shall be in compression under the SLS load combinations that
comprises permanent effects plus 50% of the transient serviceability load(s).

AS 5100.5:2017 124
TABLE 9.4.2
MAXIMUM INCREMENT OF STEEL STRESS
FOR FLEXURE IN PRESTRESSED SLABS
Nominal reinforcement Maximum increment of steel stress  f c  MPa
bar diameter (d b )
mm D s  300, mm D s > 300, mm
10 320 360
12 300 330
16 265 280
20 240
24 210
28 200
All bonded tendons 200
9.4.3 Crack control for restrained shrinkage and temperature effects

The control of cracking due to early thermal and shrinkage effects shall be undertaken
either by a detailed assessment of the concrete using an appropriate model and taking into
consideration the construction method, structural form, local materials and environment; or
by using the following simplified method:
(a) The minimum area of reinforcement in fully restrained slabs, including cast in situ
concrete decks on concrete or steel girders, in the restrained direction shall be not less
than—
(8.0  2.5σcp)bDeff  103 . . . 9.4.3
NOTE: Reinforcement provided for structural reasons may be considered as contributing to
this requirement.
(b) The reinforcement calculated using Equation 9.4.3 shall be placed equally with half
on each face of the slab and located as close to each face as cover and detailing
permit. Deff shall be taken as—
(i) D, where D is less than 500 mm; or
(ii) 500 + 0.2(D  500), where D is greater than 500 mm.
9.4.4 Crack control at openings and discontinuities
For crack control at openings and discontinuities in a slab, additional, properly anchored,
reinforcement shall be provided.
9.4.5 Crack control in the vicinity of restraints
In the vicinity of restraints, special attention shall be paid to the internal forces and cracks
which may be induced by prestressing, shrinkage or temperature.
9.5 VIBRATION OF SLABS

Vibration of slabs shall be considered and measures shall be taken, where necessary, to
ensure that vibration induced by vehicular and pedestrian traffic will not adversely affect
the serviceability of the structure.
All slabs intended for pedestrian access, including bridge walkways, pedestrian bridges,
access routes to platforms (or similar) shall comply with the vibration requirements of
AS 5100.2.

125 AS 5100.5:2017
9.6 MOMENT RESISTING WIDTH FOR ONE-WAY SLABS SUPPORTING

CONCENTRATED LOADS
In the absence of more refined calculations, the width (bef) of a solid one-way simply
supported or continuous slab deemed to resist the moments caused by a concentrated load,
may be taken as follows:
(a) Where the load is not near an unsupported edge:
bef = load width + 2.4a[1.0(a/Ln)] . . . 9.6
where
a = perpendicular distance from the nearer support to the section under
consideration
(b) Where the load is near an unsupported edge, not greater than the lesser of—
(i) the value given in Item (a) above; and
(ii) half the value given in Item (a) above plus the distance from the centre of the
load to the unsupported edge.
9.7 LONGITUDINAL SHEAR IN COMPOSITE SLABS

Composite slab systems shall be checked for longitudinal shear at the interfaces between
components in accordance with Clause 8.4.
9.8 FATIGUE DESIGN OF SLABS

Fatigue design of slabs shall comply with Clause 2.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 126
SECTI ON 10 DESIGN OF COLUMNS AND

TENSI ON M EMBERS FOR STRENGTH AND
SERVI CEABI LITY
10.1 GENERAL
10.1.1 Design strength
The design strength of a column shall be determined by its ability to resist the axial forces
and bending moments caused by the design loading for strength and any additional bending
moments produced by slenderness effects.
10.1.2 Minimum bending moment
At any cross-section of a column, the design bending moment about each principal axis
shall be taken to be not less than N* times 0.05D, where D is the overall depth of the
column in the plane of the bending moment.
10.1.3 Definitions
For the purpose of this Section the definitions below apply.
10.1.3.1 Braced column
Column in a structure for which the lateral actions applied at the ends in the direction under
consideration are resisted by components such as shear walls or lateral bracing.
10.1.3.2 Short column
Column in which the additional bending moments due to slenderness can be taken as zero.
10.1.3.3 Slender column
Column that does not satisfy the requirements for a short column.

10.2.1 Design procedure using linear elastic analysis
Where the axial forces and bending moments are determined by a linear elastic analysis, as
provided in Clause 6.2, a column shall be designed as follows:
(a) For a short column, in accordance with Clauses 10.3, 10.6 and 10.7.
(b) For a slender column, in accordance with Clauses 10.4 to 10.7.
The value of  shall be determined from Table 2.3.2.
10.2.2 Design procedure incorporating secondary bending moments
Where the axial forces and bending moments are determined by an elastic analysis
incorporating secondary bending moments due to lateral joint displacements, as provided in
Clause 6.3, a column shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 10.6 and 10.7. The
bending moments in slender columns shall be further increased by applying the moment
magnifier for a braced column ( b) calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.2 with Le
taken as Lu in the determination of Nc.
10.2.3 Design procedure using rigorous analysis
Where the axial forces and bending moments are determined by a rigorous analysis, as
provided in Clause 6.5 and 6.6, a column shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 10.6
and 10.7 without further consideration of additional moments due to slenderness. The value
of sys shall be determined from Table 2.3.5, as appropriate.

127 AS 5100.5:2017
10.2.4 Design of ductile columns for earthquake resistance

10.2.4.1 General
This Clause (10.2.4) applies to plastic hinge zones of bridge columns in earthquake design
categories BEDC2 to BEDC4.
The design characteristic compressive strength of concrete  f c columns in seismic design
shall not exceed 65 MPa.
NOTE: Concrete with f c greater than 65 MPa is outside the scope of this Standard.
10.2.4.2 Length of plastic hinge zones

Length of plastic hinge zones shall be taken as the end region equal to the larger of the
column dimension in the direction considered, or the region over which the moment
exceeds 80% of the moment in the column at the support, regardless of whether the
force-based method or the displacement-based method is used in design.
10.2.4.3 Prediction of plastic hinges
Where the force-based method is used in design, a plastic hinge shall be predicted to occur
if M* is greater than the design flexural capacity using µ  2.
Where the displacement method is used in design, see AS 5100.2.
10.3 DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMNS

10.3.1 General
Short columns shall be designed in accordance with this Clause and Clauses 10.6 and 10.7,
with additional bending moments due to slenderness taken to be zero. Alternatively, for
short columns with small axial forces, the design may be in accordance with Clause 10.3.2.
A column shall be deemed to be short where—
(a) for a braced column—
Le/r  25; or

  c 38  f c / 15 1  M 1* / M 2*  . . . 10.3.1(1)
whichever is the greater

where
 c  2.25  2.5 N * / 0.6 N uo for N*/0.6Nuo  0.15; or

 c  1 / 3.5 N * / 0.6 N uo  for N*/0.6Nuo < 0.15
(b) for an unbraced column—

Le/r  22 . . . 10.3.1(2)
where, for Items (a) and (b) above—
r = radius of gyration of the cross-sections determined in accordance with
Clause 10.5.2
M 1* / M 2* = ratio of the smaller to the larger of the design bending moments at the
ends of the column
The ratio shall be taken as negative when the column is bent in single
curvature and positive when the column is bent in double curvature.
When the absolute value of M 2* is less than or equal to 0.05DN*, the
ratio shall be taken as –1.0

AS 5100.5:2017 128
Le = effective length determined in accordance with Clause 10.5.3; or

alternatively may be taken as—
(i) for a braced column restrained by a flat slab, Lu
(ii) for a braced column restrained by beams, 0.9Lu
10.3.2 Short column with small compressive axial force
Where the design compressive axial force (N*) in a short column is less than 0.1 f c Ag , the
cross-section may be designed for bending only.
10.4 DESIGN OF SLENDER COLUMNS

10.4.1 General
Slender columns shall be designed in accordance with this Clause and Clauses 10.5, 10.6
and 10.7, with additional bending moments due to slenderness effects taken into account by
multiplying the largest design bending moment by the moment magnifier ().
The moment magnifier ( ) shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.2 for a braced
column and Clause 10.4.3 for an unbraced column.
NOTE: The moment magnification factors also apply to the case of minimum moments.
For columns subject to bending about both principal axes, the bending moment about each
axis shall be magnified by , using the restraint conditions applicable to each plane of
bending.
The additional end moments calculated from moment magnification may be distributed to
the members of the joint in proportion to their stiffness.
10.4.2 Moment magnifier for a braced column
The moment magnifier () for a braced column shall be taken to be equal to b given by—
b = km/(1N*/Nc) 1 . . . 10.4.2
where
Nc = buckling load given in Clause 10.4.4
km = 0.6  0.4M *

/ M 2* but shall be taken as not less than 0.4, except that if the
1
column is subjected to significant transverse loading between its ends and in
the absence of more exact calculations, km shall be taken as 1.0
10.4.3 Moment magnifier for an unbraced column
The moment magnifier ( ) for an unbraced column shall be taken as the larger value of b or
s where—
(a) b for an individual column is calculated in accordance with Clause 10.4.2, assuming
the column is braced; and
(b) s for each column in a bent is calculated as—
1/(1N*/Nc) . . . 10.4.3(1)
where the summations include all columns within the storey and Nc is calculated for
each column in accordance with Clause 10.4.4.
As an alternative to Item (b), s may be calculated from a linear elastic critical buckling
load analysis of the entire frame, where s is taken as a constant value for all columns given
by the following equation:
 s  1 /1  1   d  /  s uc  . . . 10.4.3(2)

129 AS 5100.5:2017
where
d = N G* N * and taken as zero when Le/r  40 and N*  M*/2D
s = a correlation factor taken as 0.6

uc = ratio of the elastic critical buckling load of the entire frame to the design load
for strength, calculated by taking the cross-sectional stiffness of the flexural
beam members and columns as 0.4EcIf and 0.8EcIc respectively
N G* = the axial force due to permanent effects at ULS
The frame shall be proportioned so that s for any column is not greater than 1.5.
10.4.4 Buckling load
The buckling load (Nc) shall be taken as—
 
N c   2 / L2e 182d o M c  / 1   d  . . . 10.4.4
where
Mc = Mub for ku = 0.545 and  = 0.6
10.5 SLENDERNESS
10.5.1 General
The slenderness ratio (Le/r) of a column shall not exceed 120, unless a rigorous analysis has
been carried out in accordance with Clauses 6.4, 6.5 or 6.6 and the column is designed in
Where the forces and moments acting on a column have been obtained from a linear elastic
analysis, as specified in Clause 6.2, the influence of slenderness shall be taken into account
using a radius of gyration (r) specified in Clause 10.5.2 and an effective length (Le), in
10.5.2 Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration (r) shall be calculated for the gross concrete cross-section.
NOTE: For a rectangular cross-section, r may be taken as 0.3D, where D is the overall dimension
in the direction in which stability is being considered and for a circular cross-section, r may be
taken as 0.25D.
10.5.3 Effective length of a column
The effective length of a column (Le) shall be taken as kLu, where the effective length factor
(k) is determined from Figure 10.5.3(A) for columns with simple end restraints, or more
generally from Figure 10.5.3(B) or 10.5.3(C), as appropriate.
The end restraint coefficients (1 and 2) shall be determined—
(a) where the column ends at a footing, in accordance with Clause 10.5.5;
(b) for all other structures, including non-rectangular framed structures or structures
where the axial forces in the restraining members are large, in accordance with
Clause 10.5.4.
Alternatively, the effective length of a column may be determined from the elastic critical
buckling load of the frame, as calculated by analysis.

AS 5100.5:2017 130
Br ac e d c o lum n Un br ac e d c o lum n
Buckled
shape
Ef fe c t i ve l e n g t h
0.70 0.8 5 1.0 0 1.3 0 1. 20 2. 20 2. 20
fac tor (k)
= R ot at i o n fixe d, tr a n s l at i o n fixe d = R ot at i o n fixe d, tr a n s l at i o n fre e

S y m b o l s for
end restraint = R ot at i o n fre e, tr a n s l at i o n fixe d = R ot at i o n fre e, tr a n s l at i o n fre e
conditions = El a sto m er i c b ear in g
FIGURE 10.5.3(A) EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (k) FOR COLUMNS WITH SIMPLE
END RESTRAINTS

131 AS 5100.5:2017
∞
50
0.
10
95
6
0.
90
3
0.
2
85
EN D RESTR AINT COEFFICIENT γ 1
γ2
1. 5
0.
1. 2
80
1.0 k
0.
75
γ1
0.
70
0. 5
0.
65
0.
60
0.
55
0 ∞
0 0. 5 1.0 1. 2 1. 5 2 3 4 6 10 5 0
FIGURE 10.5.3(B) EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (k) FOR BRACED COLUMNS

AS 5100.5:2017 132
∞
50
4
3
10
2.
5
6
2.
0
4
1.
3
8
1.
6
2
γ2
1.
5
1. 5
1.
4
1. 2 k
1.0
1.
3
1.
25
γ1
1.
20
1.
0. 5
15
1.
10
1.
05
0 ∞
0 0. 5 1.0 1. 2 1. 5 2 3 4 6 10 5 0
EN D RESTR AINT C O EFFICIENT γ 2
FIGURE 10.5.3(C) EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (k) FOR UNBRACED COLUMNS
10.5.4 End restraint coefficients for regular rectangular framed structures

For any framed structure, the end restraint coefficient (1) at one end of a column and the
end restraint coefficient ( 2) at the opposite end may be calculated as the ratio of the column
stiffness to the sum of the stiffnesses of all other members, meeting at the end under
consideration. Due account shall be taken of the fixity conditions of each member at the end
remote from the column-end being considered as well as any reduction in member stiffness
due to axial compression and can be calculated from the Equation below:
I / L c
. . . 10.5.4
I/L b
where
(I/L)c = stiffness in the plane of bending of only the column under consideration
(I/L)b = sum of the stiffness in the plane of bending of all the columns and beams
or slabs, or both, meeting at and rigidly connected to the same end of the
column under consideration
 = a fixity factor, given in Table 10.5.4, for fixity conditions at the end of
each column, beam or slab opposite to the end connected to the column
under consideration

133 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 10.5.4
FIXITY FACTOR ()
Fixity factor ( )
Fixity conditions at far end
of a column, beam or slab Beam or slab or both, Beam or slab or both,
in a braced frame in an unbraced frame
Pinned 1.5 0.5
Rigidly connected to a column 1.0 1.0
Fixed 2.0 0.67
10.5.5 End restraint provided by footings

Where a footing provides negligible restraint to the rotation of the end of a column,  is
theoretically infinite. However, it may be taken as 10.
Where a footing is specifically designed to prevent rotation of the end of a column,  is
theoretically zero. However, it shall be taken as 1.0 unless analysis would justify a smaller
value.
At a free end,  may be taken as infinite.
10.6 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS IN COMBINED BENDING AND COMPRESSION

10.6.1 Basis of strength calculations

Calculations for the strength of cross-sections in bending, combined with axial forces, shall
incorporate equilibrium and strain-compatibility considerations and be consistent with the
following assumptions:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
(b) The concrete has no tensile strength.
(c) The distribution of stress in the concrete and the steel is determined using a stress-
strain relationship determined from Clauses 3.1.4 and 3.2.3 respectively (see Note 1).
(d) The strain in compressive reinforcement does not exceed 0.003.
(e) Where the neutral axis lies outside of the cross-section, consideration is given to the
effect on strength of spalling of the cover concrete.
NOTE: If a curvilinear stress-strain relationship is used then—
(a) Clause 3.1.4 places a limit on the value of the maximum concrete stress; and
(b) the strain in the extreme fibre may be adjusted to obtain the maximum bending strength for a
given axial load.
The provisions in Items (c) and (d) above shall not be used to assess the flexural strength at
plastic hinge zones for seismic design (see Clause 10.2.4.3).
Columns subject to axial force with bending moments about each principal axis may take
into account the concessions given in Clauses 10.6.3 and 10.6.4.
10.6.2 Strength of cross-sections calculated using the rectangular stress block
10.6.2.1 General
This Clause shall not apply to the assessment of flexural strength at plastic hinge zones for
seismic design.
It shall be permissible to represent the strength of a cross-section in combined bending and
compression using a strength interaction diagram as shown in Figure 10.6.2.1 defined as
given in Clauses 10.6.2.2 to 10.6.2.5.

AS 5100.5:2017 134
S q u a s h l oad p o int (Cl au se 10.6. 2. 2)
Decompression
p o int (Cl au s e 10.6. 2. 3)
A XIAL LOAD
Clau se 10.6. 2.4
B a l an c e d
p o int
C l au s e 10.6. 2. 5
Pure b e n d in g
p o int (Cl au s e 8 .1)
M O M ENT
FIGURE 10.6.2.1 AXIAL LOAD—MOMENT DIAGRAM

10.6.2.2 Squash load (Nuo)

The ultimate strength in compression without bending (Nuo) shall be calculated by
assuming—
(a) a uniform concrete compressive stress of  1 f c , where—
 1  1.0  0.003 f c with the limits 0.72 to 0.85; and . . . 10.6.2.2

NOTE: The modification of 0.9 f c given in Clause 3.1.4 is included in the calculation of 1.
(b) a maximum strain in the reinforcement of 0.0025.

10.6.2.3 Decompression point
The decompression point shall be calculated taking the strain in the extreme compressive
fibre equal to 0.003, the strain in the extreme tensile fibre equal to zero and using the
rectangular stress block given in Clause 10.6.2.5.
10.6.2.4 Transition from decompression point to squash load
Where the neutral axis lies outside of the section, the section strength may be calculated
using a linear relationship between the decompression point given by Clause 10.6.2.3 and
the squash load (Nuo) calculated using Clause 10.6.2.2.
10.6.2.5 Transition from decompression point to bending strength
Where the neutral axis lies within the cross-section and provided the maximum strain in the
extreme compression fibre of the concrete is taken as 0.003, Clause 10.6.1(c) shall be
deemed to be satisfied for the concrete by assuming a uniform concrete compressive stress
of  2 f c acts on an area bounded by—
(a) the edges of the cross-section; and
(b) a line parallel to the neutral axis under the loading concerned, and located at a
distance kud from the extreme compressive fibre, where—
 2  1.0  0.003 f c (within the limits 0.67  2  0.85) . . . 10.6.2.5(1)

135 AS 5100.5:2017
  1.05  0.007 f c (within the limits 0.67    0.85) . . . 10.6.2.5(2)

NOTES:
1 The modification of 0.9 f c given in Clause 3.1.4 is included in the rectangular stress block
assumptions.
2 Cover spalling may be a problem in columns cast with high-strength concrete. The effect of
cover spalling on strength given in Clause 10.6.1(e) is included in the parameters developed
for the calculation of the interaction diagram.
10.6.3 Design based on each bending moment acting separately
For a rectangular cross-section, where the ratio of the larger to the smaller cross-sectional
dimension does not exceed 3.0 and which is subjected simultaneously to an axial force as
well as bending moment about each principal axis, the cross-section may be designed for
the axial force with each bending moment considered separately. The line of action of the
resultant force shall fall within the shaded area of the cross-section shown in Figure 10.6.3.
NOTE: This Clause also applies for seismic design, except that the limitation on the line of action
defined in Figure 10.6.3 need not be applied.
D
0.1D
b 0. 2 D
0.1b
0. 2 b
S had e d area s sy m m etr i c al a b o ut c o lu m n c e ntre - lin e s
FIGURE 10.6.3 LIMITATION FOR LINE OF ACTION OF THE RESULTANT AXIAL

FORCE
10.6.4 Design for biaxial bending and compression

A rectangular cross-section, subject to axial force and bending moment acting
simultaneously about each principal axis, may be designed such that—
n n
 M x*   M y* 

 M

    1 .0 . . . 10.6.4
  M uy 
 ux   
where
Mux, Muy = design strength in bending, calculated separately, about the major and
minor axis respectively under the design axial force (N*)
M x* , M y* = design bending moment about the major and minor axis respectively,
magnified, if applicable
n = 0.7 + 1.7N*/0.6Nuo, within the limits 1  n  2

AS 5100.5:2017 136
10.7 REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS

10.7.1 Limitations on longitudinal steel
The cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement in a column shall—
(a) be not less than 0.01Ag except that, in a column that has a larger area than that
required for strength, a reduced value of Asc may be used if Asc fsy > 0.15N*; and
(b) not exceed 0.04Ag unless the amount and disposition of the reinforcement will not
prevent the proper placing and compaction of the concrete at splices and at junctions
of the members.
NOTES:
1 Testing has shown that columns with reinforcement near the lower reinforcement ratio limit
and with increased diameter will perform better during seismic events than smaller columns
with larger reinforcement ratios due to the higher damping and smaller P- effects associated
with a larger column diameter.
2 The limit in Item (a) above, may be reduced to 0.008Ag for rectangular columns and 0.005Ag
for circular columns; for columns that behave in a ductile manner during the design
earthquake in accordance with Clause 10.2.4.2 of this Standard and AS 5100.2.
Longitudinal bars that are bundled to act as a unit shall have not more than 4 bars in any
one bundle and shall be tied together in contact. In columns of bridge earthquake design
categories BEDC-2 to BEDC-4, use a maximum of 2 bars shall be used in any one bundle.
10.7.2 Functions of fitments

Fitments shall satisfy the requirements of confinement to the core of concrete
(Clause 10.7.3), and lateral restraint of longitudinal bars against premature buckling
(Clause 10.7.4), and ductile seismic detailing where applicable (Clause 10.7.6), in addition
to shear and torsion in accordance with Clauses 8.2 and 8.3. The maximum area required
for shear (combined with torsion), confinement or control of buckling of bars shall be used.
10.7.3 Confinement to the core
Fitments (including helical reinforcement) shall be detailed to provide confinement to the
core of the column in accordance with the following:
(a) For columns where f c  50 MPa, confinement shall be deemed to be provided if the
requirements of Clause 10.7.4 are satisfied.
(b) For columns where f c > 50 MPa, confinement shall be provided—
(i) in special confinement regions using fitments detailed to provide a minimum
effective confining pressure to the core of 0.01 f c , calculated in accordance
with Clause 10.7.3.2, 10.7.3.3 or 10.7.3.4; and
(ii) outside of the special confinement regions, if maximum spacing of the fitments
does not exceed the lesser of 0.8Dc, 300 mm and that of Clause 10.7.4.
In the special confinement regions, the spacing or pitch of the fitments shall not
exceed the lesser of 0.6Dc, 300 mm and that of Clause 10.7.4.
Special confinement regions are regions where the design action effects satisfy the
following [see Figure 10.7.3.1(A)]:
(A) N* 0.75Nuo; or . . . 10.7.3.1(1)
(B) N  0.3f′ c Ag and M 0.6Mu
* *
. . . 10.7.3.1(2)

137 AS 5100.5:2017
Fitments in special confinement regions shall be provided in the regions as shown in

Figure 10.7.3.1(B), but not less than a length measured each side of the maximum moment
and bounded by the lesser of—
(1) 1.2 times the dimension of the cross-section measured perpendicular to the axis of
bending being considered; and
(2) the distance to the end of the member.
For columns that are in double curvature where 0.3f cAg  N *  0.75N uo , the special
confinement regions may be taken as the length from each end of the member equal to the
larger of—
M 2*
(i) 0.4 L ; and
M 1*  M 2*
(ii) 1.2 times that of the larger cross-sectional dimension.
φN u o
Re g i o n w h ere t h e d e s i g n ac t i o n
ef fe c t s of c o m b in e d a x i al for c e
DESIG N A XIAL FORCE
an d b e n d in g o n a se c t i o n
0.75φN u o require c o nfinement to the c ore
(φM u , φN u)
φN u
(0.6φM u , φN u)
φ 0.3 A g f ’c
0.6φM u φM u o
DESIG N M O M ENT
FIGURE 10.7.3.1(A) CONFINEMENT TO THE CORE

AS 5100.5:2017 138
M 1*
Special confinement
1.2D region
0.6φM u
0.6φM u
Special confinement
1.2D region
M *2
(a) Column with confinement regions at member

ends for N* ≤ 0.75φN uo
D
0.6φM u
1.2D Special confinement

M* region
1.2D
(b) Column with confinement region within member

length for N* ≤ 0.75φN uo
FIGURE 10.7.3.1(B) SPECIAL CONFINEMENT REGIONS
10.7.3.2 Calculation of core confinement by rational calculation

The confining pressure applied to the core of a column may be obtained with consideration
of triaxial stresses across all sections and the effectiveness of fitments in providing the
specified confinement.

139 AS 5100.5:2017
10.7.3.3 Calculation of core confinement by simplified calculation

The effective confining pressure applied to the core of a column (fr.eff) shall be calculated
as—
fr.eff = ke fr . . . 10.7.3.3(1)
where
ke = an effectiveness factor accounting for the arrangement of the fitments
fr = average confining pressure on the core cross-section taken at the level of the
fitments (see Figure 10.7.3.3)
NOTE: For non-circular sections, fr may be taken as the smaller of the confining pressures
calculated for each of the major directions [XX and YY shown in Figure 10.7.3.3(d)].
The average confining pressure on the core at the level of the fitments shall be calculated as
follows:
m
A
i 1
b.fit f sy.f sin 
. . . 10.7.3.3(2)
fr 
ds s
where
Ab.fit = cross-sectional area of one leg of the fitment
fsy.f = yield stress of the reinforcement used as fitment (not greater than 500 MPa)
 = angle between the tie leg and the confinement plane
m = number of fitment legs crossing the confinement plane
ds = overall dimension measured between centre-lines of the outermost fitments
s = centre to centre spacing of fitments along the column
The effectiveness factor (ke) shall be calculated as follows:
(a) For rectangular sections:
 nw 2   s  s 
k e  1   1 
   1   . . . 10.7.3.3(3)
 6 Ac   2bc  2 d c 
where
Ac = cross-sectional area bounded by the centre-line of the outermost fitments
n = number of laterally restrained longitudinal bars [see Clause 10.7.4.2(a)]
w = average clear spacing between adjacent tied longitudinal bars
bc = core dimension measured between the centre-lines of the outermost
fitments measured across the width of the section
dc = core dimension measured between the centre-lines of the outermost
fitments measured through the depth of the section
(b) For circular sections:
2
 s 
k e  1   . . . 10.7.3.3(4)
 2d s 
Alternatively, for rectangular or circular columns, the effective confining pressure applied
to the core of a column may be calculated as follows:
fr.eff = 0.5kes fsy.f . . . 10.7.3.3(5)

AS 5100.5:2017 140
where
s = volumetric ratio of the fitments relative to the volume of the core calculated
as
Ab.fit  total perimeter of fitments crossing the section
s 
Ac  s
bc
fr A b.f i t f s y.f
ds
fr A b.f i t f s y.f
A b.f i t f s y.f 4 A b.f i t f s y.f

fr = fr =
dss bcs
(a) (b)
bc y
Y
A b.f i t f s y.f
dc f r.y y
A b.f i t f s y.f x
fr Y
bc
A b.f i t f s y.f (s in θ)
2 A b.f i t f s y.f (s in θ)
fr = X X
bcs
f r. x x A b.f i t f s y.f
f r = m in.(f r. x x , f r.y y)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 10.7.3.3 CALCULATION OF CONFINING PRESSURES
10.7.3.4 Deemed to comply core confinement

The requirement of an effective confining pressure of 0.01 f c shall be deemed to be
satisfied provided the fitment spacings do not exceed the following:
(a) For rectangular sections:
15nAb.fit f sy.f
. . . 10.7.3.4(1)
f c Ac

141 AS 5100.5:2017
where
n = number of laterally restrained longitudinal bars [see Clause 10.7.4.2(a)]
(b) For circular sections:
100 Ab. fit f sy.f
. . . 10.7.3.4(2)
d s f c
10.7.4 Restraint of longitudinal reinforcement
The following longitudinal bars in columns shall be laterally restrained in accordance with
Clause 10.7.4.2:
(a) Single bars—
(i) each corner bar;
(ii) all bars, where bars are spaced at centres of more than 150 mm; and
(iii) at least every alternate bar, where bars are spaced at 150 mm or less.
Where N*  0.5 Nu the requirements of Items (ii) and (iii) do not apply.
(b) Bundled bars, each bundle of longitudinal bars.
10.7.4.2 Lateral restraint

Lateral restraint shall be deemed to be provided if the longitudinal reinforcement is placed
within and in contact with—
(a) a non-circular fitment (see Figure 10.7.4.2)—
(i) at a bend in the fitment, where the bend has an included angle of 135° or less;
or
(ii) between two 135° fitment hooks; or
(iii) inside a single 135° fitment hook of a fitment that is approximately
perpendicular to the column face; or
(iv) for internal fitments with one leg, at a 90° fitment hook of a fitment that is
approximately perpendicular to the column face, provided the other end of the
fitment has a 135° angle hook around a longitudinal reinforcing bar and,
consecutive internal fitments are alternated end to end along the longitudinal
reinforcement; or
(b) a circular fitment or helical reinforcement and the longitudinal reinforcing bars are
equally spaced around the circumference.

AS 5100.5:2017 142
Clau se 10.7.4. 2(ii)
Clau se 10.7.4. 2(i v)
Clau se 10.7.4. 2(iii)

E x ter nal fitment
Inter nal fit m e nt
Clau se 10.7.4. 2(i) C o n s e c u t i ve i nter n a l fit m e nt s

alter nate d e n d to e n d al o n g
t h e l o n g i tu d i n a l a x i s
FIGURE 10.7.4.2 LATERAL RESTRAINT TO LONGITUDINAL BARS
10.7.4.3 Diameter and spacing of fitments and helices

The diameter and spacing of fitments and helices shall comply with the following:
(a) The bar diameter of the fitment and helical reinforcement shall be not less than that
given in Table 10.7.4.3.
(b) The spacing of fitments, or the pitch of a helix, shall not exceed the smaller of—
(i) 0.4Dc and 15db for single bars; or
(ii) 0.4Dc and 7.5db for bundled bars,
where
Dc = smaller column cross-sectional dimension if rectangular or the
column diameter if circular
db = diameter of the smallest bar in the column
(c) One fitment, or the first turn of a helix, shall be located not more than 100 mm
vertically above the top of a footing, or the top of a slab. Another fitment, or the final
turn of a helix, shall be located not more than 50 mm vertically below the soffit of the
member except that in a column with a capital, the fitment or turn of the helical
reinforcement shall be located at a level at which the area of the cross-section of the
capital is not less than twice that of the column.
Where beams or brackets frame from four directions into a column and adequately
restrain the column in all directions, the fitments or helical reinforcement may be
terminated 50 mm below the highest soffit of such beams or brackets.

143 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 10.7.4.3
BAR DIAMETERS FOR FITMENTS AND HELICES
Longitudinal bar diameter Minimum bar diameter
of fitment and helix
mm mm
Single bars up to 20 6
Single bars 24 to 28 10
Single bars 28 to 36 12
Single bars 40 16
Bundled bars 12
10.7.4.4 Detailing of fitments and helices

Detailing of fitments and helices shall be as follows:
(a) A rectangular fitment shall be spliced by welding, or by fixing two 135° fitment
hooks around a bar or a bundle at a fitment corner. Internal fitments may be spliced
by lapping within the column core.
(b) A circular shaped fitment shall be spliced either by welding, or by overlapping and
fixing two 135° fitment hooks around adjacent longitudinal bars or bundles.
(c) Helical reinforcement shall be anchored at its end by one and one half extra turns of
the helix.
(d) Helical reinforcement shall be spliced within its length either by welding or
mechanical means or by lapping the helix one turn and bending the helix end into the
column core for an extension of 25  the helix bar diameter.
(e) Where hooks or cogs are specified in combination with bundled bars, the internal
diameter of the bend shall be increased sufficiently to accommodate the bundle.
(f) A rectangular fitment shall not be anchored by welding to longitudinal reinforcement.
10.7.5 Splicing of longitudinal reinforcement
10.7.5.1 General
Longitudinal reinforcement in columns shall be spliced in accordance with Clauses 10.7.5.2
to 10.7.5.5. The splices shall comply with Clause 13.2.
10.7.5.2 Minimum tensile strength
At any splice in a column, a tensile strength in each face of the column of not less than
0.25fsyAs shall be provided, where As is the cross-sectional area of longitudinal
reinforcement in that face.
10.7.5.3 Where tensile force exceeds the minimum tensile strength
At any splice in a column where tensile stress exists and the tensile force in the longitudinal
bars at any face of the column, due to strength design load effects, exceeds the minimum
tensile strength requirements specified in Clause 10.7.5.2, the force in the bars shall be
transmitted by—
(a) a welded or mechanical splice in accordance with Clause 13.2.6; or
(b) a lap-splice in tension in accordance with Clause 13.2.2 or Clause 13.2.5, as
appropriate.

AS 5100.5:2017 144
10.7.5.4 End-bearing splice in compression

Where the splice is always in compression, the force in the longitudinal bar may be
transmitted by the bearing of square-cut mating ends held in concentric contact by a sleeve,
provided an additional fitment that complies with Clause 10.7.4 is placed above and below
each sleeve. The bars shall be rotated to achieve the maximum possible area of contact
between the ends of the bars and the requirements of Clause 10.7.5.2 shall be met.
10.7.5.5 Offset bars
Where a longitudinal bar is offset to form a lap splice—
(a) the slope of the inclined part of the bar in relation to the axis shall not exceed 1 in 6;
(b) the portions of the bar on either side of the offset shall be parallel; and
(c) appropriate lateral support shall be provided at the offset.
Where a column face is offset 75 mm or greater, longitudinal bars shall not be offset by
bending but shall be lap-spliced with separate splicing bars placed adjacent to the offset
column faces.
10.7.6 Additional detailing requirements for earthquake resistance
10.7.6.1 Application
For bridges in BEDC-2, BEDC-3 and BEDC-4 earthquake design categories, special
consideration shall be given to the detailing of concrete compression members for seismic
resistance.
NOTE: This Clause does not apply to bridge structures in earthquake design category BEDC-1;
however, compliance with this Clause is recommended for all structures.
Unless demonstrated by analysis that plastic hinges will not form in columns during the
design earthquake, as specified in AS 5100.2, ductile seismic detailing in accordance with
this Clause shall apply.
In this application, non-prestressed reinforcement shall be Ductility Class E or Ductility
Class N only.
10.7.6.2 Column core confinement
10.7.6.2.1 General
Deformed bars shall be used for all lateral (confinement) reinforcement, including stirrups,
ties, helices and hoops.
10.7.6.2.2 Lateral reinforcement inside plastic hinge zones
Where N* > 0.2Nuo, confinement reinforcement shall be provided as follows:
The lateral (confinement) reinforcement in plastic hinge zones shall restrain the
longitudinal reinforcement against buckling, confine the core concrete in the event that
cover spalling occurs, and ensure that shear failure will not occur during the design seismic
event, as follows:
(a) Where helices or circular fitments are used, the volumetric ratio of confinement (ρs),
shall be—
0.0075 f ce
s   0.005 . . . 10.7.6.2.2(1)
f sy.f
where
f ce = expected compressive strength of the concrete (may be taken as 1.3 f c )
fsy.f = yield strength of the reinforcement used as fitments

145 AS 5100.5:2017
(b) Where rectangular fitments are used, the total cross-sectional area of the ties (Asv),
including supplementary cross-ties, shall be not less than—
Asv  0.055sy1  f ce f sy.f   0.006 ; and . . . 10.7.6.2.2(2)
s  0.006 . . . 10.7.6.2.2(3)
where
s = centre-to-centre spacing of ties along the longitudinal axis of the
member
y1 = core dimension of a closed rectangular tie in the direction under
consideration, as illustrated in Figure 10.7.6.4
Where N* < 0.2Nuo at least half the reinforcement specified in Items (a) and (b) shall be
provided.
10.7.6.2.3 Minimum lateral reinforcement
The volumetric ratio of the lateral reinforcement (ρs) shall be not less than 0.0025 for
circular columns and 0.003 for rectangular columns in locations where:
N* > 0.2Nuo and category BEDC-4 applies
N* > 0.2Nuo and category BEDC-3 applies and µ  3
10.7.6.3 Spacing of lateral reinforcement at plastic hinge

The spacing of lateral reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
(a) The spacing (s) of the lateral (confinement) reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser
of—
s = 0.2Dc and . . . 10.7.6.3(1)
s = 6dbl . . . 10.7.6.3(2)
where
Dc = depth of the rectangular column in the direction under consideration or
the diameter of circular columns
dbl = diameter of longitudinal reinforcement steel
(b) Internal fitments shall be provided in non-circular columns so that the maximum
spacing of laterally restrained longitudinal bars shall not exceed 300 mm.
10.7.6.4 Extension of plastic hinge lateral reinforcement
Where plastic hinge lateral reinforcement is provided, it shall be extended as follows:
(a) The lateral (confinement) reinforcement shall extend from the top and bottom of
framed columns, or from the base of cantilever columns, for a distance equal to the
cross-section dimension in the direction under consideration or the region where the
moment exceeds 80% of the critical moment (M1 or M2, as shown in Figure 10.7.6.4),
whichever is greater.
(b) In pile-type pier columns, see Figure 10.7.6.4 for plastic hinge zones. The lateral
reinforcement shall be extended above and below the critical moment region (M1 or
M2, as shown in Figure 10.7.6.4) for at least the cross-section dimension in the
direction under consideration or the region where the moment exceeds 80% of the
maximum moment at the support, whichever is greater.

AS 5100.5:2017 146
(c) The lateral reinforcement required within the predicted and plastic hinge zones shall
extend into the footing, pile cap or superstructure, as applicable, for a length not less
than half the maximum dimension of the column or 400 mm, whichever is greater
(see Figure 10.7.6.4).
≥ t h e l ar g er of 4 0 0 m m
M1 ma x. and ½ pile d i ameter
≥ t h e l ar g er of p il e
Bending d i a m e te r a n d r e g i o n w i t h
m o m e nt m o m e nt ≥ 8 0% of M 1 m a x
S e i s m i c c o nfi n m e nt
8 0%
of M 1 m a x .
Lo n g i t u d i n a l b ar s
L of p il e
N o r m a l c o nfi n e m e nt
C
S e i s m i c c o nfi n e m e nt
8 0% of M 2 m a x .
Bending
m o m e nt ≥ t h e l ar g er of p il e
d i a m e te r a n d r e g i o n w i t h
m o m e nt ≥ 8 0% of M 1 m a x
M2 max.
≥ t h e l ar g er of p il e
d i ameter and with
m o m e nt ≥ 8 0% of M 2 m a x .
8 0% of M 2 m a x .
N o r m a l c o nfi n e m e nt
FIGURE 10.7.6.4 EXTENSION OF PLASTIC HINGE CONFINEMENT
10.7.6.5 Splicing and anchoring of lateral reinforcement within plastic hinge zones
The following applies for splicing and anchoring of lateral (confinement) reinforcement:
(a) Splicing of helices shall be by welding or mechanical splicing in accordance with
Clause 13.2.6.
(b) Closed ties shall not be anchored by welding to the longitudinal reinforcement.
Closed ties shall end with 135° hooks in accordance with Clause 13.1.2.7.
(c) Internal fitments used as seismic confinement in predicted plastic hinge zones in
columns with rectangular cross-sections shall comprise a straight bar with a 135°
seismic hook at one end and fully anchored at the other end.

147 AS 5100.5:2017
10.8 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

10.8.1 General
Tension members are members designed primarily to resist tensile axial loads or tensile
axial loads combined with bending. They may occur in prestressed trusses, rigid frames,
ties and other various members.
The stress of a tension member shall be such that—
ϕNu  N* . . . 10.8.1
The strength and serviceability of a tension member shall be determined in accordance
with—
(a) the basic principles specified in Clause 10.8.2; and
(b) the material properties specified in Section 6.
10.8.2 Basic principles
Calculations for strength and serviceability of cross-sections with tensile force, or with
bending combined with tensile force, shall incorporate equilibrium and strain-compatibility
considerations and shall be consistent with the following assumptions:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
(b) The concrete has no tensile strength except in the evaluation of tension stiffening
effects for deflection calculations.

(c) The distribution of compressive stress in the concrete is determined by a recognized
stress-strain relationship for the concrete in compression.
(d) Time-dependent deformation (creep and shrinkage) shall be considered in the
calculation of deformation of a tension member.
NOTE: This total deformation may cause significant secondary moments in statically
indeterminate structures.
10.9 CRACK CONTROL OF COLUMNS AND TENSION MEMBERS

The requirements of crack control may be deemed to be satisfied if the stress in the
longitudinal steel in tension is not greater than the following:
(a) Cracking in reinforced column and tension ties subjected to tension, flexure with
tension or flexure in accordance with Clause 8.6.1.
(b) Cracking in prestressed column and tension ties subjected to tension, flexure with
tension or flexure in accordance with Clause 8.6.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 148
SECTI ON 11 DESIGN OF WALLS
11.1 GENERAL
This Section applies to the following:
(a) Braced walls (as defined in Clause 11.3) that are subject to in-plane load effects,
which shall be designed in accordance with Clauses 11.2 to 11.7.
(b) Braced walls that are subject to simultaneous in-plane and out-of-plane load effects
and unbraced walls, which shall be designed in accordance with Section 9, Section 10
and Section 11, as appropriate.
Where the maximum compressive stress at the mid-height section of a wall due to
factored in-plane bending and axial forces does not exceed the lesser of 0.03 f c and
2 MPa, the wall may be designed as a slab in accordance with Section 9, provided—
(i) second-order deflections due to in-plane loads and long-term effects are
considered in the calculation of bending moments; and
(ii) the ratio of effective height to thickness does not exceed 50.

11.2.1 General
Braced walls where in-plane horizontal forces, acting in conjunction with the axial forces,
are such that where a horizontal cross-section of the wall—
(a) is subject to compression over the entire section, in-plane bending may be neglected
and the wall designed for horizontal shear forces in accordance with Clause 11.6 and
for the vertical compressive forces either—
(i) in accordance with the simplified method of Clause 11.5; or
(ii) as columns in accordance with Section 10 where vertical reinforcement is
provided in each face, except that Clause 11.7.4 may override the requirements
of Clause 10.7.4; or
(b) is subject to tension on part of the section, the wall shall be designed for in-plane
bending in accordance with Section 8 and for horizontal shear in accordance with
Clause 11.6 or, for in-plane bending and shear, in accordance with Section 12, if
appropriate.
11.2.2 Groups of walls
When two or more walls are directly inter-connected, or linked to each other by coupling
beams or the like, the distribution of in-plane load effects between the walls shall be
obtained by linear elastic analysis of the overall structure under the global vertical and
lateral loads. The analysis shall distribute in-plane load effects to the individual walls in
proportion to their relative stiffness, as determined by their gross cross-sectional properties.
The interconnected vertical edges of walls shall be designed to withstand the transmitted
vertical shear forces.
11.3 BRACED WALLS

A wall shall be deemed to be braced if it forms part of a structure that does not rely on out-
of-plane strength and stiffness of the wall and the connection of the wall to the rest of the
structure can transmit—
(a) any calculated load effects; and

149 AS 5100.5:2017
(b) 2.5% of the total vertical load the wall is designed to carry at the level of lateral
support, but not less than 2 kN per metre length of wall.
11.4 EFFECTIVE HEIGHT

For a wall with an unsupported height of Hw and a horizontal length of L1 between the
centres of lateral restraint or from the lateral restraint to the free edge, as applicable, the
effective height (Hwe) shall be taken as Hwe = kHw, where the factor k is given as follows:
(a) One-way buckling With members providing lateral support at both ends—
k = 0.75 where restraint against rotation is provided at both ends; and
k = 1.0 where no restraint against rotation is provided at one or both ends.
(b) Two-way buckling With lateral support on three sides provided by intersecting walls
and other members:
 
 
 1  but not less than 0.3 or greater than what is
k . . . 11.4(1)
2 obtained from Item (a)
  H w  
1   3 L  
  1 
(c) Two-way buckling With lateral support on four sides provided by intersecting walls
and other members:

1
k where Hw  L1 . . . 11.4(2)
1  H w / L1 
2
L1
k where Hw > L1 . . . 11.4(3)
2H w
Walls supported laterally on four sides that contain one or more openings shall be
designed as follows:
(i) If the total area of the openings is less than 1/10 of the area of the wall and the
height of any opening, not vertically one above the other, is less than 1/3 of the
height of the wall, then the effect of the openings may be ignored.
(ii) In other cases—
(A) the area of the wall between the support and the opening shall be
designed as supported on three sides; and
(B) the area between the openings shall be designed as supported on two
sides.
NOTE: An intersecting wall with a minimum length of 0.2H w may be considered a lateral
restraint.
11.5 SIMPLIFIED DESIGN METHOD FOR WALLS SUBJECT TO VERTICAL

COMPRESSION FORCES
Provided the ratio of effective height to thickness (H we/tw) does not exceed 30 and the
eccentricity of the load measured at right angles to the plane of the wall does not exceed
tw/6, the design axial strength per unit length of a braced wall in compression may be taken
as—
Nu . . . 11.5(1)

AS 5100.5:2017 150
where
 = 0.6
Nu =  tw  1.2e  2ea  0.6 f c . . . 11.5(2)
Nu = ultimate strength per unit length of wall

tw = thickness of the wall
e = eccentricity of the load measured at right angles to the plane of
the wall and shall be not less than 0.05tw
The eccentricity of the load shall be not less than 0.05tw
ea = an additional eccentricity taken as (Hwe)2/2500tw.
11.6 DESIGN OF WALLS FOR IN-PLANE SHEAR FORCES

11.6.1 Critical section for shear
The critical section for maximum shear shall be taken at a distance from the base of 0.5Lw
or 0.5Hw, whichever is less.
11.6.2 Strength in shear
The design strength of a wall subject to in-plane shear shall be taken as—
V u . . . 11.6.2
where
Vu = Vuc + Vus
and Vuc and Vus shall be determined from Clause 11.6.3 and Clause 11.6.4
respectively, but in no case shall Vu be taken as greater than—
Vu.max.  0.2 f c 0.8 Lw t w 
11.6.3 Shear strength without shear reinforcement
The ultimate shear strength of a wall without shear reinforcement (Vuc) shall be taken as
follows:
(a) For Hw/Lw  1—
 H 
Vuc   0.66 f c  0.21 w f c  0.8 L w t w ; or . . . 11.6.3(1)
 Lw 
(b) For Hw/Lw > 1, the lesser of the values calculated from Item (a) above; and—
 
 
 0.1 f c 
Vuc  0.05 f c  0 .8 L w t w . . . 11.6.3(2)
 Hw 
   1 
  Lw  
but not less than 0.17 f c 0.8Lw t w  .
11.6.4 Contribution to shear strength by shear reinforcement

The contribution to the ultimate shear strength of a wall by shear reinforcement (Vus) shall
be determined from the following equation:
Vus = pwfsy (0.8Lwtw), . . . 11.6.4
151 AS 5100.5:2017
where pw is determined as follows:

(a) For walls where Hw/Lw  1, pw shall be the lesser of the ratios of either the vertical
reinforcement area or the horizontal reinforcement area to the cross-sectional area of
wall in the respective direction.
(b) For walls where H w/Lw > 1, pw shall be the ratio of the horizontal reinforcement area
to the cross-sectional area of wall per vertical metre.
11.7 REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR WALLS

11.7.1 Minimum reinforcement
Walls shall have a minimum reinforcement requirement of not less than the larger of the
value calculated from Clause 2.4.3.2 and the value required for strength.
11.7.2 Horizontal reinforcement for crack control
Where a wall is restrained from expanding or contracting due to shrinkage or temperature,
the horizontal reinforcement ratio shall be not less than 0.008.
Horizontal crack control reinforcement shall be provided at the base of the wall to control
thermal and restraint cracking. The reinforcement ratio shall be not less than 0.011 and the
reinforcement shall extend from the base of the wall to a height equal to the thickness of the
wall. The vertical spacing of the horizontal reinforcement shall not exceed 150 mm.
NOTE: For walls greater than 500 mm thick, the minimum reinforcement required near each
surface may be calculated using 250 mm for tw .
11.7.3 Spacing of reinforcement
The minimum clear distance between parallel bars, ducts and tendons shall be sufficient to
ensure the concrete can be placed and compacted to comply with Clause 17.3.3 but shall be
not less than 3db.
The maximum centre-to-centre spacing of parallel bars shall be the lesser of 2.5tw and
300 mm.
The vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall be provided in two grids, one near each face
of the wall under any of the following conditions:
(a) Walls greater than 200 mm thick.
(b) Any part of a wall structure where tension exceeds the tensile capacity of the concrete
under the design ultimate loads.
(c) Walls designed for two-way buckling [based on Clause 11.4(b) or Clause 11.4(c)].
(d) Wall-type piers for earthquake resistance.
11.7.4 Restraint of vertical reinforcement
For walls designed as columns in accordance with Section 10, the restraint provisions of
Clause 10.7.4 shall not apply if either—
(a) the vertical reinforcement is not used as compressive reinforcement; or
(b) the vertical reinforcement ratio is not greater than 0.02, and a minimum horizontal
reinforcement ratio of 0.0035 is provided.
NOTE: For walls greater than 500 mm thick, the minimum reinforcement required near each
surface may be calculated using 250 mm for tw .

AS 5100.5:2017 152
11.7.5 Additional requirements for earthquake detailing

This Clause applies to wall-type bridge piers in earthquake design category BEDC2 to
BEDC4.
NOTE: For the purpose of this Clause, wall-type (or blade) piers are piers with a width to
thickness ratio of 4 or greater.
Piers shall be designed and detailed in accordance with this Section in the strong direction,
and Section 10 in the weak direction.
Except in the end region of wall-type piers, the reinforcement ratio (pw) in the strong
direction shall be not less than 0.003 in each of the horizontal and vertical directions. In the
end region, extending for twice the wall thickness from each end, the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio shall be not less than 0.005.
Cross-ties shall be provided in wall-type piers. In the end regions, cross ties shall comply
with Clause 10.7.6.5. Between end regions, cross-ties shall be provided at spacings not
exceeding twice the wall thickness both horizontally and vertically (as shown in Figure
11.7.5).
Splices for the vertical and lateral reinforcement shall be staggered and not more than 50%
of reinforcement in a section shall be spliced at a location.
2tw En d re g i o n s 2tw
tw
15 0 15 0 2tw ma x. 2tw ma x.
max. max.
FIGURE 11.7.5 CROSS-TIES IN BLADE WALLS

153 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 12 DESIGN OF NON-FLEXURAL

MEMBERS AND ANCHORAGE ZONES
12.1 SCOPE OF SECTION

This Section applies to the design of non-flexural members, including deep beams, footings,
and pile caps where the ratio of the clear span or projection to the overall depth is less
than—
(a) for cantilevers ........................................................................................................ 1.5;
(b) for simply supported members ........................................................................... 3; and
(c) for continuous members ............................................................................................ 4.
This Section also applies to the design of non-flexural regions, including corbels,
continuous nibs, end zones of prestressed members, and surfaces where concentrated forces
act.
12.2 DESIGN
12.2.1 Design for strength
The design for strength shall be carried out using one of the following:
(a) Linear elastic stress analysis and the checking procedure given in Clause 2.3.3.
(b) Strut-and-tie analysis, and the checking procedure given in Clause 2.3.4.
(c) Non-linear stress analysis and the checking procedure given in Clause 2.3.6.
The value of the capacity stress and strength reduction factor shall be determined according
to Clauses 2.3.3, 2.3.4 and 2.3.6 as appropriate, for the analysis and checking procedure
adopted.
12.2.2 Design for serviceability
Design for serviceability shall be in accordance with Clause 2.4 and Clause 12.7.
12.3 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS FOR THE DESIGN OF NON-FLEXURAL

MEMBERS
12.3.1 General
Design using strut-and-tie models shall comply with the requirements of Section 7.
12.3.2 Design models
Design models are distinguished by the method in which the forces are transferred from the
point of loading to the supports. The models are identified as Types I, II and III. These are
shown in Figure 12.3.2 for the specific case of deep beams, and are defined as follows:
(a) Type I The load is carried to the supports directly by major struts.
(b) Type II The load is taken to the supports by a combination of primary (major) and
secondary (minor) struts. Hanger reinforcement is required to return the vertical
components of forces developed in the secondary struts to the top of the member.
(c) Type III The load is carried to the supports via a series of minor struts with hanger
reinforcement used to return the vertical components of the strut forces to the top of
the member.

AS 5100.5:2017 154
For Type II models, the force carried by the secondary struts shall be within the limits
0  Tw  P, where Tw is the vertical component of the force carried by the secondary struts
and P is defined in Figure 12.3.2.
a P P
w
z d z
D
θ θ
T T
P P
(a) S tr ut- an d -t i e (b) S im p lifi e d
T YPE I
a P
P
a /2 a /2
w
Tw
z d z
D
T T
P P
T YPE II
a P P
w
Tw
D d
z z
θ θ
T T
P P
T YPE III
FIGURE 12.3.2 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS AND SIMPLIFIED DESIGN MODELS

155 AS 5100.5:2017
12.3.3 Strut bursting reinforcement

Strut bursting reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Clause 7.2.4.
12.4 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINUOUS CONCRETE NIBS

AND CORBELS
Corbels and continuous concrete nibs that support other members shall be designed and
detailed to comply with the following:
(a) For corbels, the depth of the outside face shall be not less than half the depth at the
face of the support.
(b) For continuous concrete nibs, the projection of the nib shall provide adequate bearing
for the type of member supported, but shall be not less than 100 mm.
(c) The tensile reinforcement shall be anchored at the free end of the corbel or nib, either
by a welded or mechanical anchorage, or by a loop in either the vertical or horizontal
plane. Where the main reinforcement is looped, the loaded area shall not project
beyond the straight portion of this reinforcement.
(d) Horizontal forces resulting from the supported member, because of factors such as
movement, shrinkage, temperature and prestress, shall be assessed but shall not be
taken as less than 20% of the vertical force.
(e) The line of action of the load shall be taken at one-third the width of the bearing from
the free end for a corbel and at the outside edge of a bearing pad for continuous nibs.
NOTE: Where no bearing pad is provided, the line of action may be taken at the
commencement of any edge chamfer, or at the outside face of the corbel or nib as appropriate.
(f) Where a flexural member is being supported, the outside face of a nib shall be
protected against spalling.
12.5 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STEPPED JOINTS IN BEAMS AND

SLABS
The design of stepped joints shall take into account the horizontal forces and movements
from the supported members and shall comply with the following:
(a) Horizontal forces resulting from movement, shrinkage, temperature, prestress and
other factors in the supported member shall be assessed but shall not be taken as less
than 20% of the vertical force.
(b) In prestressed members, the vertical component of the force from the prestressing
tendons shall be ignored.
(c) The horizontal reinforcement in the supporting member shall extend at least a
distance equal to the beam depth (D) of that member beyond the step and shall be
provided with anchorage beyond the plane of any potential shear crack.
(d) Hanging reinforcement shall be placed as close as practicable to the vertical face of
the step.

AS 5100.5:2017 156
12.6 ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR POST-TENSIONED MEMBERS

12.6.1 General
This Clause applies to the design of prismatic anchorage zones in post-tensioned concrete
members but is limited to cases having no more than two anchorages in any elevation or
plan.
NOTE: Where there are more than two anchorages in any elevation or plan, the design may be
undertaken in accordance with Section 7.
12.6.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be provided to carry tensile forces that arise from the action and
dispersion of the prestressing forces in anchorage zones. This dispersion occurs through
both the depth and the width of the anchorage zone. Reinforcement shall be provided in
planes parallel to the end faces in two orthogonal directions. A two-dimensional analysis
for each loading case shall be carried out in each direction in turn. The tensile forces shall
be calculated on longitudinal sections through anchorages and on longitudinal sections
where peak values of transverse moments occur.
The transverse moment on a longitudinal section is the equilibrating moment acting on the
free body bounded by the longitudinal section, a free surface parallel to it, the loaded face,
and a plane parallel to the loaded face at the inner end of the anchorage zone.
12.6.3 Loading cases to be considered
Loading cases to be considered shall include—

(a) all anchorages loaded; and
(b) critical loadings during the stressing operation.
Where the distance between two anchorages is less than 0.3 times the total depth, or
breadth, of the member, consideration shall be given to the effects of the pair acting in a
manner similar to a single anchorage subject to the combined forces.
12.6.4 Calculation of tensile forces along line of an anchorage force
The force resultant of transverse tensile stresses (T) induced along the line of action of an
anchorage force shall be taken as follows:
T = 0.25P (1  kr) . . . 12.6.4
where
P = maximum force occurring at the anchorage during jacking
kr = ratio of the dimension of an anchorage bearing plate to the corresponding depth,
or breadth, of the symmetrical prism
NOTE: The symmetrical prism is defined as a notional prism with an anchorage at the centre of
its end face and a depth, or breadth, taken as twice the distance from the centre of an anchorage to
the nearer concrete face.
12.6.5 Calculation of tensile forces induced near the loaded face
At longitudinal sections remote from a single eccentric anchorage, or between widely
spaced anchorages, where the sense of the transverse moment indicates the tensile stress
resultant acts near the loaded face, the tensile force shall be calculated as follows:
(a) For a single eccentric anchorage, by dividing the peak transverse moment by a lever
arm assumed to be one-half the overall depth of the member.
(b) Between pairs of anchorages, by dividing the peak transverse moment by a lever arm
assumed to be 0.6 times the spacing of the anchorages.

157 AS 5100.5:2017
12.6.6 Quantity and distribution of reinforcement

The cross-sectional area of reinforcement for each situation shall be derived in accordance
with Clauses 12.6.4 and 12.6.5 and designed for a stress not exceeding 150 MPa. This
reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
(a) Reinforcement to resist the forces calculated under Clause 12.6.4 shall be distributed
uniformly from 0.2D to 1.0D from the loaded face. Similar reinforcement shall be
placed from the plane at 0.2D to as near as practicable to the loaded face. D shall be
equal to the depth or breadth of the symmetrical prism as appropriate.
(b) Reinforcement to resist the forces calculated under Clause 12.6.5 shall be placed as
close to the loaded face as is consistent with cover and compaction requirements.
At any plane parallel to the loaded face, the reinforcement shall be determined from the
longitudinal section with the greatest reinforcement requirements at that plane, and shall
extend over the full depth or breadth of the end zone.
12.6.7 Special reinforcement details in anchorage zones
In addition to the reinforcement required to resist bursting and spalling tensile forces, the
following consideration shall also be given to the reinforcement required in other local
zones of tensile stresses that may exist in the region of anchorages:
(a) Unstressed corners Corners that remain unstressed after stressing due to the gradual
dispersion of the concentrated prestressing force from the anchor plate shall be
adequately anchored to the prestressed member. These unstressed corners include

those regions beyond the anchor plates around anchorage recesses, and the outer
corners of cantilever slabs at the ends of post-tensioned members. Nominal
longitudinal or diagonal reinforcement detailed to cross the planes of potential
cracking shall be provided to secure these corners to the member.
(b) Internal anchorages Where internal anchorages (either dead end or stressing end)
are cast into a member at intermediate locations (see Figure 12.6.7), tensile zones can
develop behind the anchorage with tensile stresses parallel to the tendons, which
depend on the following:
(i) The magnitude of the anchored prestress forces.
(ii) The magnitude of the compressive stress in the longitudinal direction.
(iii) The ratio of the area of the anchorage to the total cross-sectional area of the
prestressed member.
Special reinforcement, designed to resist from 20% to 50% of the prestress force in
the tendon shall be provided to control these tensile stresses and shall be detailed as
shown in Figure 12.6.7. Such reinforcement shall extend at least over a length of 2D
as shown in Figure 12.6.7 and, have sufficient length to develop the yield stress (fsy)
of the reinforcing bar at the anchorage.
(c) External anchorages Where external anchorages (i.e. anchorages located on a
protruding bracket on the member) are used, reinforcement in addition to that
provided to resist the bursting tensile forces shall be designed, where applicable to—
(i) resist tension caused by curvature of tendons;
(ii) provide a shear connection to the main member and cater for the distribution of
the prestress force into the main member;
(iii) resist the forces as described in Item (b); and
(iv) resist tension caused by local eccentricity of prestress force.

AS 5100.5:2017 158
S p e c i al B ur st i n g
r e i nfor c e m e nt reinforc ement
D = D e pt h of
m e m b er
C e nt r i o d
of te n d o n
L s y.t ≥ D L s y.t ≥ D
A n c h or ag e
FIGURE 12.6.7 TYPICAL REINFORCMENT DETAILS AT AN INTERNAL ANCHORAGE
12.7 CRACK CONTROL

The requirements of crack control shall be deemed to be satisfied if the stress in the
reinforcement is not greater than the following:
(a) For bursting forces, where reinforcement is not near the concrete surface and there is
additional surface reinforcement, the stress in the reinforcement is not greater than
200 MPa.
(b) For bursting or spalling forces, where the reinforcement forms the surface layer of
reinforcement on any face, the stress for this surface reinforcement is not greater than
150 MPa. Reinforcement shall be adequately anchored to develop this stress.
(c) For prestressed concrete, the change in stress in the tendons after the point of
decompression does not exceed the limits given by Item (a), or (b) as appropriate.
12.8 ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR PRETENSIONED MEMBERS

Where tendons are grouped or where groups of tendons are widely spaced in the vertical (or
horizontal) direction at the ends of a member, additional reinforcement determined in
accordance with Clauses 12.6.4 to 12.6.6 shall be added to control horizontal and vertical
cracking in the member.
Sufficient vertical fitments shall be provided to resist at least 4% of the total prestressing
force at transfer in order to control horizontal cracking due to spalling. The same area of
steel shall be provided as horizontal fitments to control vertical cracking, which shall be in
addition to the vertical stirrups where control of both horizontal and vertical cracking is
required. These stirrups shall be placed as spalling reinforcement of length 0.25 times the
depth (width) of the member for horizontal stirrups from the end face, with the last stirrup
placed as close to the end face as practicable. Reinforcement shall be designed for a stress
not exceeding 150 MPa.
Reinforcement shall be adequately anchored at critical sections to develop a stress (st) of
250 MPa.
NOTE: Critical sections are likely to be midway between groups of tendons, or where there is an
abrupt reduction in cross-section, or between the tendon groups and the remaining tendon-free
area of the cross-section.

159 AS 5100.5:2017
12.9 BEARING SURFACES

Unless special confinement reinforcement is provided, the design bearing stress at a
concrete surface shall not exceed  0.9 f c  A2 / A1  or 1.8 f c , whichever is less—
where
A2 = largest area of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to and
concentric with A1
A1 = a bearing area
Where bearing areas are subject to high edge loading by the bearing plate, the design
bearing stress shall be not greater than 0.7 times the value specified above.
In the case of a bearing surface where the supporting structure is sloped or stepped, it shall
be permissible to take A2 as the area of the base of the largest frustum of a right pyramid or
cone—
(a) having for its opposite end the bearing area A1;
(b) having side slopes of 2 transversely to 1 longitudinally, with respect to the direction
of the load; and
(c) contained wholly within the supporting structure.
NOTE: This Clause is not applicable to the design of nodes within a strut-and-tie model.

AS 5100.5:2017 160
SECTI ON 13 STRESS DEVELOPMENT OF

REINF ORCE MENT AND T ENDONS
13.1 STRESS DEVELOPMENT IN REINFORCEMENT

13.1.1 General
The calculated force in reinforcing steel at any cross-section shall be developed on each
side of that cross-section in accordance with Clauses 13.1.2 to 13.1.8, as appropriate.
13.1.2 Development length for a deformed bar in tension
13.1.2.1 Development length to develop yield strength
The development length (Lsy.t ) to develop the characteristic yield strength (fsy) of a
deformed bar in tension shall be calculated from either Clause 13.1.2.2 or 13.1.2.3.
13.1.2.2 Basic development length
The development length (Lsy.t ) shall be taken as the basic development length of a deformed
bar in tension (Lsy.tb ), calculated from—
0.5k1 k 3 f sy d b
Lsy.tb   29k1 d b . . . 13.1.2.2
k2 f c
where
k1 = 1.3 for a horizontal bar with more than 300 mm of concrete cast below the bar;
or
= 1.0
k2 = (132 – db )/100; and
k3 = 1.0  0.15(cd  db ) / db (within the limits 0.7  k3  1.0);
where
db = diameter of the deformed bar developing stress
cd = a dimension, as shown in Figure 13.1.2.2
The value of f c used in Equation 13.1.2.2 shall not be taken to exceed 65 MPa.
The value of Lsy.tb calculated as above shall be multiplied by 1.3 for all structural elements
built with slip forms.
NOTE: A smaller value of L sy.t may be possible using the provisions of Clause 13.1.2.3.

161 AS 5100.5:2017
C1
a a
c c
C1
(a) S tr ai g ht bar s (b) C o g g e d or h o o ke d bar s (c) Lo o p e d bar s
c d = m in (a /2, c 1, c) c d = m in (a /2, c 1) cd = c
(i) N ar r ow e l e m e nt s o r m e m b er s (e.g. b e a m we b s a n d c o l u m n s)
a a
c c
(a) S tr ai g ht bar s (b) C o g g e d or h o o ke d bar s (c) Lo o p e d bar s

c d = m in (a /2, c) c d = a /2 cd = c
(ii) W i d e e l e m e nt s o r m e m b er s (e.g. f l a n g e s, b a n d b e a m s, s l a b s, wal l s a n d b l ad e c o l u m n s)
a
a
L s y.t L s y.t
db
(i i i) Pl a n ar v i ew of s t ag g er e d d eve l o p m e nt l e n g t h s of e q u i - s p a c e d b ar s
FIGURE 13.1.2.2 VALUES OF c d

AS 5100.5:2017 162
13.1.2.3 Refined development length

Where a refined development length is required, the development length in tension (Lsy.t)
shall be calculated from the following equation:
Lsy.t = k4 k5 Lsy.tb . . . 13.1.2.3
where
k4 = 1.0  K (within the limits 0.7  k4  1.0)
k5 = 1.0 0.04p (within the limits 0.7  k5  1.0)
K = a factor that accounts for the weighted average effectiveness of
transverse reinforcement in controlling potential splitting cracks along a
development or lap splice length.
= 0.05  (1+ nf/nbs)  0.10
with values of nf and nbs for typical arrangements of transverse
reinforcement shown in Table 13.1.2.3 for different member types
= 0, if the transverse reinforcement is not located between the longitudinal
bars and the concrete tensile face
 = (Atr  Atr.min)/As  0
Atr = sum of the cross-sectional areas of the transverse reinforcing bars along
the development length (Lsy.t) or the lap splice length
Atr.min = sum of cross-sectional areas of the transverse reinforcement when
minimum steel is used, which shall be taken as 0.25As for members with
K > 0, and 0 when K = 0
As = cross-sectional area of a single bar of diameter (db ) being developed
p = transverse compressive stress at the ULS along the development length
and perpendicular to the plane of splitting, in megapascals
The product k3 k4 k5 shall not be taken as less than 0.7.

www.standards.org.au
TABLE 13.1.2.3
VALUES OF K FOR TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT FOR DIFFERENT MEMBER TYPES
Member type Examples of potential splitting cracks at a tensile face nf n bs K (see Note 2)
Circular column
1 1 0.10
A t r = A b.f i t
Rectangular
column
n f = 2, n b s = 2 n f = 2, n b s = 3
K= 0.10 K= 0.0 8 3 1 1
A t r = A b.f i t
Beam
163
0.05  K  0.10
n f = 2, n b s = 4
A t r = A b.f i t 1 1
K= 0.075
Slab or wall
(with fitments) n f= n bs
A t r = A b.f i t 1 1
K= 0.10
Slab or wall
(without fitments) A tr
1 per main 0.05
0
bar spacing (see Note 3)
LEGEND:
n bs = total number of bars being anchored at the location under consideration
n f = numbered of anchored bars at the location under consideration adjacent to, and restrained by, a transverse bar or fitment
 Standards Australia
NOTES:
1 Fitments are a type of transverse reinforcement.
AS 5100.5:2017
2 The same value of K shall apply to all of the longitudinal bars being either anchored or lap spliced, i.e. it is a weighted average value.
3 To be effective, the transverse reinforcement shall be located between the longitudinal bars and the concrete tensile face as shown, otherwise K = 0.
AS 5100.5:2017 164
13.1.2.4 Development length to develop less than the yield strength

The development length (Lst) to develop a tensile stress ( st), less than the yield strength
(fsy), shall be calculated from—
 st
Lst  Lsy.t . . . 13.1.2.4
f sy
but shall be not less than—

(a) 12db ; or
(b) for slabs, as permitted by Clause 9.1.4.
13.1.2.5 Development length around a curve
Tensile stress shall be deemed to be developed around a curve if the internal diameter of the
curve is 10db or greater.
13.1.2.6 Development length of a deformed bar with a standard hook or cog
Where a deformed bar ends in a standard hook or cog complying with Clause 13.1.2.7, the
horizontal length required to anchor that end of the bar, measured from the outside of the
hook/cog, shall be not less than 0.5Lsy.t, as shown in Figure 13.1.2.6(a) or Figure 13.1.2.6(b)
to develop a tensile stress equal to the yield strength (fsy).
0. 5L s y.t
or 0. 5L s t
0. 5L s y.t
or 0. 5L s t
(a) S t an d ar d h o o k (b) S t an d ar d c o g
FIGURE 13.1.2.6 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF A DEFORMED BAR

WITH A STANDARD HOOK OR COG
13.1.2.7 Standard hooks and cogs

The standard hook or cog referred to in Clause 13.1.2.6 shall be one of the following:
(a) A hook consisting of a 180° bend with a nominal internal diameter complying with
Clause 17.4.3.2 plus a straight extension of 4db or 70 mm, whichever is greater.
(b) A hook consisting of a 135° bend with the same internal diameter and length as
specified in Item (a).
(c) A cog, consisting of a 90° bend with a nominal internal diameter complying with
Clause 17.4.3.2 but not greater than 8db and having the same total length as required
for a 180° hook of the same diameter bar.

165 AS 5100.5:2017
13.1.3 Development length of plain bars in tension

The development length (Lsy.t) to develop the yield strength (fsy) of a plain bar in tension
shall be taken as the basic development length calculated in accordance with
Clause 13.1.2.2 multiplied by 1.5, but Lsy.t shall be not less than 300 mm.
Where a plain bar ends in a standard hook or cog complying with Clause 13.1.2.7, the
tensile development length of that end of the bar, measured from the outside of the
hook/cog, shall be taken as 0.5Lsy.t or 0.5 Lst as applicable, and as shown in Figure 13.1.2.6.
13.1.4 Development length of headed reinforcement in tension
A head used to develop a deformed bar in tension shall be either—
(a) directly forged onto the bar; or
(b) consist of a nut or plate, having either a round, elliptical or rectangular shape,
attached to the end(s) of the bar by welding, threading or swaging of suitable strength
to avoid failure of the steel connection at ultimate load.
In addition—
(i) the net bearing area of head (Ahead ) shall be not less than 4 times the cross-sectional
area of the bar Abar;
(ii) the clear cover for the bar shall be not less than 2db; and
(iii) the clear spacing between bars shall be not less than 4db .
The headed bar shall be considered to have a development length (Lsy.hb ) measured from the
inside face of the head equal:
when Ahead/Abar = 4 Lsy.hb = 0.5Lsy.t . . . 13.1.4(1)
when Ahead/Abar  10 Lsy.hb = 6db . . . 13.1.4(2)
For values of Ahead/Abar between 4 and 10, the headed bar development length Lsy.hb shall be
obtained by linear interpolation.
Where the tensile force in a headed bar could give rise to bearing forces directed towards or
adjacent to a free concrete surface, failure of the concrete cone between the head of the bar
and the free concrete surface shall be investigated.
13.1.5 Development length of deformed bars in compression
The development length in compression (Lsy.c) to develop the characteristic yield strength
(fsy) of a deformed bar in compression shall be calculated from either Clause 13.1.5.2 or
Clause 13.1.5.3, but shall be not less than 200 mm.
13.1.5.2 Basic development length
The development length in compression (Lsy.c) shall be taken as the basic development
length of a deformed bar in compression (Lsy.cb ) calculated from the following equation:
0.22 f sy
Lsy.cb  d b 0.0435fsydb or 200 mm, whichever is the greater . . . 13.1.5.2
f c
NOTES:
1 A smaller value of L sy.c may be obtained using the provisions of Clause 13.1.5.3.
2 L sy.c for mesh may be calculated as for deformed bar.

AS 5100.5:2017 166
13.1.5.3 Refined development length

Where a refined development length is required, the development length in compression
(Lsy.c) shall be calculated from the following equation:
Lsy.c = k6Lsy.cb . . . 13.1.5.3
Where transverse reinforcement with at least 3 bars, transverse to and outside the bar being
developed is provided within Lsy.cb and, when Atr/s  As/600—
k6 = 0.75
where Atr and As are defined in Clause 13.1.2.3.
In all other cases, k6 = 1.0.
The development length (Lsc) to develop a compressive stress (sc), less than the yield
strength (fsy), shall be calculated from the following equation:
 sc
Lsc  Lsy.c (but not less than 200 mm) . . . 13.1.5.4
f sy
A bend or a standard hook shall not be considered effective in developing stress in

reinforcement in compression.
13.1.6 Development length of plain bars in compression

The development length for plain bars in compression shall be twice the calculated value of
Lsy.c or Lsy.cb for a deformed bar.
NOTE: L sy.c for mesh may be calculated as for plain bar.
13.1.7 Development length of bundled bars
The development length of a unit of bundled bars shall be based on the development length
required for the largest bar within the bundle increased by—
(a) for a 3-bar bundle ......................................................................................... 20%; and
(b) for a 4-bar bundle ................................................................................................ 33%.
13.1.8 Development length of welded plain or deformed mesh in tension
The development length (Lsy.t) of welded plain or deformed mesh, measured from the
critical section to the end of the bar or wire, shall be calculated in accordance with
Clause 13.1.8.2, Clause 13.1.8.3 or Clause 13.1.8.4, as appropriate.
13.1.8.2 Two or more cross-bars within development length
The yield strength of deformed bars of welded mesh shall be deemed to be developed by
embedding at least 2 cross-bars spaced at not less than 50 mm within the development
length, with the first cross-bar located not less than 50 mm from the critical section. For
plain bars, the 2 cross-bars shall be spaced at not less than 100 mm within the development
length.
13.1.8.3 One cross-bar within development length
When only one cross-bar is located within the development length, the minimum length
measured from the critical section to the outermost cross-bar shall be not less than Lsy.tb
calculated from—
Ab f sy
Lsy.tb  3.25 . . . 13.1.8.3
sm f c

167 AS 5100.5:2017
but not less than 150 mm for plain mesh and not less than 100 mm for deformed mesh,
where
Ab = area of the individual bar being developed
s m = spacing of bars being developed
13.1.8.4 No cross-bars within development length
When no cross-bars are located within the development length, the development length of
welded mesh shall be determined in accordance with Clauses 13.1.2 and 13.1.3, as
appropriate.
The development length (Lst ) to develop a tensile stress ( st ) less than the yield strength (fsy)
shall be calculated from the development length determined from Clause 13.1.8.3 or
Clause 13.1.8.4, using the following equation:
 st
Lst  Lsy.tb . . . 13.1.8.5
f sy
Lst shall be not less than 150 mm for plain mesh and not less than 100 mm for deformed
mesh.
13.2 SPLICING OF REINFORCEMENT

13.2.1 General
The following general requirements shall apply to the splicing of reinforcement:
(a) Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as required or permitted on the design
drawings or in specifications.
(b) The splice shall be made by welding, by mechanical means, by end-bearing or by
lapping.
(c) Splicing of reinforcement shall take into account the requirements of Clause 17.3.3
regarding the placement of concrete.
(d) Splices required in bars in tension-tie members shall be made only by welding or
mechanical means.
(e) Lapped splices shall not be used for bars in compression or tension with diameter
larger than 40 mm.
(f) Welding of reinforcing bars shall not be made within 3db from that part of a bar that
has been bent and re-straightened.
13.2.2 Lapped splices for bars in tension
In wide elements or members (e.g. flanges, band beams, slabs, walls and blade columns),
where the bars being lapped are in the plane of the element or member, the tensile lap
length (Lsy.t.lap) for either contact or non-contact splices shall be calculated from the
following equation:
Lsy.t.lap  k7 Lsy.t  29k1d b . . . 13.2.2
where
Lsy.t is calculated in accordance with Clause 13.1.2.1. (In the determination of Lsy.t for
use in Equation 13.2.2, the lower limit of 29k1 db in Equation 13.1.2.2 does not apply);
and
k7 shall be taken as 1.25 (unless As provided is at least twice As required and not more
than half of the reinforcement at the section is spliced, in which case k7 may be taken
as 1.0).

AS 5100.5:2017 168
In narrow elements or members (such as beam webs and columns), the tensile lap length
(Lsy.t.lap) shall be not less than the larger of 29k1db , k7 Lsy.t and Lsy.t + 1.5sb , where sb is the
clear distance between bars of the lapped splice as shown in Figure 13.2.2. Provided sb does
not exceed 3db , then sb may be taken as zero for calculating Lsy.t.lap.
PL ANAR VIE W
(S e e N ote 1)
sL a sb
db
L s y.t . l a p c d = m in (a /2,c)
(i) 10 0% of bar s s p li c e d (n o st ag g ere d s p li c e)
≥ 0.3L s y.t . l a p
sL
PL ANAR VIE W a (S e e N ote 2)

sb
L s y.t . l a p
c d = m in (a /2,c)
(ii) 5 0% st ag g ere d s p li c e s
NOTES:
1 For the purposes of determining c d , dimension a shall be taken equal to (s L  d b ) irrespective of the value
of s b .
2 For the purposes of determining c d , dimension a shall be taken equal to 2s L irrespective of the value of s b .
FIGURE 13.2.2 VALUE OF c d FOR LAPPED SPLICES
13.2.3 Lapped splices for mesh in tension

A lapped splice for welded mesh in tension shall be made so the two outermost cross-bars
spaced at not less than 100 mm or 50 mm apart for plain or deformed bars, respectively, of
one sheet of mesh overlap the two outermost cross-bars of the sheet being lapped as shown
in Figure 13.2.3. The minimum length of the overlap shall equal 100 mm.
A lapped splice for welded deformed and plain meshes, with no cross-bars within the splice
length, shall be determined in accordance with Clause 13.2.2.
s2 s2
s1 s1
(a) s 1 = s 2 (b) s 1 < s 2
FIGURE 13.2.3 LAPPED SPLICES FOR WELDED MESH

169 AS 5100.5:2017
13.2.4 Lapped splices for bars in compression

The minimum length of a lapped splice for deformed bars in compression shall be the
development length in compression (Lsy.c) given in Items (a), (b) or (c) as follows, as
appropriate, but shall be not less than 300 mm:
(a) The development length in compression shall be in accordance with Clause 13.1.5 but
not less than 40db .
(b) In compressive members with stirrups or fitments where at least 3 sets of fitments are
present over the length of the lap and Atr/s  Ab/1000, a lap length of 0.8 times the
value given in Item (a).
(c) In helically tied compressive members, if at least 3 turns of helical reinforcement are
present over the length of the lap and Atr/s  n Ab /6000, a lap length of 0.8 times the
value given in Item (a), where n = the number of bars uniformly spaced around the
helix.
Where Ab is defined as the area of the bar being spliced.
13.2.5 Lapped splices for bundled bars
Lapped splices for a unit of bundled bars shall be based on the lap splice length required for
the largest bar within the bundle increased by—
(a) for a three bar bundle .................................................................................... 20%; and
(b) for a four bar bundle ............................................................................................ 33%.

Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap.
13.2.6 Welded or mechanical splices
Welded or mechanical splices formed between Ductility Class N reinforcing bars shall not
fail in tension or compression before the reinforcing bars, unless it can be shown that the
strength and ductility of the concrete member meet the design requirements.
Welded or mechanical splices for the jointing or anchorage of reinforcing steel shall
possess an ultimate tensile strength exceeding 1.25  fsy of the bar.
When control of cracking or vertical deflection are relevant serviceability design criteria,
the potentially detrimental effects of excessive longitudinal slip between spliced Ductility
Class N bars and a proprietary mechanical connector shall be considered if tests show the
effective slip in the assemblage could exceed 0.1 mm at a tensile stress of 300 MPa. The
effective slip shall be taken as the overall deformation of a spliced pair of reinforcing bars,
measured over a gauge length of 12db , less the elongation of the bars assuming they are
unspliced over the same gauge length.
Welded splices shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.3.
Mechanical splices of longitudinal reinforcement used in potential plastic hinge zones shall
be tested to prove the capability of the splice to sustain at least the ultimate tensile strength
of the bar.
13.3 STRESS DEVELOPMENT IN TENDONS

13.3.1 General
In the absence of substantiated test data, the length to develop the calculated force in a
pretensioned tendon shall be taken to be a bi-linear relationship defined by the transmission
length (Lpt) in Clause 13.3.2.1 and the total development length (Lp ) in Clause 13.3.2.2.

AS 5100.5:2017 170
13.3.2 Pretensioned tendons

13.3.2.1 Transmission length of pretensioned tendons
The transmission length required to develop the effective prestress in pretensioned tendons
shall be taken as the length given in Table 13.3.2.1, as appropriate to type of tendon and
strength of concrete at transfer. The transmission length shall be taken to be independent of
the effective prestress in the tendon.
It shall be assumed that no change in the position of the inner end of the transmission length
occurs with time but that a completely unstressed zone of length 0.1Lpt develops at the end
of the tendon.
TABLE 13.3.2.1
MINIMUM TRANSMISSION LENGTH
FOR PRETENSIONED TENDONS
L pt for gradual release

Type of tendon
f cp  32 MPa f cp < 32 MPa
Indented wire 100 d b 175 d b
Crimped wire 70 d b 100 d b
Ordinary and compact strand 60 d b 60 d b
13.3.2.2 Development length of pretensioned strand

In absence of test data, the bonded length to develop the stress in seven-wire pretensioned
strand at ultimate strength shall be taken as not less than—
Lp = 0.145(pu 0.67p.ef)db  60db . . . 13.3.2.2
where
p.ef = effective stress in the tendon after allowing for all losses
pu and p.ef are in megapascals.
Embedment less than the development length shall be permitted at a section of a member,
provided the design stress in the strand at that section does not exceed the values obtained
from the bi-linear relationship defined by this Clause and Clause 13.3.2.1.
The development length of de-bonded strand shall be taken to be 2Lp where the design
includes tension in accordance with Clauses 8.6.2 and 9.4.2 in the development length.
13.3.2.3 Development length of pretensioned wire
Pretensioned indented and crimped wire tendons shall be bonded beyond the critical section
for a length sufficient to develop the design stress in the wire but not less than 2.25 times
the value for the transmission length in Table 13.3.2.1 as appropriate.
13.3.2.4 Development length of untensioned strand or wire
Where strand or wire is untensioned, the development length shall be taken as not less than
2.5 times the value of the appropriate transmission length of a stressed tendon given in
Table 13.3.2.1 for a tendon stressed to the tensile strength (fpb) in Table 3.3.1.
13.3.3 Stress development in post-tensioned tendons by anchorages
Anchorages for tendons shall be capable of developing in the tendon the minimum tensile
strength (fpb).
In addition, anchorages for unbonded tendons shall be capable of sustaining cyclic loading
conditions.

171 AS 5100.5:2017
13.4 COUPLING OF TENDONS

Coupling (i.e. mechanical splicing) of tendons shall comply with the following:
(a) Couplers shall be capable of developing at least 95% of the tendon characteristic
minimum breaking force specified.
(b) Couplers shall be enclosed in grout-tight housings to facilitate grouting of the duct.

AS 5100.5:2017 172
SECTI ON 14 JOINTS, EMBEDDED ITEMS

AND F I XINGS
14.1 JOINTS
14.1.1 General
A joint in a structure or member shall be designed and constructed so the load-carrying
capacity and serviceability of the structure or member is maintained while serving its
intended function. Joints shall be for construction purposes (construction joint) or to control
movement (movement joint), as appropriate.
14.1.2 Construction joints
14.1.2.1 General
Construction joints shall be designed and installed to satisfy intended construction practice
for the specific application. Construction joints shall be designed to produce a well-bonded
interface between hardened concrete and freshly placed concrete.
14.1.2.2 Joint spacing
Construction joints shall be located to facilitate the placement of concrete in accordance
with Clause 17.3.3 and to meet concrete placement restrictions and finishing requirements.
They shall be located in regions of minimal shear force and, where possible, in unobtrusive
locations. The spacing shall be determined by the rate of concrete placement and finishing
on site or as a result of any unplanned interruption to placement operations.
Where an interruption to the placing of concrete occurs such that the requirements of
Clause 17.3.3(c) or Clause 17.3.3(d) or Clause 17.3.3(e) cannot be fulfilled, a construction
joint shall be made at an appropriate location.
14.1.3 Movement joints
14.1.3.1 General
Movement joints shall be designed and constructed to—
(a) control movement at a joint;
(b) control cracking at design locations; or
(c) provide articulation and separation between concrete members in a structure and meet
their intended function without impairing the load-carrying capacity or serviceability
of either the structure or member.
Movement joints shall be formed between two concrete members to allow movement to
occur, typically as a result of shrinkage, creep, diurnal effects and differential settlement
(see Note 2).
NOTES:
1 For bearings and deck joints, see AS 5100.4.
2 Generally, movement joints will extend throughout the member depth imparting complete
discontinuity between adjoining concrete members; however, joints for shrinkage are not
necessarily formed through the depth of the member.
14.1.3.2 Joint spacing
In reinforced concrete members, the spacing of movement joints shall take into account
effects such as shrinkage, temperature movement, moisture change, creep and other relevant
factors. The level of prestress and subsequent member shortening shall also be considered
in prestressed concrete members.

173 AS 5100.5:2017
14.1.4 Joint fillers and sealants

Material infill in a joint shall remain in place and deform in response to loading and
movement without undergoing any change that will adversely affect the functionality of the
joint. Such infills shall consist of either a joint filler or sealant (or both).
NOTE: Fillers may be inserted into a joint in a compressed condition either when the concrete is
plastic or in its hardened state.
A sealant shall be employed to provide weatherproofing, fire resistance, acoustic insulation,
chemical resistance, prevention of deleterious material ingress or other function that cannot
be imparted by a filler.
Joints shall be sealed or otherwise designed and detailed to prevent the entry of dirt or
incompressible material into the joint, which would detrimentally affect the joint movement
or operation. Where loading across the joint is anticipated, the designer shall ensure the
infill materials are of sufficient hardness and the concrete edges adequately protected, as
appropriate, to prevent joint edge spalling.
14.2 EMBEDDED ITEMS

14.2.1 General
For the purpose of this Clause, embedded items include pipes and conduits with their
associated fittings, sleeves, permanent inserts for fixings and other purposes, holding-down
bolts and other supports.

Items may be embedded in concrete members, provided the required strength and
serviceability of the member is satisfied, and the durability requirements of Clause 4.14.3.8
are met.
14.2.2 Pipes
Embedded conduits and pipes shall comply with the relevant Standards.
NOTE: Relevant Standards are—
(a) for electrical purposes .............................................................................. AS/NZS 3000; and
(b) for plumbing purposes .......................................................................... AS/NZS 3500 series.
Pipes intended to contain liquid, gas or vapour under pressure or extremes of temperature
may be embedded in structural concrete, provided the maximum pressure to which any
piping or fitting is intended to be subjected will not exceed 2000 kPa, and the effect that
inclusion of the pipe has on the strength and serviceability behaviour of the member is
taken into account.
14.2.3 Spacing
The minimum clear distance between embedded items, and between embedded items and
bars (including bundled bars), tendons or ducts, shall be sufficient to ensure the concrete
can be placed and compacted to comply with Clause 17.3.3.
14.3 FIXINGS
Fixings, including holding-down bolts, inserts and ferrules, shall comply with the
following:
(a) A fixing shall be designed to transmit all forces, acting or likely to act on it.
(b) Forces on fixings used for lifting purposes shall include an impact factor in assessing
the load.
(c) Fixings shall be designed to yield before ultimate failure in the event of overload.

AS 5100.5:2017 174
(d) The anchorage of any fixings shall be designed in accordance with Section 13, as
appropriate. The design strength of this anchorage shall be taken as  times the
ultimate strength, where  = 0.6. In the case of shallow anchorages, cone-type failure
in the concrete surrounding the fixing shall be investigated taking into account edge
distance, spacing, the effect of reinforcement, if any, and concrete strength at time of
loading.
(e) In the absence of calculations, the strength of a fixing shall be determined by load
testing of a prototype to failure in accordance with Paragraph A4, Appendix A. The
design strength of the fixing shall be taken as  times the ultimate strength where the
ultimate strength is taken as the average failure load divided by the appropriate factor
given in Table A4.3, Appendix A and  = 0.6.
(f) The spacing between, and cover to, fixings shall be in accordance with Clause 14.2.3.
The cover for fixings shall be in accordance with Section 4. The cover for fire
resistance shall be in accordance with Section 5.
14.4 DURABILITY OF EMBEDDED ITEMS AND FIXINGS

The durability of embedded items and fixings shall be considered in the design. Where parts
of embedded items and fixings of carbon steel are not fully encased in concrete or grout or
similar cementitious material, metal loss shall be either prevented by provision of corrosion
protection systems or corrosion loss shall be allowed for in the design.
Embedded items and fixings shall be designed so that corrosion will not damage the
concrete member in which they are embedded or other members in close proximity.
Where an item is not readily accessible for maintenance or replacement, it shall be designed
so that it will function for the life of the structure without maintenance.

175 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 15 PLAIN CONCRETE MEMBERS
15.1 GENERAL
Plain concrete shall be used only for members in which cracking will not induce collapse.
The provisions of this Section apply to—
(a) plain concrete pedestals, provided the unsupported height of the member is not
greater than three times the least lateral dimension;
(b) plain concrete footings supported by the ground;
(c) gravity retaining walls; and
(d) bored piles.
The value of  throughout this Section shall be determined from Table 2.3.2.
15.2 DESIGN
15.2.1 Basic principles of strength design
Members shall be designed in accordance with the following:
(a) Design of members for flexure shall be based on a linear stress-strain relationship in
both tension and compression.
NOTE: The tensile strength of concrete may be considered in the design.
(b) No tensile strength shall be assigned to reinforcement that may be present.
(c) Plain concrete members shall comply with the appropriate provisions of Section 4.
15.2.2 Section properties
In the calculation of strength, the entire cross-section of a member shall be considered
except that for a member cast against soil, the overall relevant dimensions shall be taken as
50 mm less than the actual dimension.
15.3 STRENGTH IN BENDING

The design strength under bending shall be based on a linear stress-strain relationship in
both tension and compression.
The design strength of a member in bending shall be taken as Muo , where Muo shall be
calculated using the characteristic flexural tensile strength  f ct.f
 .
The critical section for bending shall be taken at—

(a) the face of the column, pedestal or wall for concrete members;
(b) halfway between the centre and face of the wall for a masonry wall; or
(c) halfway between the face of the column and the edge of the base plate for a steel
column and base plate.

AS 5100.5:2017 176
15.4 STRENGTH IN SHEAR

The design strength of a member in shear shall be determined in accordance with either or
both of the following, as appropriate:
(a) Where the member acts essentially as a one-way member, and a shear failure can
occur across the width b of the member, the design strength in shear shall be taken as
Vu where—
Vu  0.15bD f c 
1/ 3
. . . 15.4(1)
The critical section for one-way shear shall be taken at 0.5D from the face of the
support.
(b) Where a shear failure can occur locally around a support or loaded area, the design
strength in shear shall be taken as—
Vu/[1 + (uM*/8V*aD)] . . . 15.4(2)
where
Vu = ultimate shear strength
= 0.1uD1  2 /  h  f c  0.2uD f c
u = effective length of the shear perimeter (see Figure 9.2.3)

a = dimension of the critical shear perimeter, parallel to the direction of

bending being considered
h = ratio given in Clause 9.2.3
NOTE: For the purposes of this Clause substitute D for d om in Figures 9.2.3.
15.5 STRENGTH IN COMBINED BENDING AND COMPRESSION

In the absence of more exact calculations, members subject to combined bending and axial
load shall be designed so that the maximum compressive stress under the design actions
does not exceed  0.45 f c and the maximum tensile stress does not exceed f ct.f  . For a
member in combined bending and axial compression, the minimum eccentricity shall be
taken as 0.1a, where a is the cross-sectional dimension in the direction being considered.
The unsupported length of a plain concrete member in combined bending and compression
shall be not greater than 3 times the least lateral dimension.
15.6 REINFORCEMENT AND EMBEDDED ITEMS

The concrete cover to any reinforcement or embedded item, and the clear distance between
these items shall comply with Sections 4 and 14.

177 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 16 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED

CONCRETE
16.1 GENERAL
This Section shall apply where steel fibres are used to improve the performance and
capacity of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.
The design of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) at both the ultimate and serviceability
limit states shall be based on the stress ( ) ≠ strain () relationships for SFRC as specified
in Clause 16.3.3.
NOTE: When using brittle fibres that rely on a fibre pullout failure mechanism to obtain member
ductility, care is required for cases where a significant number of fibres fracture or where fibres
result in local crushing of the concrete due to the local forces imposed on the matrix by the fibres.
Fibre fracture may occur where the bond between the fibre and the matrix is high, and this is
more likely in a high strength concrete combined with fibres of high bond capacity and of lower
strength steels. In assessing the suitability of a given fibre for a given application, bond-strength
gain in time and the resulting potential loss of ductility should be considered.
Steel fibres shall not be relied upon for strength under reverse cyclic loading, unless supported by
test data.
Steel fibres shall not be relied upon at constructions joints for either serviceability or
strength requirements.
Design procedures in this Section are for steel-fibre-reinforced concrete with a softening
classification only (see Figure 16.3.3.1). Hardening SFRC and the use of synthetic fibres is
beyond the scope of this Standard.
16.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Section, the definitions below apply:
16.2.1 Crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD)
The width of a crack measured at its mouth in a flexural tensile test undertaken in
accordance with EN 14651.
16.2.2 Crack opening displacement (COD)
The width of a single localized crack, taken as an average on four sides, for a direct tensile
test on a strain softening SFRC dog-bone shaped specimen in accordance with
Clause 16.3.3.7.
16.2.3 Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC)
A mixture of concrete and steel fibres.
16.2.4 Hardening behaviour
A material that displays an enhanced strength with increasing crack widths beyond that
measured at the point of initial cracking of the cementitious matrix.
16.2.5 Softening behaviour
A material that exhibits a loss of strength upon cracking.
16.2.6 Target dosage
The specified quantity of fibres in kilograms per cubic metre of concrete (kg/m3).

AS 5100.5:2017 178
16.3 PROPERTIES OF SFRC

16.3.1 General
SFRC shall be classified in terms of both its characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength
( f c ) (Clause 16.3.2) and its characteristic residual tensile strength ( f1.5 ) (Clause 16.3.3.3).
16.3.2 Compressive strength
The characteristic compressive strength of SFRC at 28 days ( f c ) shall be determined in
accordance with Clause 3.1.1.1.
In the absence of more accurate data, the mean value of the in situ compressive strength
(fcmi) shall be taken as 90% of the mean value of the cylinder strength (fcm).
16.3.3 Tensile properties
16.3.3.1 Classification
SFRC shall be classified as either softening or hardening as shown in Figure 16.3.3.1.
A hardening SFRC is outside the scope of this Section.
NOTE: A hardening material is defined as one with a tensile strength equal to or greater than
1.1 times the strength of the matrix without fibres and taken at a crack opening displacement
(COD) of equal to or greater than 0.3 mm.
ƒc t
ƒ0.5
ƒ 1. 5
ε
0 ε cr
COD
0 0. 5 m m 1. 5 m m
(a) S tr ain s of te nin g SFRC
σ
Cr ac k l o c aliz at i o n
ƒ c t ≥ 1.1 ƒ c t m
ƒc t m
Cr ac k for m at i o n
ε
0 ε cr
COD
0 ≥ 0.3 m m
(b) S tr ain har d e nin g SFRC
FIGURE 16.3.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SFRC

179 AS 5100.5:2017
16.3.3.2 Matrix tensile strength

The matrix tensile strength of the softening SFRC (fct) shall be obtained using direct or
indirect tensile testing, in accordance with Clause 3.1.1.3.
When only the characteristic compressive (cylinder) strength ( f c ) has been determined, the
mean and characteristic flexural tensile strength of SFRC shall be calculated in accordance
with Clause 3.1.1.3.
16.3.3.3 Residual tensile strength
The standard characteristic residual tensile strength grades ( f1.5 ) are 0.4 MPa, 0.6 MPa,
0.8 MPa, 1.2 MPa, 1.6 MPa and 2.0 MPa.
The characteristic residual tensile strengths of concrete at 28 days ( f1.5 ) shall be determined
statistically from tests carried out in accordance Clause 16.3.3.4 or Clause 16.3.3.5.
Higher residual tensile strength grades may be used, provided they are supported by direct
tensile testing undertaken in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.4.
NOTE: Where similar SFRC mixes have been tested in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.5 and the
difference in fibre content is not more than 20 kg/m3, the residual tensile strengths that fall
between these limits may be obtained by linear interpolation.
16.3.3.4 Determination of strength by direct testing
The characteristic residual tensile strength ( f1.5 ) shall be obtained using direct tensile tests
as specified in Clause 16.3.3.7.

Alternatively, where matched direct and indirect testing has been undertaken in accordance
with Clause 16.3.3.6 for similar SFRC mixtures, the characteristic residual tensile may be
determined as—
f1.5  k R, 4 f R, 4 . . . 16.3.3.4
 is determined in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.8 and calculated statistically,

where f R,4
and the factor kR,4 determined from Clause 16.3.3.6.
For the purposes of this Clause, similar SFRC mixtures are defined as having the same—
(a) fibre type and content; and
(b) water to cementitious material ratio; and
(c) maximum aggregate particle size; and
(d) compressive strength ( f c ).
NOTES:
1 In calculating the characteristic strength, the population may be treated as log-normally
distributed and the strength determined in accordance with ISO 12491. A confidence level of
75% should be used such that 95% of the population exceeds the characteristic value.
2 The sample standard deviation should not exceed 25% of the mean value.
16.3.3.5 Determination of strength by indirect testing
The characteristic residual tensile strength ( f1.5 ) may be obtained using indirect tests as
specified in Clause 16.3.3.8 and calculated as follows:
f1.5  0.4 f R, 4  0.07 f R, 2 . . . 16.3.3.5

AS 5100.5:2017 180
16.3.3.6 Residual tensile strength—Residual flexural strength relationship

The relationship between residual tensile strength and the residual flexural strength shall be
obtained by matched testing using the same SFRC mixture. Residual tensile strength
specimens shall be prepared and tested in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.7. Residual
flexural tensile tests shall be in accordance with EN 14651 and—
(a) the concrete mix shall be batched to ensure a uniform distribution of fibres, the SFRC
shall be placed in the moulds in a manner that does not interfere with the distribution
of the fibres and, the SFRC shall be compacted using lightly applied external
vibration; and
(b) a minimum of 12 specimens shall be tested.
The reference factor kR,4 shall be determined as—
kR,4 = f1.5m/fR,4m . . . 16.3.3.6
where
f1.5m = mean residual tensile strengths corresponding to a COD of 1.5 mm,
determined in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.7
fR,4m = mean residual flexural tensile strengths corresponding to a CMOD of
3.5 mm, determined in accordance with Clause 16.3.3.8
16.3.3.7 Residual tensile strength test
The residual tensile strength shall be obtained using the testing arrangement shown in
Figure 16.3.3.7, and shall comply with the following criteria:
(a) The critical section shall be where the cross-sectional area is a minimum.
(b) The SFRC mix shall be batched to ensure a uniform distribution of fibres, and shall
be placed in the moulds in a manner that does not interfere with the distribution of the
fibres. The SFRC shall be compacted using lightly applied external vibration.
(c) The specimen shall be connected to the testing machine in such a manner that the
machine does not apply a load to the specimen during the process of tightening of the
grips and prior to testing.
(d) One end of the specimen shall be connected to the testing machine through a
universal joint such that no moment is applied to the end of the specimen.
(e) Displacement measurements shall be taken on each of the four sides with the COD
taken as the average of these measurements.
(f) A minimum of 12 specimens shall be tested.
(g) Tests where the failure of the specimen is outside of the testing region, or where the
results are influenced by the test specimen boundaries, shall be retested.
(h) The characteristic values of the tensile strength f0.5 and f1.5, corresponding to CODs of
0.5 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively, shall be determined statistically as the
95 percentile confidence value assuming the population is normally distributed.
(i) The mean values of f0.5m and f1.5m, corresponding to CODs of 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm,
respectively, shall be determined statistically as the 50th percentile confidence value
assuming the population is normally distributed.

181 AS 5100.5:2017
The stress results obtained from the test shall be multiplied by the three-dimensional
orientation factor k1, where—
1
k1  1 . . . 16.3.3.7
0.94  0.6lf / b
and lf is the length of the steel fibre and b is taken as the average of the width and depth of
the specimen taken at the critical section.
NOTES:
1 The factor k1 removes the influence of the boundaries on the fibre distribution and converts
the results of the test to a state where the fibres can be considered to be randomly orientated
in three-dimensional space.
2 Testing should be undertaken in a laboratory accredited by the National Association of
Testing Laboratories (NATA).
Univer sal
j o i nt
≥125
≥ 25
125
5
R 14
125
215
Ep ox y g lu e
≥125
(o ptional)
All dimensions ±5 mm
FIGURE 16.3.3.7 TESTING ARRANGEMENT FOR DIRECT TENSION
16.3.3.8 Minimum fibre dosage

The dosage of fibres shall be not less than the greater of—
(a) 12γs (df/lf)2; and
(b) 20 kg/m3,
where s is the mass density of steel, taken as 7850 kg/m3.

AS 5100.5:2017 182
16.3.3.9 Residual flexural tensile strength

The residual flexural tensile strength (fR,j) shall be determined from 3 point notched bending
tests on 150 mm square section prisms. The notch depth shall be 25 mm and the test
conducted in accordance with EN 14651. The force F shall be plotted against the crack
mouth opening displacement (CMOD), as shown in Figure 16.3.3.9, and the residual
flexural stress calculated as follows:
3FRj L
f R,j  . . . 16.3.3.9
2bhsp2
where
b = width of the specimen, in millimetres
hsp = distance between tip of the notch and top of cross-section, in millimetres
L = span
FRj = load recorded at CMODj (see Figure 16.3.3.9)
NOTE: Testing should be undertaken in a laboratory accredited by the National
Association of Testing Laboratories (NATA).
FL
F R .1
FR.2
FR.3
F R .4
CMOD (m m)
C
0. OD
C
M
M
05
O
D1
D 4
2
3
L
=
=
=
0.
3.
1.
2.
5
5
5
5
FIGURE 16.3.3.9 LOAD VERSUS CMOD j FOR RESIDUAL FLEXURAL TENSION

The mean value of the modulus of elasticity at the appropriate age (Ecj) shall be determined
in accordance with Clause 3.1.2.
16.4 DESIGN OF SFRC MEMBERS CONTAINING REINFORCEMENT OR

TENDONS
16.4.1 General
This Clause applies to reinforced and prestressed beams that include steel fibres subjected
to any combination of shear force, bending moment and axial force.
NOTE: This Clause does not apply when torsion acts in conjunction with shear or to non-flexural
members.

183 AS 5100.5:2017
16.4.2 Strength of beams in bending and combined bending and axial force
Calculations for strength of cross-sections in bending shall incorporate equilibrium and
strain-compatibility considerations and be consistent with the following assumptions:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis shall remain plane after bending.
(b) The stress in the SFRC in that part of the cross-section in tension shall be taken to be
f1.5 , where f1.5 is the characteristic residual tensile stress determined in accordance
with Clause 16.3.3.3.
(c) The distribution of compressive stress shall be determined from a stress-strain
relationship for the concrete in accordance with Clause 3.1.4.
The strength of a section in bending, or in combined bending and axial force, shall be
determined using rectangular stress blocks for the concrete in compression and concrete in
tension, as shown in Figure 16.4.2.
α 2 f c´
Cs
γdn Cc
dn
N. A .
d
D
f 1.´ 5 Tf
Ts
(a) S i n g l e te n s i l e r e i nfor c e m e nt l ayer
α 2 f c´
Cs
γdn Cc
dn
d N. A .
do
D
f 1.´ 5 Tf
Ts
(b) M u l t i p l e te n s i l e r e i nfor c e m e nt l ayer s
FIGURE 16.4.2 STRESS BLOCKS AND FORCES ON REINFORCED SFRC SECTION

AS 5100.5:2017 184
16.4.3 Minimum reinforcement requirements for bending

The minimum tensile reinforcement shall be not less than that determined using the
principles of Clause 8.1.6, excluding fibres.
NOTES:
1 This Clause does not apply to foundation or pavement slabs fully or partially supported on
soil.
2 The minimum reinforcement may be reduced by not greater than 20% where it is shown by
calculation that the capacity of the beam is not less than 1.2Mcr .
16.4.4 Strength of beams in shear
16.4.4.1 Design shear strength of a beam
The design shear strength of a beam shall be taken as ϕVu, where—
Vu = Vuc + Vuf + Vus . . . 16.4.4.1
where Vuc is determined from Clause 8.2.4.1, with θv and kv determined by Clause 8.2.4.6,
Vus is determined from Clause 8.2.5 and Vuf is determined from Clause 16.4.4.2.
Notwithstanding Equation 16.4.4.1, the fibres component to the ultimate shear strength of a
beam (Vuf) shall not exceed the greater of 0.3Vu and that determined by Clause 16.4.4.3 with
Vus taken as zero.
16.4.4.2 Contribution to shear strength by steel fibres
The contribution of the fibres to the ultimate shear strength (Vuf) of an SFRC beam shall be
calculated from the following equation:
Vuf  0.7 k θ bv d o f1.5 . . . 16.4.4.2
where
kθ = cotθv  1.28
θv = angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal
axis of the member and shall be taken as not less than 38°
16.4.4.3 Minimum shear reinforcement
The minimum contribution from the total of the transverse steel reinforcement and fibres
shall satisfy the following:
Vus  Vuf min  0.1bv d o f c and . . . 16.4.4.3
 0.6bv d o
16.4.5 Design for serviceability limit states
16.4.5.1 General
When an SRFC cross-section is uncracked, the full cross-section shall be assumed to be
active and both concrete and steel assumed to be elastic in tension as well as in
compression.
When an SRFC cross-section is cracked, the SFRC shall be assumed to be elastic in
compression, and capable of sustaining a tensile stress equal to 1.1 f1.5 .

185 AS 5100.5:2017
16.4.5.2 Stress limits

16.4.5.2.1 Concrete
The maximum compressive stress in the concrete at the serviceability limit states shall not
exceed 0.6fcm(t). Under permanent effect loading, the maximum compressive stress in the
concrete shall not exceed 0.4fcm(t).
NOTE: The satisfaction of limits on the concrete tensile stress at the serviceability limit state is
not necessary if the member performance is satisfactory at the ultimate limit state.
16.4.5.2.2 Reinforcing steel
To avoid any inelastic deformation that could lead to large, permanently open cracks,
tensile stresses in the reinforcement at the serviceability limit states shall not exceed 0.8fsy.
16.4.5.3 Minimum reinforcement for crack control
The minimum amount of longitudinal reinforcement required to obtain controlled crack
formation shall be as follows:
Act
Ast.min  k1k c k p f ct.ef  1.1 f1.5  0.0 . . . 16.4.5.3(1)
f s.max
where
Ast.min= minimum area of reinforcement required within the tensile zone
= zero only if steel fibres are necessary to control cracking

Act = area of concrete within the tensile zone that is that part of the cross-section
calculated to be in tension just before formation of the first crack
fs.max = maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after formation
of the crack, given in either Table 8.6.1(A) or Table 9.4.1(A) as appropriate
fct.ef = tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks may
first be expected to occur
Values of fct.ef shall be obtained from 0.6 f cm but shall be not less than
3.0 MPa, where fcm is the mean concrete compressive strength at the time
cracking is expected to occur
kc = coefficient that takes account of the nature of the stress distribution within
the section immediately prior to cracking
The relevant stress distribution is that resulting from the combined effects of
loading and restrained imposed deformations:
kc = 1.0 for pure tension (e = M/N = 0)
kc = 0.6 for pure bending
k1 = coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating
stresses due to non-linear shrinkage or temperature profiles through the
member depth
In the absence of more detailed analysis, k1 may be taken as 0.8
kp = coefficient that takes account of the level of prestress and is given by:
 cp  e e
kp  1   1  k c  2 .4  6 k c  . . . 16.4.5.3(2)
kk c f ct.ef  D D

AS 5100.5:2017 186
e/D = ratio of the eccentricity of the prestressing force on the cross-section (e)
measured from the centroidal axis of the uncracked section to the overall
depth of the cross-section in the plane of bending (D)
σcp = average intensity of the effective prestress (Pe/Ag)
16.4.5.4 Deflection control
16.4.5.4.1 General
The deflection of an SFRC member shall be calculated using the procedures outlined in
Clauses 16.4.5.4.2 and 16.4.5.4.3. Allowance shall be made for the expected load history,
the expected construction procedure and any anticipated deflections resulting from
deformation of forms or settlement of props.
16.4.5.4.2 Short-term deflection
The short-term deflections due to external loads and prestressing, which occur immediately
on their application, shall be calculated using the value of Ecj determined in accordance
with Clause 3.1.2 and the value of the effective second moment of area of the member (Ief).
The value of Ief may be determined from the values of Ief at nominated cross-sections as
follows:
(a) For a simply supported span, the value at midspan.
(b) In a continuous beam—
(i) for an interior span, half the midspan value plus one quarter of each support
value; or
(ii) for an end span, half the midspan value plus half the value at the continuous
support.
(c) For a cantilever, the value at the support.
For the purpose of the above determinations, the value of Ief at each of the cross-sections
nominated in Items (a) to (c) above shall be obtained from the instantaneous curvature
 
 i  M s* Ecj I ef calculated as the slope of the strain diagram in Figure 16.4.5.4.2(b) and
obtained by satisfying the requirements for rotational and horizontal equilibrium of the
stress distribution in Figure 16.4.5.4.2(c).
εo σ o= E cjε o
d n /3
dn Cc
(d+ d n)/2
D d d
ε s = ε o (d - d n)/d n
A st σ s= E sε s
1.1 f 1.
´5
(a) S e c t i o n (b) S tr ain (c) S tre s s (d) For c e s
FIGURE 16.4.5.4.2 STRESS AND STRAIN DISTRIBUTION ON A CRACKED SECTION

SUBJECTED TO APPLIED IN-SERVICE BENDING MOMENT ( M s* )

187 AS 5100.5:2017
16.4.5.4.3 Long-term deflection

For reinforced and prestressed SFRC flexural members, that part of the deflection that
occurs after the short-term deflection shall be calculated as the sum of—
(a) the shrinkage component of the long-term deflection, determined from the design
shrinkage strain of concrete (εcs) (see Clause 3.1.7.1) and the principles of mechanics;
and
(b) the additional long-term creep deflections, determined from the design creep
coefficient at any time (t ) of concrete (φcc) (see Clause 3.1.8.3) and the principles of
mechanics.
16.5 DURABILITY
The minimum concrete grade and cover for SFRC in exposure classifications A, B1 and B2
shall be as for concrete without fibres and shall apply to the steel reinforcement only. SFRC
shall not be used in exposure classification C1 or C2.
NOTES:
1 Steel fibres do not require concrete cover as specified for steel reinforcement in Clause 4.14.
2 SFRC may not be suitable in some exposure classification U environments.
16.6 FIRE
The structural performance of SFRC for fire shall be determined in accordance with
Section 5 of this Standard.
The material properties for SFRC shall be as specified for concrete in Clause 5.4.1 except
that the characteristic residual tensile stress of SFRC at elevated temperatures ( f1.5θ ) shall
be either—
(a) taken as f1.5θ  k θ1  f1.5 where kθ1 is given in Table 16.6; or
TABLE 16.6
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
FOR RESIDUAL TENSILE STRESS OF SFRC
Temperature of SFRC
0 100 500 700 1200
°C
k θ1 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.1 0.0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between values.
16.7 PRODUCTION OF SFRC

16.7.1 Fibres
Steel fibres shall comply with EN 14889-1 CE Marking System 1 (fibres for structural use).
The CE label and current ‘Certificate of Conformity’ shall be supplied on request to the
relevant authority.
16.7.2 Mixing of fibres
Fibres of the type and quantity specified shall be added in a controlled process ensuring that
they are dispersed uniformly through the concrete mix. If added after the main mixing
process, the concrete shall be remixed until the fibres have been completely dispersed
throughout the batch.
NOTES:
1 Balling of fibres should be avoided.
2 A record of fibre content should be recorded for each batch.

AS 5100.5:2017 188
16.7.3 Pre-construction testing of materials

Pre-construction testing in the form of initial type tests shall be undertaken in accordance
with Table 16.7.3.
New initial type tests shall be undertaken when any of the following occur:
(a) The concrete composition changes.
(b) At least one source material of the concrete changes.
(c) The results of compressive tests undertaken to AS 1379 do not meet the specification.
(d) At least once in a period of 12 months.
The pre-construction tests shall be performed with the same personnel, materials and
equipment that will be used during production.
TABLE 16.7.3
PRE-CONSTRUCTION TESTS
Material Inspection/Test Purpose
Steel fibres Check delivery note Verify that the delivery is in
accordance with the order, and is
shipped from the correct source
Check CE label Verify that the fibres have the

correct CE-label which matches
the corresponding Certificate of
Conformity
Steel fibre content in the fresh Testing according to EN 14721 Conformity with the target dosage
concrete and Clause 16.7.5 on the basis of
Verify homogeneous distribution
9 samples
of the steel fibres in the mix
Steel fibre concrete performance Check limit of proportionality, and Verify that the performance is in
post-crack flexural strength in accordance to the specification
accordance to EN 14651 on a
The performance level serves as
minimum of 12 beams
the reference for continuous
production control
NOTE: The strength of the population may be treated as normally distributed and the characteristic strength
determined in accordance with ISO 12491. A confidence level of 75% shall be used such that 95% of the
population exceeds the characteristic value. For a sample of 12 specimens, the characteristic strength may be
calculated from the mean strength using characteristic strength = mean strength  (1  1.84  COV). The
coefficient of variation (COV as a percentage) shall not exceed 25%.
16.7.4 Factory production control

Factory production control in accordance with Table 16.7.4 shall be undertaken to establish
a production process for the steel fibre reinforced concrete, and shall include the following:
(a) Checking the correct concrete constituents are being used in production.
(b) Steel fibres are checked against CE labelling.
(c) Compressive tests undertaken to AS 1379.
(d) Fibre content and distribution.

189 AS 5100.5:2017
TABLE 16.7.4
ROUTINE PRODUCTION CONTROL
Subject Inspection/Test Purpose Frequency
Equipment inspection
Automatic dosing Visual inspection Assure correct functioning Once per production day
equipment for steel of dosing device
fibres
Control of accuracy Avoid improper fibre On installation
dosage
Periodically
In case of doubt
Materials inspection
Steel fibres Check delivery note Verify that the delivery is in Each delivery
accordance with the order,
and is shipped from the
correct source
Check CE label Verify that the fibres have Each delivery
the correct CE-label which
matches the corresponding
Certificate of Conformity
Visual control, measure Compare the fibre geometry Each delivery
fibre dimensions with the fibres used for ITT

Production process inspection
Fibre content-record Record the quantity added Check the content Every batch
Fibre content in the Testing according to Conformity with the target Beginning of each day
fresh concrete EN 14721 and dosage and every
Clause 16.6.5 Verify homogeneous /50 m³ (manual dosing)
distribution of the steel /150 m³ (auto dosing)
fibres in the mix
Concrete mix Visual check Correct mixing with correct Daily
fibre type and even fibre
distribution without balling
Finished product inspection
Steel fibre Check limit of Check performance level of 2 beams every other day
Concrete proportionality, and post- the specification of production
Performance crack flexural strength in
accordance to EN 14651
16.7.5 Determining the steel fibre content

Steel fibre content shall be measured from samples taken from the production concrete and
carried out in accordance with EN 14721.
In addition—
(a) a sample shall be taken from the batch of concrete at unloading from the first third,
middle third and final third of the batch;
(b) each sample shall be a minimum of 10 L;
(c) the sample container shall be filled in one continuous pour and where possible
directly from the discharge chute;
(d) wash-out or magnetic separation only shall be used.
The steel fibre content shall be deemed to comply provided the criteria in Table 16.7.5 are
met.

AS 5100.5:2017 190
TABLE 16.7.5
CRITERIA OF ACCEPTANCE FOR STEEL FIBRE DOSAGE
Test control Test control Criteria
Each sample Each partial test 0.80 of the specified target dosage
Average of 3 samples Each test 0.85 of the specified target dosage
from the batch
Continuous control: Continuous control: 0.90 of the specified target dosage
average of >3 tests average of >3 tests
16.7.6 Sampling, testing and assessment for compliance of hardened SFRC

When concrete is specified by parameters other than strength grade, the method of
production control and, if required, project control shall be specified together with the
relevant compliance criteria.
Methods of control and assessment shall provide a reliable operating characteristic curve so
that—
(a) concrete with a proportion defective of 0.05 has a probability of acceptance of at least
50%; and
(b) concrete with a proportion defective of 0.30 has a probability of rejection of at least
98%.

191 AS 5100.5:2017
SECTI ON 17 MATERIAL AND

CONS TRUC TION REQUI REME NTS
17.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out the material and construction requirements for bridge design.
17.2 TEST REPORT OR TEST CERTIFICATES

Where required by the authority, a test report or test certificate shall provide results in
relation to the following:
(a) Tests performed to verify the design properties of materials by a laboratory accredited
by signatories to the International Laboratory Accreditation Corporation (ILAC)
through their Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA), in the field and class of testing,
on behalf of the manufacturer for the purpose of establishing compliance with this
Standard. The appropriate logo or further details of the ILAC (MRA) signatory shall
be also noted on the document.
NOTE: In Australia, ILAC (MRA) accredited bodies include National Association of Testing
Authorities (NATA) and in New Zealand they include International Accreditation New
Zealand (IANZ).
(b) Additional tests on materials not considered in this Standard but as agreed between
the purchaser and manufacturer.
(c) Tests and/or certificates on the design properties of materials issued and/or verified
by a third party certification body.
17.3 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE

AND GROUT
17.3.1 Materials and limitations on constituents
Materials for concrete, including limitations on chemical content, shall comply with the
relevant requirements of AS 1379, in addition to this Section. Requirements for grout shall
be in accordance with Clause 17.3.8.
17.3.2 Assessment and repair of cracked concrete
Where cracks are identified as being significant in a member or structure, an assessment of
the cracked concrete shall be undertaken to evaluate the influence of cracks on the
loadbearing capacity, serviceability and durability of the members. Such assessment shall
also establish the cause(s) of the cracks, crack width, the moisture condition of the crack
and whether a crack is active or inactive. The assessment shall determine whether crack
repair is required and the impact of the repair process on the structure’s appearance.
NOTE: Subject to the recommendations of the diagnostic assessment, inactive cracks may be
repaired by pressure injection of low viscosity epoxy resin, by epoxy filling materials or by other
means acceptable to the authority.
17.3.3 Handling, placing and compacting of concrete
Concrete shall be handled, placed and compacted so as to—
(a) limit segregation or loss of materials;
(b) limit premature stiffening;
(c) produce a monolithic mass between planned joints or the extremities of members, or
both;

AS 5100.5:2017 192
(d) completely fill the formwork to the intended level, expel entrapped air, and closely
surround all reinforcement, tendons, ducts, anchorages, embedments and fixings; and
(e) provide the specified finish to the formed surfaces of the member.
17.3.4 Finishing of unformed concrete surfaces
Unformed concrete surfaces shall be finished by appropriate methods, to achieve the
specified—
(a) dimensions, falls, tolerances, or similar details relating to the shape and uniformity of
the surfaces;
(b) cover from the surfaces to reinforcement, tendons, ducts and embedments; and
(c) texture of the surface.
17.3.5 Curing and protection of concrete
17.3.5.1 Curing
Concrete shall be cured continuously for a period of time so the design requirements for
strength, serviceability and stripping are satisfied. To satisfy durability, curing requirements
shall be not less than those specified in Clause 4.4.
Curing shall be achieved by the application of water to accelerate the curing of, or the
retention of water in, the freshly cast concrete, and shall commence as soon as practicable
after the finishing of any unformed surfaces has been completed. Where retention of water
in the fresh concrete relies on the application of sprayed membrane-forming curing
compounds to exposed surfaces, the compounds shall comply with AS 3799.
Curing requirements for the various members of the structure shall be as detailed in the
project specification and shall be in accordance with this Standard.
17.3.5.2 Protection
Freshly cast concrete shall be protected from the effects of rain, running water, freezing and
evaporative moisture losses prior to hardening.
17.3.6 Sampling and testing for compliance
17.3.6.1 General
Concrete, which is intended for use in structures designed in accordance with this Standard,
shall be assessed in accordance with AS 1379 for compliance with the specified parameters.
NOTE: When project assessment is required, the project specification should nominate
responsibility for carrying out the relevant sampling, testing and assessment and, if these differ
from or are not covered by AS 1379, should give details of the method of assessment.
17.3.6.2 Concrete specified by strength grade
Concrete specified by strength grade shall satisfy the following criteria:
(a) For each strength grade of concrete supplied to a project, the mean cylinder
compressive strength (fcm), as defined in AS 1379, shall be maintained within the
limits specified in that Standard.
(b) For concrete subject to project assessment—
(i) the slump of the supplied concrete shall be within the tolerance specified in
AS 1379 for the relevant specified slump; and

193 AS 5100.5:2017
(ii) in addition to Item (a), the mean compressive strength of the representative
samples taken from the project shall be within the limits specified in AS 1379.
NOTES:
1 ‘Strength grade’ is defined in AS 1379 as ‘the specified value of the characteristic
compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days ( f c )’.
2 The compressive strength of the concrete sampled, tested and assessed in accordance with
AS 1379 indicates the potential strength of the supplied concrete, when placed,
compacted and cured under optimum conditions; the responsibility of demonstrating rests
on the supplier. The achievement of that potential on site is dependent upon the handling,
placing, compacting and curing techniques actually used; the responsibility for which
rests with the construction contractor (see Clauses 17.3.3 and 17.3.5).
17.3.6.3 Concrete specified by parameters other than strength grade
When concrete is specified by parameters other than strength grade, the method of
production control and, if required, project control shall be specified together with the
relevant compliance criteria.
The specified methods of control and assessment shall provide a reliable operating
characteristic curve so that—
(a) concrete with a proportion defective of 0.05 has a probability of acceptance of at least
50%; and
(b) concrete with a proportion defective of 0.30 has a probability of rejection of at least
98%.
17.3.7 Rejection of concrete
17.3.7.1 Plastic concrete
Plastic concrete may be rejected if, after completion of mixing but prior to site handling—
(a) the slump, determined in accordance with AS 1012.3.1, differs from the specified
slump by more than the tolerances permitted in AS 1379;
(b) the elapsed time from first introduction of the mixing water is outside the time
interval allowed in AS 1379 or the specification;
(c) the appearance and cohesiveness of a particular quantity is significantly different
from previously supplied quantities of the same specification; or
(d) the supplied concrete mix differs from the agreed concrete mix.
17.3.7.2 Hardened concrete
Hardened concrete shall be liable to rejection if—
(a) it does not satisfy the requirements of Clause 17.3.6;
(b) it is porous, segregated, or honeycombed, or contains surface defects outside the
specified limits; or
(c) it fails to comply with the other requirements of this Standard and the specification.
17.3.7.3 Action on hardened concrete liable to rejection
Where hardened concrete is liable to rejection in terms of Clause 17.3.7.2, the concrete may
be accepted, provided it can be repaired to the satisfaction of the authority or it can be
demonstrated, either by calculation or by testing in accordance with the appropriate
Paragraphs of Appendix A, that the structural adequacy, durability and performance of the
affected members are not significantly impaired. Otherwise, the concrete shall be rejected.

AS 5100.5:2017 194
17.3.8 Requirements for grout and grouting

17.3.8.1 Grout properties
Grout shall be proportioned to give the desired properties for its intended use. Grout to be
used in grouting prestressing ducts shall have sufficient fluidity to enable it to be pumped
through the duct, have low sedimentation, bleeding and shrinkage. The maximum acid
soluble chloride ion content of grout as placed, expressed as the percentage of the total
mass of cementitious material in the grout, shall be not greater than 0.075%.
17.3.8.2 Mixing and agitation
Grout shall be mixed in a high-speed mechanical mixer capable of producing a grout of
uniform colloidal consistency, of the specified fluidity and free from lumps of undispersed
cement.
After mixing, grout shall be held in an agitation tank and kept in continuous motion, to
prevent sedimentation occurring, before it is pumped into its final position.
17.4 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCING

STEEL
17.4.1 Materials
17.4.1.1 Reinforcement
All reinforcement shall comply with AS/NZS 4671 and Table 3.2.1.
Limitations on the use of Ductility Class L reinforcement shall be as specified in
Clause 1.2.
17.4.1.2 Stainless steel reinforcement
Where the use of stainless steel reinforcement is specified, stainless steel reinforcement
shall comply with the requirements of BS 6744 Grades 200 and 500. The chemical
composition of stainless steel reinforcement shall conform to one of designations 1.4301,
1.4429, 1.4436, 1.4362 or 1.4462 to EN 10088-1 (as identified in BS 6744). In addition,
stainless steel shall comply with Table 3.2.1.
Stainless steel reinforcement shall not be contaminated with carbon steel at any stage of
fabrication, transport and installation.
17.4.1.3 Protective coatings
A protective coating may be applied to reinforcement provided such coating does not
reduce the properties of the reinforcement below those assumed in the design and provided
the bond between the steel and the concrete is not reduced.
17.4.2 Fabrication
Reinforcement shall be fabricated in accordance with the following:
(a) The shape and dimensions shall be as shown in the drawings and within the following
tolerances:
(i) On any overall dimension for bars and mesh except where used as a fitment—
(A) for lengths up to 600 mm ...................................................... 25, +0 mm;
(B) for lengths over 600 mm ....................................................... 40, +0 mm.
(ii) On any overall dimension of bars or mesh used as a fitment—
(A) for deformed bars and mesh .................................................. 15, +0 mm;
(B) for plain round bars and wire ................................................. 10, +0 mm.
(iii) On the overall offset dimension of a cranked column bar ................ 0, +10 mm.

195 AS 5100.5:2017
(iv) For the sawn or machined end of a straight bar intended for use as an end-
bearing splice, the angular deviation from square, measured in relation to the
end 300 mm, shall be within .......................................................................... 2°.
(b) Bending of reinforcement shall comply with Clause 17.4.3.
(c) If required, welding shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.3. Locational tack welding shall
be used only when consumed by final welds compliant with AS/NZS 1554.3.
Welding of stainless steel shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.3 and
AS/NZS 1554.6.
NOTE: Welding of stainless steel reinforcement is not recommended.
17.4.3 Bending
17.4.3.1 General
Reinforcement shall be bent either—
(a) cold, by the application of a force, around a pin of diameter complying with
Clause 17.4.3.2, so as to avoid impact loading of the bar and mechanical damage to
the bar surface; or
(b) hot, provided—
(i) the steel is heated uniformly through and beyond the portion to be bent;
(ii) the temperature of the steel does not exceed 600°C;

(iii) the bar is not cooled by quenching;
(iv) if during heating the temperature of the bar exceeds 450°C, the design yield
strength of the steel after bending is taken as 250 MPa; and
(v) the reinforcement is not stainless steel.
Reinforcement that has been bent and subsequently straightened or bent in the reverse
direction shall not be bent again within 20 bar diameters of the previous bend.
Bars shall not be bent using impact (e.g. such as with hammers).
Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete may be field-bent, provided the bending
complies with Items (a) or (b) above and the bond of the embedded portion is not impaired
thereby and the reinforcement is not stainless steel.
NOTE: If site rebending is to occur, then the following procedures should be stipulated for steel
reinforcement complying with AS/NZS 4671:
(a) Rebending of bars should preferably be undertaken using an approved rebending tool. Bars
should preferably be rebent against a flat surface or a pin with a diameter that is at least
equal to or greater than the minimum pin size as specified in Clause 17.4.3.2. Bars should
not be over-bent beyond the original bend, typically 90°.
(b) A pipe with an internal diameter not greater than 2db inserted over the bar may be used,
provided adequate care is taken and supervision provided; however, bending with pipes
should be carried out with a single, smooth continuous action. The pipe should be not less
than 1.2 m long.
(c) If scabbling tools have to be used near bars because of concrete leakage or contamination,
extreme care should be exercised to prevent any impact or damage to the bars.
(d) The bar should be positioned with the initial bend of the bar clear of the concrete.

AS 5100.5:2017 196
17.4.3.2 Internal diameter of bends or hooks

The nominal internal diameter (db) of a reinforcement bend or hook shall be taken as the
external diameter of the pin around which the reinforcement is bent. The diameter of the pin
shall be not less than the value determined from the following, as appropriate:
(a) For fitments of—
(i) 500L bars .................................................................................................... 3db;
(ii) R250N bars ........................................................................................... 3db; and
(iii) D500N bars .................................................................................................. 4db.
(b) For reinforcement, other than that specified in Item (c) and Item (d) below,
of any grade ........................................................................................................... 5 db.
(c) For reinforcement, in which the bend is intended to be subsequently straightened or
rebent, of—
(i) 16 mm diameter or less ................................................................................ 4 db;
(ii) 20 mm diameter or 24 mm ..................................................................... 5 db; and
(iii) 28 mm diameter or greater ............................................................................ 6db.
Any such straightening or rebending shall be clearly specified or shown in the
drawings.
(d) For reinforcement that is epoxy-coated or galvanized, either before or after bending,
and for stainless steel reinforcement of—
(i) 16 mm diameter or less ................................................................................ 5 db;
(ii) 20 mm diameter or greater ............................................................................ 8db.
Tools used for bending stainless steel reinforcement shall only be used to bend stainless
steel. Pins used for stainless steel shall be made from stainless steel.
17.4.4 Surface condition
At the time concrete is placed, the surface condition of reinforcement shall be such as to not
impair its bond to the concrete or its performance in the member. The presence of millscale
or surface rust shall not be cause for rejection of reinforcement under this Clause unless
present on stainless steel reinforcement.
17.4.5 Fixing
17.4.5.1 General
All reinforcement, including secondary reinforcement provided for the purpose of
maintaining main reinforcement and tendons in position shall be supported and maintained
in position within the tolerances given in Clause 17.7.3 until the concrete has hardened.
17.4.5.2 Bar chairs and spacers
Bar chairs and spacers shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 2425.
Bar chairs and spacers within the cover concrete shall be made of durable concrete,
stainless steel or plastic materials strong enough to withstand the imposed loads and
environmental conditions without movement of the steel reinforcement, shall be positively
attached to the steel reinforcement, and shaped to facilitate placement and compaction of
concrete around the spacer to produce durable dense concrete protection to the steel
reinforcement.
The strength and durability of concrete bar chairs and spacers shall be the same or better
than the concrete member in which they are placed. Plastics coated carbon steel bar chairs
shall not be used at surfaces in exposure classes B1, B2, C1 or C2.

197 AS 5100.5:2017
In addition to the requirements of AS/NZS 2425, sampling and testing, sample size and
frequency of routine testing for bar chairs and spacers shall be as approved by the relevant
authority.
Permeability testing for concrete bar chairs and spacers shall be as approved by the relevant
authority.
Wire used to tie stainless steel reinforcement shall be of stainless steel.
Bar chairs and spacers for stainless steel reinforcement shall not contain carbon steel.
17.4.6 Lightning protection by reinforcement
Where lightning protection is to be provided by the reinforcement, the reinforcement shall
comply with the relevant requirements of AS/NZS 1768.
17.5 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR PRESTRESSING

DUCTS, ANCHORAGES AND TENDONS
17.5.1 Materials for ducts, anchorages and tendons
17.5.1.1 Ducts
Sheaths and removable formers used to form ducts shall be capable of maintaining their
required cross-section and profile during construction.
17.5.1.2 Anchorages
The quality and properties of anchorages shall be established by testing and shall be
certified where required by the authority (see Clause 17.2).
17.5.1.3 Tendons
Prestressing tendons shall comply with AS/NZS 4672.1 and AS/NZS 4672.2.
Tendons shall not be galvanized.
Hard-drawn, high tensile steel wire, which has not been stress-relieved, shall not be used
for wire winding unless its elongation, tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4672.2, is 3.5%
or greater.
Plain wire shall not be used for pretensioning.
17.5.2 Construction requirements for ducts
17.5.2.1 Surface condition
When concrete is placed, the outside surface of sheaths and formers for ducts shall be such
as not to impair bond of the concrete to the duct. Immediately before grouting, the inside
surfaces of sheaths shall be such as not to impair bond of the grout to the duct.
Where an extractable core is used, a suitable technique shall be chosen to ensure its
withdrawal, without damage to the formed duct.
17.5.2.2 Sealing
Prior to the placing of concrete, ducts shall be sealed at the ends and at all joints, to exclude
concrete or other matter.
17.5.2.3 Fixing
Ducts shall be supported and fixed at regular intervals so the required tendon profile will be
maintained in accordance with Clause 17.7.3.

AS 5100.5:2017 198
17.5.3 Construction requirements for anchorages

17.5.3.1 Fixing
Anchorages shall be fixed strictly in accordance with the supplier’s recommendations and
the following:
(a) The anchorage shall be square to the line of the tendon.
(b) The duct shall be securely attached to the anchorage so it provides a grout-tight joint
between the duct and the anchorage.
(c) Where the anchorage is fixed to the formwork, the joint between the two parts shall
be grout-tight.
At the time concrete is placed, the surface condition of the anchorage shall be such as not to
impair its bond to the concrete.
17.5.4 Construction requirements for tendons
17.5.4.1 Fabrication
Tendons shall be fabricated in accordance with the following:
(a) Cutting of tendons shall be carried out so damage to tendons, ducts and anchorages is
avoided.
(b) Tendons shall not be welded.

(c) Prestressing bars shall be within manufacturing tolerances and not bent in the
threaded portion.
Small adjustments on site shall be carried out cold. If the bar temperature is lower than
10°C, the bar temperature shall be raised above this value by means of steam or hot water.
17.5.4.2 Protection
Before stressing, tendons shall be protected from stray current arcing and splashes from the
cutting operation of an oxy-acetylene torch or an arc-welding process.
The threaded ends of prestressing bars shall be provided with suitable protection, at all
times.
If tendons are to have a coating or wrapping, such coating or wrapping shall be inert with
respect to both the steel and the concrete.
After stressing and anchoring, all tendons and anchorages shall be protected from physical
damage and corrosion.
The surface condition of tendons shall be such as not to impair bond to the concrete or
grout, or performance in the member.
The presence of surface rust shall not be cause for rejection of ducts under this Clause
unless the steel is visibly pitted.
17.5.4.4 Fixing
All tendons shall be supported and maintained in position within the permissible tolerances
given in Clause 17.7.3 until the concrete has hardened.

199 AS 5100.5:2017
17.5.4.5 Tensioning
Tensioning of tendons shall be carried out in a safe manner and in accordance with the
following:
(a) The stressing procedure shall ensure the force in a tendon increases at a uniform time
rate and that the force is transferred gradually to the concrete.
(b) The prestressing force applied to the tendon shall be measured at the jack by
measuring the jack pressure. The prestressing force shall be measured to an accuracy
of 3%.
(c) The tendon extension shall be measured.
(d) A check shall be made for each tendon, on the correlation between the measured
extension and the calculated extension derived from the prestressing force, using the
load-elongation curves for the tendons and assumed friction values for the cable. Any
disparity between the two figures greater than 10% of the calculated extension shall
be investigated.
(e) No stressing shall be carried out when the temperature of the surrounding air is lower
than 0°C.
17.5.4.6 Maximum jacking forces
The maximum force to be applied to a tendon during the stressing operation shall not
exceed—
(a) for pretensioned tendons ............................................................................... 0.80 fpbAp;

(b) for stress-relieved post-tensioned tendons ................................................ 0.85fpbAp; or
(c) for post-tensioned tendons and bars not stress-relieved ................................. 0.75fpbAp.
17.5.4.7 Grouting
As soon as practicable after stressing, ducts containing post-tensioned tendons shall be
completely filled with grout complying with Clause 17.3.8. Grouting shall not be carried
out when the temperature of the surrounding air is lower than 5°C.
Precautions shall be taken to prevent corrosion for the tendons if the elapsed period prior to
grouting is likely to exceed 4 weeks.
17.5.5 Construction requirements for unbonded tendons
Where unbonded tendons are used, the requirements of Clauses 17.5.4.1 to 17.5.4.6 shall
apply, and the tendons shall be adequately protected against corrosion.
17.6 CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR JOINTS AND EMBEDDED ITEMS

17.6.1 Location of construction joints
Construction joints shall be located in accordance with the following:
(a) Construction joints designed in accordance with Clause 14.1.2 shall be located to
facilitate the placement of concrete in accordance with Clause 17.3.3.
(b) Unless otherwise specified, a construction joint shall be made between the soffits of
slabs or beams and their supporting columns or walls.
(c) Where an interruption to the placing of concrete occurs such that the requirements of
Clause 17.3.3(c), 17.3.3(d) or 17.3.3(e) cannot be fulfilled, a construction joint
complying with Clause 14.1.2 shall be made at an appropriate location.
17.6.2 Embedded and other items not shown in the drawings
Where an embedded item, driven fixing device or hole is required, it shall be located so that
the behaviour or durability of the members is not impaired (see Clause 14.2).
AS 5100.5:2017 200
17.7 TOLERANCES FOR STRUCTURES AND MEMBERS

17.7.1 General
For the purposes of the strength requirements of this Standard, the position of any point on
the surface of a concrete member shall comply with Clause 17.7.2.
NOTES:
1 More stringent tolerances may be required for reasons of serviceability, fit of components, or
aesthetics of the structure.
2 For formed surfaces, the tolerances given in AS 3610 take precedence, unless those in
Clause 17.7.2 are more stringent.
For unformed plane surfaces, the flatness tolerances and the methods for measuring them
shall be detailed in the project specification, and shall be not greater than the relevant
values given in Clause 17.7.2.
17.7.2 Tolerances for position and size of structures and members
17.7.2.1 Absolute position
The deviation from the specified position shall be not greater than the following:
(a) In plan ......................................................................................... 25 mm horizontally.
(b) In elevation—
(i) for footings ...................................................................... 25 mm vertically; and

(ii) other than footings.................................................................. 10 mm vertically.
17.7.2.2 Deviation from specified dimensions
The deviation from any specified height, plan, or cross-sectional dimension, shall be not
greater than 1/200 times the specified dimension or 5 mm, whichever is the greater.
17.7.2.3 Deviation from surface alignment
The deviation of any point on a surface of a member, from a straight line joining any two
points on the surface, shall not exceed 1/250 times the length of the line or 10 mm,
whichever is the greater.
17.7.3 Tolerance on position of reinforcement and tendons
The deviation from the specified position of reinforcement and tendons shall be not greater
than the following:
(a) For positions controlled by cover—
(i) in beams, slabs, columns and walls ................................................. 5, +10 mm;
(ii) in slabs-on-ground ................................................................. 10, +20 mm; and
(iii) in footings cast in the ground ........................................................ 20, +40 mm,
where a positive value indicates the amount the cover may increase and a negative
value indicates the amount the cover may decrease.
(b) For positions not controlled by cover, namely—
(i) the location of tendons on a profile ........................................................... 5 mm;
(ii) the position of the ends of reinforcement ......................................... 50 mm; and
(iii) the spacing of bars in walls and slabs and of fitments in beams and columns . 10%
of the specified spacing or 15 mm, whichever is greater.
For fitments that are nominally planar, the plane of the fitment may be skewed by not
more than three bar diameters of the fitment. The spacing of fitments shall be
measured between the same location on adjacent fitments.
201 AS 5100.5:2017
17.8 FORMWORK
17.8.1 General
The materials, design and construction of formwork shall comply with AS 3610.1.
17.8.2 Stripping of forms and removal of formwork supports
17.8.2.1 General
The stripping of forms and the removal of formwork supports shall comply with the
following:
(a) Forms shall not be stripped or any formwork supports removed until the part of the
member that will be left unsupported has attained sufficient strength to support, with
safety and without detriment to its intended use, its own weight and any
superimposed loads due to concurrent or subsequent construction works.
(b) Removal of formwork supports shall be carried out in a planned sequence so the
concrete structure will not be subject to any unnecessary deformation, impact, or
eccentric loading during the process.
17.8.2.2 Removal of formwork from vertical surfaces
Formwork shall not be removed from vertical surfaces unless the concrete in the member
has achieved sufficient strength to withstand potential damage to its surfaces.

AS 5100.5:2017 202
APPENDIX A
TESTING OF MEMBERS AND STRUCTURES
(Normative)
A1 GENERAL
This Appendix sets out methods for testing a new structure or a prototype to demonstrate
compliance with the strength and serviceability requirements of this Standard. In addition, a
procedure is set out to demonstrate routine compliance for similar units manufactured
following prototype testing. Methods for testing hardened concrete in place are also
detailed.
All testing shall be undertaken by persons competent, and with appropriate expertise in,
performing such tests.
This Appendix shall not take precedence over AS 5100.7 unless approved by the authority.
NOTES:
1 This Appendix does not apply to testing for compliance of other limit states, such as for fire
or durability.
2 The capacity of an existing structure to carry repeated live loads can also be determined in
accordance with AS 5100.7. For testing of culverts, the capacity may be determined in

A2 TESTING OF MEMBERS
A2.1 Purpose of testing
Structures designed by calculation in accordance with other parts of this Standard are not
required to be tested. Tests may be accepted as an alternative to calculation (prototype
testing), or may become necessary in special circumstances (proof testing), in order to
satisfy the requirements of Clause 2.3 with respect to strength and Clause 2.4 with respect
to serviceability.
Where testing is necessary, elements of structures or whole structures shall be either—
(a) proof-tested in accordance with Paragraph A3, to ascertain the structural
characteristics of an existing member or structure; or
(b) prototype-tested in accordance with Paragraph A4, to ascertain the structural
characteristics of a particular class of member, which are nominally identical to the
elements tested.
A2.2 Test set-up
All measuring equipment shall be chosen and calibrated to suit the range of measurements
anticipated, in order to obtain measurements of the required precision. Care shall be
exercised to ensure that no artificial restraints are applied to the test specimen. All
necessary precautions shall be taken such that in the event of collapse of any part of a
structure being tested, the risk to life is minimized and the collapse will not endanger the
safety of the structure being tested (for tests on members) and/or adjacent structures.
A2.3 Test load
The test load shall simulate 100% of the design loads for the limit states for strength and
serviceability, as appropriate. The test load shall be applied gradually at a rate as uniform as
practicable and without impact. The distribution and duration of forces applied in the test
shall be representative of those forces to which the structure is deemed to be subject under
the requirements of this Standard.

203 AS 5100.5:2017
A2.4 Test deflections

The deflections of each test specimen shall be measured with respect to an appropriate
datum. As a minimum requirement, deflections shall be recorded at the following times:
(a) Immediately prior to the application of the test load.
(b) Incrementally during the application of the test load.
(c) Immediately the full test load has been applied.
(d) Immediately prior to removing the test load.
(e) Immediately after the removal of the test load.
A3 PROOF TESTING
A3.1 Test procedures
A proof test shall be conducted as follows:
(a) Before applying any load, record the original position of the members involved.
(b) Apply the test load as determined from Paragraph A2.3, for the relevant limit state.
(c) Maintain the test load for the necessary period as stated in Paragraph A3.2.
(d) Remove the test load.
A3.2 Criteria for acceptance

Criteria for acceptance shall be as follows:
(a) Acceptance for strength The test structure or member shall be deemed to comply
with the requirements for strength if it is able to sustain the strength limit state test
load for at least 24 h without incurring any significant damage such as spalling or
excessive cracking.
(b) Acceptance for deflection The test structure or member shall be deemed to comply
with the requirements for serviceability if it is able to sustain the serviceability test
load for a minimum of 24 h without exceeding the appropriate serviceability limits.
Appropriate deflection limits for beams and slabs shall be determined using Clause 2.4.2
and the deflections calculated taking into account long-term and short-term effects,
allowing for the age and loading history of the structure.
A3.3 Damage incurred during test
The test specimen shall be regularly inspected to determine the nature and extent of any
damage incurred during the test. The effects of the damage shall be considered and the test
disbanded if collapse seems likely. At the completion of the test, appropriate repairs to
damaged parts shall be carried out.
A3.4 Test report
A report shall be prepared, which shall include, in addition to the test load-deflection
history and serviceability criteria records, a clear description of the test set-up, including
the methods of supporting and loading the members, the method of measuring deflections,
crack-widths, and so on, and any other relevant data. The report shall also include a
statement as to whether or not the structure, substructure or members tested satisfied the
relevant acceptance criteria of Paragraph A3.2, as appropriate.
A4 PROTOTYPE TESTING
A4.1 Construction of prototypes
Prototypes shall be constructed from materials that comply with this Standard, and
manufactured in accordance with the specification for the member.

AS 5100.5:2017 204
A4.2 Number of prototypes

The number of prototypes to be tested shall be selected so that statistically reliable
estimates of the behaviour of the member, at relevant limit state values, can be determined
from the results of the testing. No fewer than two prototypes shall be tested. More than one
loading combination and more than one limit state condition may be applied to a prototype.
A4.3 Test load
The test load for strength shall be applied gradually until the total load on the prototype is
equal to the design load for the strength limit state as determined from Section 2, multiplied
by the relevant factor given in Table A4.3. This factor shall be selected with respect to the
expected coefficient of variation in the parameters that affect the strength and the sample
size selected for the testing program, unless a reliability analysis shows that a different
value is appropriate.
The total load for each prototype used to assess serviceability shall be the design load for
the serviceability limit state as determined from Section 2 multiplied by a factor of 1.2.
TABLE A4.3
FACTOR TO ALLOW FOR VARIABILITY
IN PRODUCTION OF UNITS
Expected coefficient of variation
Number of similar units

to be tested 10% 20% 30%
2 1.3 1.7 2.3
3 1.3 1.6 2.1
5 1.2 1.5 1.8
10 1.1 1.3 1.5
NOTE: Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation. The
above values are based on a target safety index of 3.0 for a confidence level
of 90%.
A4.4 Test procedure
The method of applying the test load to the prototype shall reflect the most adverse
conditions expected to occur during construction and the in-service condition.
A prototype test shall be conducted as follows:
(a) Before applying any load, record the original position of the members in the test
specimen.
(b) Apply the test load for the relevant limit state, as determined from Paragraph A4.3.
(c) Maintain the test load for the necessary period, as stated in Paragraph A4.5.
(d) Remove the test load.
(e) Inspect and record the prototype for damage, spalling, cracking and any other relevant
observations.
A4.5 Criteria for acceptance
The units represented by the prototypes shall be deemed to comply with this Standard for
serviceability and strength where Item (a) is satisfied and Item (b) or Item (c) is satisfied, as
follows:
(a) Variability Production units shall be similar in all respects to the prototypes tested,
and variability of units shall be equal to or less than the expected variability for
serviceability or for strength, as appropriate.

205 AS 5100.5:2017
(b) Acceptance for strength The test prototype shall be deemed to comply with the
requirements for strength if it is able to sustain the strength limit state test load for at
least 5 min without incurring any significant damage, such as spalling or excessive
cracking.
(c) Acceptance for serviceability The test prototype shall be deemed to comply with the
requirement for serviceability if it is able to sustain the serviceability test load for a
minimum period of 1 h without exceeding the serviceability limits appropriate to the
member. Deflection limits shall be determined using Clauses 2.4.2 and 2.4.3, taking
into account only short-term effects.
Qualitative indicators for the parameters affecting strength and serviceability shall be
determined for the expected variability during production. These indicators shall be
routinely monitored and measured in manufactured units and used to ensure the actual
coefficient of variation in production does not exceed the expected coefficient of variation.
Alternatively, manufactured units shall be routinely tested to failure, to determine the
coefficient of variation.
A4.6 Test report
A report shall be prepared in accordance with Paragraph A3.4, except that instead of the
requirement in the final sentence of Paragraph A3.4, the report shall contain a statement as
to whether or not the prototypes tested satisfied the relevant acceptance criteria in
Paragraph A4.5 as appropriate.
A5 QUALITY CONTROL
A5.1 General
This Paragraph (A5) applies to the assessment of a group of units that are part of a
production run of similar units. Paragraphs A5.2, A5.3 and A5.4 identify three methods to
routinely assess production. One of these methods shall be nominated by the manufacturer
as the means of demonstrating that the manufactured group is similar to the tested
prototypes. The nominal routine examination shall include the determination of the
variability in a production run by relating key indicators in the sample to the previously
performed prototype testing and the application of a test load to each sample, as
appropriate.
A5.2 Statistical sampling
A sampling plan, in accordance with AS 1199.1, shall be established for the routine
inspection and testing of a produced batch. Sampling shall be undertaken in accordance
with this plan and the selected specimens shall be routinely tested to ensure compliance
with this Appendix is maintained.
For concrete specified by strength, the methods of production and assessment, taken
together, shall provide a reliable operating characteristic curve so that—
(a) concrete with a proportion defective of 0.05 has a probability of acceptance of not
less than 50%; and
(b) concrete with proportion defective of 0.30 has a probability of rejection of not less
than 98%.
A5.3 Product certification
To ascertain whether a production run or application routinely complies with the
requirements of this Appendix, independent assurance of the claim by a manufacturer or
contractor of batch consistency shall be permitted.
NOTE: The certification should meet the criteria described in ISO/IEC TR 17026 in order that
effective quality planning to control production is achieved.

AS 5100.5:2017 206
A5.4 Quality system

Confidence in routine assessment of production shall be achieved where the manufacturer
or contractor can demonstrate that an audited and registered quality management system
complying with the requirements of the appropriate or stipulated Australian or international
Standard for a quality system is in place.
Such a system shall include a quality or inspection plan and test plan, to ensure product
conformity.
A6 TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE IN PLACE
A6.1 General
This Paragraph (A6) applies to the assessment of the strength and other properties of
hardened concrete in place by non-destructive testing, by testing of samples cut from
representative test panels, or samples cut from members.
A6.2 Preparation of samples
The samples to be tested shall be representative of the concrete under investigation. Prior to
testing, surfaces shall be cleaned to remove oil, laitance, curing compounds and surface
treatments.
Where required, test panels shall be made of concrete that is identical in composition and
which is placed, compacted and cured in a manner similar to concrete used in the member.
Dimensions of test panels shall be such that at least three representative samples can be cut
from each panel. Test samples of standard dimensions shall be obtained from the test panels
by coring or sawing.
A6.3 Non-destructive testing
Non-destructive testing (including impact or rebound hammer, ultrasonic pulse velocity,
pull-out and abrasion testing, or a combination of techniques) may be used to compare the
properties of concrete under investigation with that of a representative sample of known
quality. In particular, comparable concrete should be of similar maturity, curing history and
mix composition. Alternatively, where approved by the authority, values obtained by non-
destructive tests may be used directly to assess some properties of concrete.
The method of testing and assessment shall be specified and carried out in accordance with
internationally recognized procedures.
NOTE: Combined non-destructive techniques have been found to substantially improve the order
of accuracy of the estimated values compared with those obtained from testing by a single
method.
A6.4 Tests on samples taken from the structure
A6.4.1 Test requirements
Taking and testing of cores and beams from members and sample panels shall comply with
the following:
(a) Core and beam locations shall be selected so as to minimize any consequent reduction
of strength, durability and performance of the structure.
(b) The cores and beams shall be representative of the whole of the concrete concerned
and in no case shall less than three samples be tested.
(c) Cores and beams shall be examined visually before and after testing, to assess the
proportion and nature of any voids, cracks and inclusions present. These factors shall
be considered in the interpretation of the test results.

207 AS 5100.5:2017
(d) Cores shall be taken and tested for compressive strength in accordance with
AS 1012.14 and beams shall be taken in accordance with ASTM C42. The beams
shall be tested for flexural strength in accordance with AS 1012.11, and shall be
tested dry unless the concrete concerned will be more than superficially wet in
service. The density of cores and beams shall be determined in accordance with
AS 1012.12, in the same condition as applicable to testing for compressive strength
using AS 1012.1 or AS 1012.2 by sealing or wrapping samples where appropriate.
A6.4.2 Interpretation of results
The strength of the concrete in the member shall be estimated—
(a) as 1.15 times the average strength of the cores and beams; or
(b) by using test data from cores or beams taken from another member for which the
strength of the concrete is known.
A7 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EARTHQUAKE DESIGN OF

ELLIPTICAL COLUMNS
This Paragraph sets out additional requirements to those of Section 10 for earthquake
design of columns.
Where interlocking spirals are used, the overlap of the spirals shall be at least 40% of the
column diameter, as shown in Figure A1.
Inter l o c k in g bar s
S p ir al
r e i nfor c e m e nt
FIGURE A1 OVERLAPPING HELICAL REINFORCEMENT

AS 5100.5:2017 208
APPENDIX B
BEAM STABILITY DURING ERECTION
(Normative)
A beam being lifted either by vertical or inclined slings may collapse or be damaged by
excessive cracking due to tilting of the beam about a longitudinal axis through the lifting
points. This initial tilting may be initiated by imperfections in the beam geometry and in the
eccentric location of the lifting points.
The stability of a prestressed beam lifted at or near the ends by vertical slings, which allow
rotation about the longitudinal axis through the lifting points (see Figure B1), shall be
determined as follows:
(a) Calculate the factor of safety against lateral buckling (ψr) as follows:
eo
r  . . . B1
0.64 h
where
eo = vertical eccentricity between the centre of gravity of a beam and the
longitudinal axis through the lifting points
= yt  0.67Δv . . . B2
Δh = lateral deviation of a slender beam at midspan from the specified datum
line immediately after transfer
yt = depth from the centroidal axis to the extreme fibre at the top of the
section
Δv = lateral deflection caused by the self-weight of the beam due to
bending about the yy axis
(b) Calculate the design lateral bending moment ( M h* ) as follows:
M gv
M h* 
 r 1  . . . B3
 
 r 
where
βv = angle of tilt assumed for the calculation of stability of a slender beam
during erection
= ex  0.67  h . . . B4
yt
ex = eccentricity of the lifting point to the minor centroidal axis of a

beam
The factor of safety (ψr) shall be not less than 2.0. In addition, stresses due to the combined
effects of the lateral bending moment ( M h* ), the bending moment due to self-weight (Mg )
and the prestress shall be assessed and, if cracking is possible, the lifting arrangements shall
be changed or the beam shall be provided with adequate lateral support.
NOTE: The limiting stress in these calculations is the characteristic flexural tensile strength at
time of erection (see Clause 3.1.1.3). Consideration should also be given to increase the bending
moment (Mg) to allow for dynamic and impact effects during handling of the beam.

y e x Ec c e ntr i c it y
www.standards.org.au
of lif t in g p o int
A e o = d y. s u p - 0.67Δ v
Lif t ing Lif t ing Lif t ing
p o int p o int p o int
d y. s u p
βv
Datum line
x Centre of grav it y
of beam in elevation Δv
209
A
x M aj or
axis ELE VATIO N Lif t ing
Lif t ing p o int
p o int
ex e x + 0.67 Δ h Δh
Datum line
CL of b eam
M i n or a x i s
y
C e ntre of gr av it y of
SECTIO N A-A beam in plan
PL AN
FIGURE B1 NOTATION USED IN CALCULATIONS FOR HANDLING OF SLENDER BEAMS
 Standards Australia
AS 5100.5:2017
AS 5100.5:2017 210
APPENDIX C
DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL CONCRETE BRIDGES
(Normative)
C1 ANALYSIS
C1.1 Longitudinal analysis
Longitudinal analysis of segmental concrete bridges shall consider a specific construction
method and construction schedule, as well as the time-related effects of concrete creep,
shrinkage and prestress losses.
The effects of secondary moments due to prestress shall be included in stress calculations at
serviceability limit states. In calculating flexural and shear resistance requirements at the
strength ultimate limit states, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestress (with a
load factor of 1.0) shall be added to the moments and shears due to factored dead and live
loads.
C1.2 Transverse analysis
Consideration shall be given to the increase in web shear, transverse web flexure and other
effects on the cross-section resulting from eccentric loading or asymmetry of the structural
geometry.
C1.3 Deflection calculations
Prior to casting segments, deflections shall be calculated based on the anticipated casting
and construction sequence and schedules. The calculated deflections shall be used as a
guide for presetting the girders and for checking actual deflections during construction.
C2 LOADS
C2.1 Erection loads
Erection loads comprise all loadings arising from the anticipated system of temporary
supporting works or special erection equipment, or both, to be used in accordance with the
assumed construction sequence and schedule. The assumed erection loads and acceptable
closure forces due to misalignment corrections shall be stated on the drawings. Allowance
shall be made for all effects of changes to the statical structural scheme during construction
and the application, changes or removal of the assumed temporary supports and special
equipment, taking into account residual ‘built-in’ forces, moments, deformations, secondary
post-tensioning effects, creep, shrinkage and any other strain-induced effects.
C2.2 Post-tensioning force
The structure shall be designed for both the initial and final post-tensioning forces. For
determining the final post-tensioning forces, prestress losses shall be calculated for the
proposed construction schedule stated on the plans. The final post-tensioning forces used in
serviceability limit state stress calculations shall be based on the most severe condition at
each location along the structure.
C3 SHEAR AT JOINTS
Interfaces between elements such as webs and flanges, between dissimilar materials,
between concretes cast at different times or at an existing or potential major crack shall be
designed for shear transfer in accordance with Clause 8.4.

211 AS 5100.5:2017
Shear keys in webs of precast segmental bridges shall extend for as much of the web height
as is compatible with other detailing requirements. Alignment shear keys shall be provided
in top and bottom flanges.
The ultimate shear strength (Vu ) for structures utilizing dry joints shall equal the nominal
shear resistance (Vuj) at the joint and shall be calculated as follows:
 A 
Vuj  1.875 Ak f ct 1  0.205 cp  p    0.45 Asm cp . . . C3
  Ag  
where
Ak = area of the base of all the keys in the failure plane, in millimetres square
f ct = principal tensile strength of the concrete
σcp = average intensity of effective prestress in concrete
Asm = area of contact between smooth surfaces on the failure plane, in millimetres
square
C4 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE SUBSTRUCTURES

Consideration shall be given to erection loads, moments and shears imposed on piers and
abutments by the construction method shown on the drawings. Auxiliary supports and
bracing shall be shown on the drawings.
C5 SPECIAL PROVISIONS
C5.1 Precast segmental construction
C5.1.1 Age of segments at erection
To limit construction deflections to values consistent with design calculations, precast
segments shall be a minimum of 14 days old at the time of erection unless earlier erection is
specifically approved.
C5.1.2 Temporary stress on epoxy joints
A minimum compressive stress of 0.28 MPa shall be provided for the closure stress on an
epoxied joint until the epoxy has set.
C5.1.3 Dry joints
Dry joints shall not be used—
(a) for bridges with internal tendons; or
(b) in conjunction with external post-tensioning tendons in areas with exposure
classification B2 or C, or where freeze/thaw cycles occur.
C5.1.4 External tendons
At least three levels of corrosion protection of post-tensioning tendons shall be provided.
A waterproof membrane shall be provided on externally post-tensioned bridge
superstructures.
The bridge shall be detailed to allow for the inspection and replacement of external
prestressing tendons.

AS 5100.5:2017 212
C5.2 Cast-in-place segmental construction

C5.2.1 General
Contact surfaces between cast-in-place segments shall be clean, free of laitance, and shall
be intentionally roughened to expose coarse aggregate.
NOTE: The use of shear keys is optional.
C5.2.2 Diaphragms
Diaphragms shall be provided at abutments, piers, hinge joints, and at bottom flange angle
points in structures with straight haunches. Diaphragms shall be substantially solid at piers
and abutments except for access openings and utility holes.
C5.3 Incremental launching—Bridge design
Piers and superstructure diaphragms at piers shall be designed in such a way that during all
launching stages, and after launching for the installation of the permanent bearings, the
superstructure can be lifted with hydraulic jacks. Pier designs shall consider frictional
forces during launching. Abutments shall be designed to resist the launching force where
this is applied at the abutment.
High local stresses occur at the underside of the webs above the launching bearings, along
the full length of the bridge. The design shall take into consideration the bearing pressures
at the bottom edges of superstructures, and shall consider any eccentric location of the
support reaction and any ungrouted ducts.

Design shall make allowance for the additional forces during launching due to the specified
tolerances in the bearing levels, temporary bearing pad thickness, deck soffit profile and the
like. This requirement shall also apply to the casting bay and temporary piers.
C6 SPECIFICATIONS
The method of construction shall be taken into consideration when designing the permanent
works. Assumptions used in the design of the permanent works pertaining to the method of
construction shall be included in the drawings or specification. Tolerances shall be provided
regarding the construction equipment weights and variations in material properties to be
used.
Allowances shall be shown for variations in construction loads and construction stages. The
resultant camber information shall be given such that development of casting curves can be
achieved.

213 AS 5100.5:2017
APPENDIX D
STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDER
(Informative)
D1 GENERAL
The standard sections for precast, prestressed concrete bridge girders shown in
Figure D1(A) for I-girders and in Figure D1(B) for Super T-girders, have been adopted. For
the Super T-girder sections, the size of the internal void has not been detailed.
In addition, Figure D1(C) shows the earlier dimensions of Super T-girders used up until
mid-2001 when the width of the bottom flange was increased to enable the addition of a
deeper section to a common mould shape.
NOTE: Cover in excess of 25 mm required for durability may require increased width of the webs
of standard sections.

AS 5100.5:2017 214
350
20 0
40
10 0
10 0 10 0
C e nt r o i d a l 15 0
120
axis
420 900 450
75 0
Yb
15 0
10 0
10 0
90
300
450
T YPE 1 T YPE 2
G ir d er Ag Z y. s u p Z y. s u p I d y. s u b H y p ot h et i c a l t h i c k n e s s, t h
type (m m 2 ) (m m 3 ) (m m 3 ) (m m 4) (m m) (g ir d er s o nly)(m m)
1 126 x 10 3 17.9 x 10 6 2 2.0 x 10 6 74 0 0 x 10 6 3 37 120
2 218 x 10 3 41.1 x 10 6 4 8.1 x 10 6 19 9 5 0 x 10 6 415 15 5
3 317 x 10 3 8 2.9 x 10 6 91.1 x 10 6 4 9 9 0 0 x 10 6 548 18 0
4 4 4 3 x 10 3 13 5.9 x 10 6 16 8.6 x 10 6 10 5 3 3 0 x 10 6 6 25 20 5
500
450
15 0
13 0
175
15 0
15 0 15 0
545 650
115 0 14 0 0
175
25 0
15 0
175
500
650
T YPE 3 T YPE 4
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETRES
FIGURE D1(A) STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

I-GIRDER SECTIONS

215 AS 5100.5:2017
A 10 27 A
10 27 75 m in.*
A A
75 m in.*
10 0 x 75
13 x 13 fillet (t y p)
* 10 0 x 75 c hamfer * 10 0 0
13 x 13 fillet (t y p) 75 0
c hamfer
= = tb 426 426 tb
899 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s 8 52 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s
or 13 x 13 c hamfer or 13 x 13 c hamfer
(a) Ty p e T1 - 2 (b) Ty p e T2 - 2
A 10 27 A
75 m in.*
A 10 27 A
75 m in.*
10 0 x 75
13 x 13 fillet (t y p)
c hamfer
10 0 x 75 *
13 x 13 fillet (t y p) 15 0 0
c hamfer
* 120 0
4 07 4 07 tb tb
814 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s 757 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s
(c) Ty p e T3 - 2 (d) Ty p e T4 - 2
A 10 27 A
75 m in.*
10. 5 5 6
1
5.3 47
10 0 x 75 To p s l o p e of
13 x 13 fillet (t y p) b ot to m fl an g e
c hamfer 1
* We b s l o p e
18 0 0 25 x 25
re c e s s 25
25
350 350 tb Detail A
70 0 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s LEGEN D:
or 13 x 13 c hamfer = D e n ote s d im e n s i o n ha s to b e in c rea se d
if fl an g e t hi c k n e s s > 75
(e) Ty p e T5 - 2 * = D e n ote s d i m e n s i o n s var i e s
FIGURE D1(B) STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

SUPER T-GIRDER SECTIONS

AS 5100.5:2017 216
A 9 20 A
75 m in.*
A 9 20 A
75 m in.*
*
10 0 x 75
fillet (t y p)
* 10 0 0
10 0 x 75
75 0
fillet (t y p)
396 396 tb 372 372 tb
79 2 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s 74 4 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s
(a) Ty p e T1 - 1 (b) Ty p e T2 - 1
A 9 20 A
75 m in.*
A 9 20 A
75 m in.*
*
10 0 x 75
fillet (t y p)
*
10 0 x 75
fillet (t y p) 15 0 0
120 0
353 353 tb 3 25 3 25 tb
70 6 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s 650 N o m i n a l 10 r ad i u s
(c) Ty p e T3 - 1 (d) Ty p e T4 - 1
25 x 25
re c e s s 25
10. 5 5 6
1 25
5.0 0 0
1
To p s l o p e of We b s l o p e Detail A
b ot to m fl an g e
LEGEN D:
= D e n ote s d i m e n s i o n h a s to b e i n c r e a s e d
if fl an g e t hi c k n e s s > 75
* = D e n ote s d i m e n s i o n s var i e s
FIGURE D1(C) PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

SUPER T-GIRDER SECTIONS (PRE–2001)

217 AS 5100.5:2017
D2 END BLOCK DIMENSIONS

The recommended dimensions for end blocks for post-tensioned I-girders are given in
Table D2.
TABLE D2
END BLOCK DIMENSIONS FOR POST-TENSIONED I-GIRDERS
Girder type End block length End block width Taper length
(see Note)
mm mm mm mm
1 750 200 70
2 900 350 170
3 1 150 450 260
4 1 400 500 300
NOTE: The taper length is the length of the tapered section between the end block and
the web of the beam.
D3 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES
Flexural moduli about the major axis of bending for standard precast prestressed concrete
I-girder sections are given in Table D3(A).
Flexural moduli about the major axis of bending are also given for a typical range of Super
T-girder sections that conform to the standard sections shown in Figure D1(B), with the
following dimensions:
(a) Width of webs: 100 mm (for girder types 1 to 4).
120 mm (for girder type 5).
(b) Thickness of top flange: 75 mm.
(c) Width of top flange: 2100 mm.
(d) Thickness of bottom Dimension tb [see Table D3(B)].
flange at centre-line:
Flexural moduli for the open top flange case in Figure D1(B) are given Table D3(B).

AS 5100.5:2017 218
TABLE D3(A)
FLEXURAL MODULUS—PRECAST CONCRETE I-GIRDERS
Girder Ag Zt Zb I yb th
type (girders only)
mm 2  10 3 mm 3  10 6 mm 3  10 6 mm 4  10 6 mm mm
1 125 17.9 22.0 7 400 337 120
2 218 41.1 48.1 19 950 415 155
3 317 82.9 91.1 49 900 548 180
4 443 135.9 158.5 105 330 625 205
where
A g = gross sectional area of the member
Z t = section modulus about the centroidal axis at the top of an uncracked cross-section
Z b = section modulus about the centroidal axis at the bottom of an uncracked cross-section
I = second moment of area of the uncracked concrete cross-section
y b = depth from the centroidal axis to the extreme fibre at the bottom of the section
th = hypothetical thickness of the member
TABLE D3(B)
FLEXURAL MODULUS—PRECAST CONCRETE SUPER T-GIRDERS—
OPEN TOP FLANGE CASE

Girder tb Ag Zt Zb I yb th
type (girders only)
mm mm 2  10 3 mm 3  10 6 mm 3  10 6 mm 4  10 6 mm mm
T1-2 240 436.0 67.4 84.4 28 100 323 139
T2-2 240 472.1 104.6 132.1 58 390 442 131
T3-2 260 514.0 137.8 174.7 92 450 529 130
T4-2 260 555.8 193.0 234.8 158 860 677 124
T5-2 325 691.9 275.3 323.6 267 740 827 139
D4 TORSIONAL PROPERTIES
Torsional moduli (Jtb) of the standard precast prestressed concrete I-girder sections,
together with torsional moduli (Jtn) of the I-girder sections with a composite slab connected
above, taking into account the difference in elastic moduli of the girder and slab concretes,
as shown in Figure D4(A), are given in Table D4(A).
Torsional moduli are given for typical Super T-girder sections that conform to the standard
sections shown in Figure D1(B), with the following dimensions:
(a) Width of webs: 100 mm (for girder types 1 to 4).
120 mm (for girder type 5).
(b) Thickness of top flange: 75 mm.
(c) Width of top flange: 2100 mm.
(d) Thickness of bottom Dimension tb [see Table D3(B)].
flange at centre-line:

219 AS 5100.5:2017
Torsional moduli (Jtb) of the standard precast prestressed concrete Super T-girder sections,
together with torsional moduli (Jtn) of the Super T-girder sections with a composite slab
connected above, taking into account the difference in elastic moduli of the girder and slab
concretes, shown in Figures D4(B)(1) and D4(B)(2), are given in Table D4(B)(1) for the
open top flange case and in Table D4(B)(2) for the closed top flange case.
For the application of the torsional moduli, the following considerations apply:
(i) Torsional moduli, given in Tables D4(A), D4(B)(1) and D4(B)(2) are based on elastic
theory and are equivalent to the Saint Venant’s torsional constants.
(ii) The value of torsional modulus (Jtn) for a composite section is the torsional modulus
for the girder plus the slab together with the junction effect between the girder and
the cast-in-place slab.
NOTE: The contribution to Jtn from the cast-in-place deck slab is reduced to one half of the
full amount because the continuity of the slab removes the effect of the vertical shear stresses
that would otherwise be present at the free ends of the slab.
(iii) Values of Jtn are given for modular ratios of 0.70 and 1.00 where αc is the modular
ratio factor of the cast-in-place concrete to the precast beam concrete in the
composite member. Intermediate values may be interpolated.
(iv) The width (bs) is the width of the flange in a composite member.
(v) The full torsional moduli are suitable for determining distribution of forces at applied
loads only, that is, while the section is uncracked. At ultimate load, considerable
reduction in the torsional stiffness may occur and the effect of using a torsional
modulus equal to 20% of the full value should be taken into consideration.
bs
ds
Ca st- in - p l ac e s l a b
S t an d ar d pre c a st
p r e s t r e s s e d I - g ir d er
FIGURE D4(A) STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

I-GIRDER WITH COMPOSITE SLAB

AS 5100.5:2017 220
TABLE D4(A)
TORSIONAL MODULI (J tb) AND (J tn) FOR SECTIONS USING STANDARD
PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I-GIRDERS
Torsional modulus
mm 4  10 6
Girder For girders in composite section, J tn
type For girder
only, d s = 150 mm d s = 175 mm d s = 200 mm
J tb
α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00
1 800 1 100 1 200 1 200 1 300 1 300 1 400
2 2 400 3 500 3 800 3 800 4 100 4 100 4 500
3 5 000 7 100 7 700 7 700 8 300 8 200 9 000
4 10 000 13 000 14 000 14 000 15 000 15 000 16 000
S t a n d ar d p r e c a s t p r e s t r e s s e d
o p e n fl an g e Su p er T- g ir d er
bs
ds
o p e n fl an g e Su p er T- g ir d er
FIGURE D4(B)(1) STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

SUPER T-GIRDER (OPEN TOP FLANGE) WITH COMPOSITE SLAB

221 AS 5100.5:2017
c l o se d fl an g e Su p er T- g ir d er
bs
ds
c l o se d fl an g e Su p er T- g ir d er
FIGURE D4(B)(2) STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

SUPER T-GIRDER (CLOSED TOP FLANGE) WITH COMPOSITE SLAB
TABLE D4(B)(1)
TORSIONAL MODULI (J tb) AND (J tn) FOR SECTIONS USING OPEN TOP
FLANGE STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPER T-GIRDERS
Torsional modulus
mm 4  10 6
Girder For For girders in composite section, J tn
type tb girder
d s = 150 mm d s = 175 mm d s = 200 mm
mm only,
J tb α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00
1 240 6 300 66 000 75 000 69 000 80 000 73 000 86 000
2 240 6 100 103 000 116 000 108 000 123 000 113 000 130 000
3 260 6 900 136 000 151 000 142 000 160 000 148 000 169 000
4 260 6 400 181 000 200 000 188 000 210 000 195 000 221 000
5 325 9 900 244 000 265 000 252 000 278 000 261 000 290 000

AS 5100.5:2017 222
TABLE D4(B)(2)
TORSIONAL MODULI (J tb) AND (J tn) FOR SECTIONS USING CLOSED TOP
FLANGE STANDARD PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SUPER T-GIRDERS
Torsional modulus
mm 4  10 6
Girder For For girders in composite section, J tn
type tb girder
d s = 150 mm d s = 175 mm d s = 200 mm
mm only,
J tb α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00 α c = 0.70 α c = 1.00
1 240 49 000 67 000 76 000 70 000 81 000 74 000 87 000
2 240 83 000 109 000 121 000 114 000 128 000 119 000 136 000
3 260 114 000 145 000 160 000 151 000 169 000 157 000 177 000
4 260 156 000 196 000 214 000 203 000 225 000 210 000 235 000
5 325 215 000 261 000 282 000 269 000 294 000 278 000 306 000

223 AS 5100.5:2017
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following are the informative documents referenced in this Standard:
AS
1012 Methods of testing concrete
1012.21 Method 21: Determination of water absorption and apparent volume of
permeable voids in hardened concrete
1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregate
1141.60.1 Method 60.1: Potential alkali-silica reactivity—Accelerated mortar bar
method
1141.60.2 Method 60.2: Potential alkali-silica reactivity—Concrete prism method
1597 Precast reinforced concrete box culverts
1597.2 Part 2: Large culverts (exceeding 1200 mm span or 1200 mm height and
up to and including 4200 mm span and 4200 mm height
3735 Concrete structures retaining liquids
3735 Supp 1 Concrete structures retaining liquids (Supplement to AS 3735—2001)
3972 General purpose and blended cements
AS/NZS
3000 Electrical installation (known as the Australia/New Zealand Wiring Rules)
3500 Plumbing and drainage (series)
EN
1992 Eurocode 2—Design of concrete structures
1992-1 Part 1: General Rules And Rules For Buildings
1992-2 Part 2: Concrete Bridges—Design And Detailing Rules
SA
HB 79 Alkali Aggregate Reaction—Guidelines on Minimising the Risk of Damage
to Concrete Structures in Australia
ISO/IEC
TR 17026 Conformity assessment—Example of a certification scheme for tangible
products
Vicroads
RC 376.03 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test—Alkali-silica reactivity of aggregate
RC 376.04 Alkali Aggregate Reactivity Assessment—Using the Concrete Prism Test
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
FIB International Federation for Structural Concrete
Model Code for Concrete Structures

AS 5100.5:2017 224
AMENDMENT CONTROL SHEET
AS 5100.5:2017
Amendment No. 1 (2018)
CORRECTION
SUMMARY: This Amendment applies to the Preface, Clauses 8.2.1.2, 8.2.1.3, 8.2.1.5, 8.2.2.1, 8.2.3.3, 8.2.4,
8.2.4.1, 8.2.4.2, 8.2.4.3, 8.2.4.4, 8.2.4.5, 8.2.4.6, 8.2.4.7, 8.2.4.10, 8.2.5, 8.2.5.2, 8.2.5.5, 8.2.7, 8.2.8, 8.2.9.1,
8.2.9.3 and Equations 8.2.1.7 and 8.5.3.1.
Published on
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The following are represented on Committee BD-090:

 Australian Industry Group

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR AS 5100.5.

Keeping Standards up-to-date

Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables are deemed to be requirements

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

SECTION 2 DESIGN PROCEDURES, ACTIONS AND LOADS

2.5 ACTIONS AND COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS .................................................. 39

SECTION 3 DESIGN PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

SECTION 4 DESIGN FOR DURABILITY

SECTION 5 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

SECTION 6 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

SECTION 7 STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING

7.2 CONCRETE STRUTS ............................................................................................... 80

SECTION 8 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

SECTION 9 DESIGN OF SLABS FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

SECTION 10 DESIGN OF COLUMNS AND TENSION MEMBERS FOR STRENGTH AND

10.3 DESIGN OF SHORT COLUMNS ........................................................................... 127

SECTION 11 DESIGN OF WALLS

SECTION 12 DESIGN OF NON-FLEXURAL MEMBERS AND ANCHORAGE ZONES

12.1 SCOPE OF SECTION ............................................................................................. 153

SECTION 13 STRESS DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

SECTION 14 JOINTS, EMBEDDED ITEMS AND FIXINGS

SECTION 15 PLAIN CONCRETE MEMBERS

SECTION 16 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

SECTION 17 MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

ITEMS ..................................................................................................................... 199

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 223

SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

(v) Where design is validated by testing in accordance with Appendix A and

1.3 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

1012.2 Method 2: Preparation of concrete mixes in the laboratory

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

2425 Bar chairs in reinforced concrete—Product requirements and test methods

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

1.4.3.8 Braced column

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

1.4.3.21 Direct loading

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

(c) act as hangers for longitudinal reinforcement; or

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

1.4.3.47 Nodal zone

1.4.3.54 Prismatic compression field

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

1.4.3.61 Steel fibre reinforced concrete

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

1.4.3.73 Water/cementitious material ratio

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

perpendicular distance from the nearer support to the section under

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

fcv concrete shear strength

f cp characteristic concrete strength at transfer

f ct characteristic uniaxial tensile strength of concrete

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

www.standards.org.au  Standards Australia

k5 modulus of elasticity of tendons factor at elevated temperatures

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

M h* design lateral bending moment