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Parents, children, and trauma: Parent role perceptions

and behaviors related to the 9/11 tragedy

Article  in  Journal of Child and Family Studies · December 2006

DOI: 10.1007/s10826-006-9046-9

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J Child Fam Stud (2006) 15:733–743
DOI 10.1007/s10826-006-9046-9
ORIGINAL PAPER

Parents, children, and trauma: Parent role perceptions

and behaviors related to the 9/11 tragedy

Barbara A. Mowder · Michelle Guttman ·

Florence Rubinson · K. Mark Sossin

Published online: 30 June 2006

C Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006

The trauma associated with 9/11 affected and continues to influence children, families, and
other groups of people. While research is cataloging the various coping difficulties experi-
enced, few studies specifically address issues related to parenting perceptions and related
activities or behaviors. We examined individuals employed in close proximity to Ground
Zero and considered these individuals’ perspectives regarding their parenting perceptions
and behaviors. In addition to capturing parenting subsequent to 9/11, the researchers also
asked participants about their parenting beliefs and behaviors prior to and immediately after
9/11. Additional variables, such as directly viewing 9/11 and participating in the evacuation,
parent age and gender, child age and gender, and ethnicity, were considered in light of par-
enting beliefs and practices. The retrospective questions, while not ideal methodologically,
reveal that some parent characteristics and behaviors changed immediately following 9/11
and subsequently returned to pre-9/11 levels, others changed and remain altered, while others
stayed relatively stable over time. Implications of this research for further study as well as
mental health practice related to children and families are presented.

Keywords Children . 9/11 . Parenting . Parent role . Trauma

B. A. Mowder (
)
Professor, Psychology Department, Pace University-New York City,
New York, NY., 10038
e-mail: BMowder@pace.edu

M. Guttman
Doctoral Intern, Psychology Department, Pace University-New York City,
New York, NY

F. Rubinson
Associate Professor, School of Education, Brooklyn College of the City University of New York,
Brooklyn, NY

K. M. Sossin
Associate Professor, Psychology Department, Pace University-New York City,
New York, NY
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734 J Child Fam Stud (2006) 15:733–743

Two recent studies of children in New York City, subsequent to 9/11, revealed higher
than expected rates of mental health issues as well as high prevalence of posttraumatic stress
symptomatology (Aber, Hoven, & Kotler, 2003; Gershoff & Kotler, 2003). Even though
it is clear that parents are affected by their children’s trauma experiences and children
are influenced by parents’ trauma exposure, Appleyard and Osofsky (2003) found there is
insufficient research empirically examining these issues. In considering the aftermath of
9/11, Phillips, Prince, and Schiebelhut (2004) found that there has been surprisingly little
research on the coping assistance parents provide children after a disaster.
While parents and parenting research enjoy a rich array of professional attention and
appreciation (Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, & Bornstein, 2000), there is little
in terms of theoretical orientation guiding research, as well as clinical practice, with par-
ents. That is, parenting often has been considered in terms of a range of factors, such as
from a family systems perspective (Cowan, Powell, & Cowan, 1998), community influences
(Darling & Steinberg, 1997; Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, & Duncan, 1994), determinants of ma-
ternal behavior (Dunn & Plomin, 1986), and the effects of family environments (Stoolmiller,
1999).
There is one parenting perspective which considers the cognitive concept or schemata
which parents employ when thinking about what parenting means; in turn, these individ-
ual cognitive conceptions of the parent role inform parenting behavior. To a great extent
relying on social learning theory, as well as cognitive developmental theory, the Parent De-
velopment Theory (PDT) (Mowder, 2005) presents a framework for researchers, as well as
practitioners, to think about parents and their parenting behaviors (Mowder, Harvey, Moy,
& Pedro, 1995; Mowder, Harvey, Pedro, Rossen, & Moy, 1993). More specifically, Mowder
(2005) defined the parent role as one in which individuals recognize, accept, and perform
the social role of being a parent. Therefore, parents relate to their children more or less
consistently with how they conceptualize parenting and behave according to those parenting
beliefs.
The PDT provides a framework for examining parenting as an on-going process whereby
parents continuously adjust their social role or parenting perspectives. The changing and de-
veloping point-of-view or parenting schemata are based on parents’ individual characteristics
(e.g., education and socio-cultural background), as well as their children and the individual
child’s own distinctive characteristics (e.g., age, gender, special needs). Each individual in
the parent-child dyad relates to the other within the context of the associated social roles of
parent and child. How each person perceives their role, therefore, depends not only on the
specific individual participants’ characteristics, but also the unique parent-child interaction,
the larger family dynamics (e.g., marital relationship, sibling interactions), and the wider
social-cultural sphere (e.g., community, ethnic and cultural backgrounds).
Indeed, the PDT provides a broad theoretical perspective to discern and study cognitive
conceptions of what being a parent means and, in turn, discern possible child development
outcomes (e.g., academic achievement, social skills). In addition, the PDT has the potential
to guide clinicians, as well as researchers, in their work with children, families, and parents.
Extensive research (e.g., Clifford, 2004; Mowder et al., 1993; Turiano, 2001) utilizing the
PDT, as well as related assessment instruments such as the Parent Role Questionnaire (PRQ)
(Mowder et al., 1995), reveals that parents typically and consistently identify six major
parent role characteristics. Those characteristics include: bonding, the affection, love, and
regard a parent feels and displays toward the child; discipline, the setting of limits and
assuring the child responds and adheres to boundaries and rules; education, the transmission
of information to inform, guide, and teach; general welfare and protection, assuring the child
is protected from harm and attending to general needs such as food, clothing, and shelter;
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J Child Fam Stud (2006) 15:733–743 735

responsivity, perceiving the child’s needs and responding; sensitivity, discerning the child’s
needs and accurately matching the parental response.
While the recent traumatic event of September 11, 2001, perpetrated by terrorists, is
receiving significant attention (e.g., Amsel & Marshall, 2003; Felton, 2004; Shalev, 2004)
including some with children (e.g., Berson & Berson, 2002; Koplewicz, Cloitre, & Reyes,
2004; Phillips et al., 2004), there is little research regarding the influence of 9/11 on parents,
parenting perceptions, and parenting behaviors. Since most individuals were affected at some
level by 9/11 (Felton, 2004), one might logically expect that social roles, such as being a
parent, would also be altered. In fact, according to the PDT, parent role perceptions are
not only informed by individuals’ personal experiences and circumstances, but also by the
surrounding social and cultural milieu (Mowder, 2005; Mowder et al., 1995).
In this study, we examine parents’ beliefs and behaviors after the 9/11 terrorist event
and investigate perceived changes in parenting perceptions and behaviors related to 9/11
utilizing retrospective self-attributions. Although the retrospective aspect of the study is far
from ideal, it is obviously impossible to planfully collect pre-test data for such a study
(Henry, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 2004). As a unique and stressful set of events, the 9/11
impact upon parenting appears expectable; both parenting role and parenting behaviors are
likely to bear the influence of stress and/or trauma, given altered perceptions of safety
and danger and “loss of the assumptive world” (Kauffman, 2002). Using the PDT as the
theoretical framework, keeping in mind prior research on trauma related to children and
families, the following research questions were posed: (1) Did individuals’ perceptions of
the importance of parent role characteristics (i.e., bonding, discipline, education, general
welfare and protection, responsivity, and sensitivity) change relative to 9/11; if so, did any
assume greater import, lesser import, or remain the same? (2) Did the attributed frequency
of specific parent behaviors (e.g. answering your child’s questions, holding and kissing
your child) and related six parent role characteristics (i.e., bonding, discipline, education,
general welfare and protection, responsivity, and sensitivity) change relative to 9/11; if so,
which specific parent behavior categories increased, decreased, or showed little change?
And, (3) Are individuals’ responses regarding parenting related to demographic variables
(e.g., proximity to the event, age and gender of the parent and child, and/or ethnicity)?

Method

Participants

The participants included 99 administrators, faculty, and staff from the two New York
City universities, one within three blocks and the other within five miles of Ground Zero.
Although participant solicitation was similar, most participants were from the university
within three blocks of ground zero (n = 80), with a lesser number from the university within
five miles of ground zero (n = 19). The participants were compared with regard to viewing
of the 9/11 event and participating in the evacuation, gender, age, ethnicity, and parental
status (e.g., parent, step-parent). A greater number of individuals from the university closer
to Ground Zero observed and/or participated in the evacuation and the same setting had
more males represented than females. Since the overall differences between the two groups
of parent participants were deemed minimal, the groups were combined for purposes of
further analysis.
The participants’ gender was 72.7% (n = 72) female and 27.3% (n = 27) male. There
was a wide representation of age groups in the sample: 3% (n = 3) were in the 20–29 year
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old group, 21.2% (n = 21) in the 30–39 year old group, 34.3% (n = 34) in the 40–
49 group, 29.3 (n = 29) in the 50–59 group, and 12.1% (n = 12) 60 years and older.
The sample was also racially/ethnically diverse: 60.6% (n = 60) identified themselves as
Caucasian, 17.3% (n = 17) African-American, 11.2% (n = 11) Hispanic, 6.1% (n = 6)
Asian, and 4.1% (n = 4) identified themselves as multi-ethnic. Of the 99 participants, 59.6%
(n = 59) viewed the 9/11 terrorist attacks directly and 35.4% (n = 35) participated in the
evacuation.
If participants had more than one child, they were asked to focus on their younger or
youngest child in answering the questions. This direction was given to impose a level of
consistency in responding to parenting questions across the parent participants. With regard
to the children referred to by the parent sample, the mean age was 15.48 years (SD = 9.24)
and, in general, was equally represented by gender groups, 50% (n = 41) female, 50% (n =
41) male (the numbers do not sum to 99 due to missing data regarding gender). The children’s
ages are as follows: 0–5 years of age, 15.9% (n = 13), 6–12 years, 29.3% (n = 24), 13–
18 years 31.7% (n = 26), and 19 years and older, 23.2% (n = 19).

Instruments

The parenting questionnaire utilized in this research study involved modifying the Par-
ent Role Questionnaire (PRQ) (Mowder et al., 1993) and the Parent Behavior Frequency
Questionnaire (PBFQ) (Mowder, 2000); the PRQ has moderate test-retest reliability (Mow-
der et al., 1993) and the PBFQ has strong individual parent role characteristic test-retest
ratings as well as high internal consistency (Sanders, 2005). The resulting questionnaire,
utilizing a similar five point likert-type scale as the original questionnaires, asked respon-
dents to indicate a level of importance regarding each of the parent role characteristics (i.e.,
bonding, discipline, education, general welfare and protection, responsivity, and sensitivity).
Next, subjects were asked to indicate the frequency of behaviors, using a similar likert-type
scale, related to the same six parent role characteristics and indicate their level of frequency
related to 38 specific parenting behaviors (e.g., being a model for your child and his/her
behavior, defining boundaries for your child, encouraging your child academically). Finally,
the questionnaire was modified to ask individuals to respond to the questions as they cur-
rently felt, as well as their parenting beliefs and practices prior to as well as soon after
9/11.

Procedure

From April 2002 through February 2003, administrators, faculty, and staff were contacted
and screened for parent status. Participation was voluntary and responses anonymous. For
those agreeing to participate, an interview occurred or the assessment instruments were given
to the parent participant to complete and return to the researchers. Thus, materials were either
collected at the time of the interview or returned by mail.
We examined individuals’ perceptions of parenting characteristics and related frequency
of parenting behaviors prior to 9/11 or Time 1 (T1), soon after 9/11 or Time 2 (T2), and at
the time of the interview or Time 3 (T3). In other words, this research tapped individuals’
recollections of their parenting views prior to (T1) and soon after (T2), as well as their
parenting views at the time they were interviewed (T3).
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J Child Fam Stud (2006) 15:733–743 737

Table 1 Retrospective rating of parent importance characteristics

T1 T2 T3
Parenting characteristics M SD M SD M SD F η2

Bonding 4.00a 0.89 4.30ab 0.86 4.09b 0.85 7.74∗∗∗ 0.09

Discipline 3.64a 0.86 3.39ab 0.97 3.59b 0.84 4.56∗ 0.06
Education 3.96 0.92 3.81 0.96 3.85 0.87 1.64 0.02
GW & Protection 4.01a 0.88 4.29a 0.9 4.12 0.89 5.54∗∗ 0.07
Responsivity 3.95 0.86 4.15 0.87 4.05 0.90 3.54∗ 0.04
Sensitivity 3.83ab 0.87 4.18a 0.88 4.14b 0.87 11.27∗∗∗ 0.13

Note: N = 80. T1 = Before 9/11; T2 = Soon After 9/11; T3 = Currently. Means in a row sharing subscripts
are significantly different (Bonferroni, p < .05). For all measures, higher means indicate higher ratings.
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.

Results

To answer the first research question, whether or not perceptions of the importance of
parent role characteristics changed relative to 9/11 and, if so, what were the changes, the
six separate importance measures (i.e., bonding, discipline, education, general welfare and
protection, responsivity, and sensitivity) were analyzed in a repeated measures multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) with time (i.e., T1, T2, and T3) as the independent variable.
The alpha level for this analysis was set at .05.
The means and standard deviations of the importance measures scale across the three time
periods are shown in Table 1. Time was significant, Wilk’s λ = .70, F(12,306) = 4.89,
p < .001, η2p = .06. Univariate analysis of variances (ANOVAs) reveal significant time
differences on five of the six importance measures: bonding (F(2,158) = 7.74, p < .001,
η2p = .09), discipline (F(2,158) = 4.56, p < .05, η2p = .06), general welfare and protection
(F(2,158) = 5.54, p < .01, η2p = .07), responsivity (F(2,158) = 3.54, p < .05, η2p = .04),
and sensitivity (F(2,158) = 11.27, p < .001, η2p = .13. No significant time change was
found for education (F(2,158) = 1.64, p = ns, η2p = .02). Post hoc, Bonferroni adjusted
(p < .05), pairwise comparisons reveal that mean ratings increased significantly from T1 to
T2 for bonding, general welfare and protection, and sensitivity, and decreased significantly
from T1 to T2 (p < .05) for discipline. From T2 to T3 there were also some significant
shifts (p < .05); bonding decreased while discipline increased in importance. The increased
change in sensitivity from T1 to T2, remained elevated at T3. The only parent measure which
did not change over time was education.
To answer the second research question, whether parents perceive changes in the frequency
with which they demonstrated each of the parent roles and, if so, how the frequencies changed,
the six separate frequency measures (i.e., bonding, discipline, education, general welfare and
protection, responsivity, and sensitivity) were analyzed in a repeated measures multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) with time (i.e., T1, T2, and T3) as the independent variable.
The means and standard deviations of the frequency measures scale are shown in
Table 2. Time was significant, Wilk’s λ = .81, F(12,306) = 2.78, p < .001, η2p = .10.
Univariate ANOVAs reveal significant time differences on four of the six measures: bonding
(F(2,158) = 5.71, p < .01, η2p = .07), general protection and welfare (F(2,158) = 4.71,
p < .01, η2p = .06), responsivity (F(2,158) = 6.23, p ≤ .01, η2p = .07, and sensitivity
(F(2,158) = 8.76, p ≤ .001, η2p = .10. No significant time change were found for either
discipline (F(2,158) = 1.12, p = ns, η2p = .01) or education (F(2,158) = 1.61, p = ns,
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738 J Child Fam Stud (2006) 15:733–743

Table 2 Retrospective rating of parent behavior frequency characteristics

T1 T2 T3
Parenting characteristics M SD M SD M SD F η2

Bonding 3.78a 0.86 4.05a 0.94 3.95 0.86 5.71∗∗ 0.07

Discipline 3.49 0.80 3.36 0.95 3.46 0.84 1.12 0.01
Education 3.79 0.87 3.65 0.94 3.72 0.89 1.61 0.02
GW & Protection 3.84a 0.88 4.06ab 0.91 3.91b 0.90 4.71∗∗ 0.06
Responsivity 3.69a 0.87 3.99ab 0.89 3.83b 0.87 6.23∗∗ 0.07
Sensitivity 3.71a 0.87 4.05a 0.93 3.94 0.89 8.76∗∗∗ 0.10

Note: N = 80. T1 = Before 9/11; T2 = Soon After 9/11; T3 = Currently. Means in a row sharing subscripts
are significantly different (Bonferroni, p < .05). For all measures, higher means indicate higher ratings.
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.

η2p = .02). Post hoc, Bonferroni adjusted, pairwise comparisons reveal that mean frequency
ratings increased significantly from T1 to T2 for bonding (p < .02), general welfare and
protection (p < .02), responsivity (p < .01), and sensitivity (p < .002). From T2 to T3
there were also some significant shifts in perceived frequency of parenting with two parent-
ing characteristics decreasing (p < .05) in frequency: general welfare and protection and
responsivity.
To answer the third research question, whether the attributed frequency of parent behaviors
changed relative to 9/11 and, if so, which parent behavior categories changed, the responses
to the 38 item PRFQ were analyzed by parenting characteristic or subscale (i.e., bonding,
discipline, education, general welfare and protection, responsivity, and sensitivity). Prior to
the analysis, Cronbach’s alphas were computed for the six PBFQ subscales.
The results are presented in Table 3 and reveal alphas generally in the .80–.90 range; the
lowest alpha was regarding education and highest were for bonding, discipline, responsivity,
and sensitivity; the alphas demonstrate that the PBFQ has strong internal consistency. In
addition, correlations between the separate items and the six parenting characteristics or
subscales were analyzed and appear in Table 4. Overall, the Pearson correlations show that
individual items within each parenting characteristic are strongly correlated (p ≤ .001) to the
six subscales. Thus, the single measures of parental attributes across the three time periods
are in agreement with the PBFQ subscales.
Next, the six PBFQ subscales were analyzed in a repeated measures multivariate analysis
of variance (MANOVA) with time (i.e., T1, T2, and T3) as the independent variable. The
means and standard deviations of the PBFQ subscales are shown in Table 5. Time was signif-
icant, Wilk’s λ = .71, F(12,314) = 4.86, p < .001, η2p = .15. Univariate ANOVAs reveal
time differences on bonding (F(2,162) = 8.87, p < .001, η2p = .10), responsivity (F(2,162)

Table 3 Cronbach’s alphas for the parent behavior frequency questionnaire scales

Scale # Items Before 9/11 (T1) Soon After 9/11 (T2) Currently (T3)

Bonding 8 0.95 0.94 0.95

Discipline 6 0.89 0.90 0.91
Education 5 0.74 0.78 0.77
GW & Protection 5 0.84 0.84 0.86
Responsivity 8 0.94 0.94 0.94
Sensitivity 6 0.93 0.91 0.93

Note: N = 82.
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Table 4 Pearson r between PBFQ scales and separate parent characteristics

Separate frequency characteristics

PBFQ scale T1 T2 T3

Bonding 0.81 0.74 0.78

Discipline 0.71 0.71 0.72
Education 0.72 0.58 0.70
GW & Protection 0.63 0.68 0.72
Responsivity 0.76 0.81 0.80
Sensitivity 0.70 0.72 0.66

Note: N = 80. T1 = Before 9/11; T2 = Soon After 9/11; T3 = Currently. All Pearson rs shown are
significant, p < .001.

= 8.84, p < .001, η2p = .10, and sensitivity (F(2,162) = 4.08, p < .05, η2p = .05. No sig-
nificant time changes were found for discipline (F(2,158) = 0.20, p = ns, η2p = .00),
education (F(2,158) = 1.03, p = ns, η2p = .01), and general welfare and protection
(F(2,158) = 1.70, p = ns, η2p = .02). Post hoc, Bonferroni adjusted pairwise compar-
isons reveal that mean ratings of frequency increased from T1 to T2 for bonding (p < .002)
and responsivity (p < .002). Mean ratings of frequency decreased from T2 to T3 in three
areas: bonding (p < .003), responsivity (p < .001), and sensitivity (p < .002).
To answer the question regarding the interactions of the PBFQ and the independent
variables (i.e., viewing and/or participating in the evacuation, age and gender of parent
and child, ethnicity), repeated multivariate analyses of variances were used to test whether
differences in retrospective times on the six PBFQ subscales are differentiated by the levels of
demographic variables. Results from the analyses reveal no main effect or interaction effects
for all of the variables, except child’s age. Thus, there were no main or interaction effects for
parents’ gender (Wilk’s λ = .91, F(6,75) = 1.23, p = ns, η2p = .09 and Wilk’s λ = .91,
F(12,310) = 1.21, p = ns, η2p = .05, respectively), parents’ age (Wilk’s λ = .81, F(12,126)
= 1.20, p = ns, η2p = .10 and Wilk’s λ = .79, F(24,458) = 1.31, p = ns, η2p = .06,
respectively), parents’ ethnicity (Wilk’s λ = .78, F(12,128) = 1.42, p = ns, η2p = .12 and
Wilk’s λ = .83, F(24,465) = 1.05, p = ns, η2p = .05, respectively), child’s gender (Wilk’s
λ = .93, F(6,75) = 1.01, p = ns, η2p = .08 and Wilk’s λ = .90, F(12,310) = 1.33, p = ns,
η2p = .05, respectively), whether parents participated in the 9/11 evacuation (Wilk’s λ = .94,

Table 5 Retrospective rating of parent behavior frequency questionnaire

T1 T2 T3
PBFQ Scale M SD M SD M SD F η2

Bonding 3.75a 0.76 3.99ab 0.76 3.87b 0.78 8.87∗∗∗ 0.10

Discipline 3.60 0.69 3.56 0.76 3.58 0.69 0.20 0.00
Education 3.66 0.65 3.59 0.68 3.61 0.64 1.03 0.01
GW & Protection 3.71 0.73 3.75 0.74 3.67 0.73 1.70 0.02
Responsivity 3.71a 0.66 3.96ab 0.73 3.81b 0.71 8.84∗∗∗ 0.10
Sensitivity 3.73 0.69 3.87a 0.71 3.77a 0.72 4.08∗ 0.05

Note: N = 82. T1 = Before 9/11; T2 = Soon After 9/11; T3 = Currently. Means in a row sharing
subscripts are significantly different (Bonferroni, p < .05). For all measures, higher means indicate higher
ratings.
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01. ∗∗∗ p < .001.
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Table 6 Parent behavior frequency questionnaire scales by children’s age

0–5 years 6–12 years 13–18 years 19 years and older

Parent (n = 13) (n = 24) (n = 26) (n = 19)
characteristic T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3

Bonding
M 4.21 3.94 3.77 3.85 4.20 4.14 3.68 3.92 3.87 3.39 3.86 3.63
SD 0.75 0.85 0.82 0.61 0.77 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.78 0.82 0.71 0.77
Discipline
M 3.92 3.33 3.40 3.61 3.78 3.75 3.61 3.58 3.68 3.34 3.41 3.36
SD 0.74 0.77 0.46 0.54 0.71 0.65 0.82 0.84 0.83 0.57 0.64 0.62
Education
M 3.76 3.24 3.25 3.73 3.84 3.85 3.74 3.67 3.72 3.38 3.40 3.39
SD 0.81 0.64 0.45 0.57 0.66 0.65 0.68 0.73 0.67 0.53 0.55 0.56
GW & Protection
M 4.01 3.62 3.47 3.86 3.97 3.9 3.69 3.78 3.72 3.34 3.5 3.44
SD 0.73 0.65 0.69 0.71 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.60 0.64 0.59
Responsivity
M 4.01 3.87 3.56 3.76 4.05 3.93 3.72 3.96 3.88 3.45 3.92 3.72
SD 0.71 0.88 0.63 0.55 0.73 0.67 0.71 0.71 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.74
Sensitivity
M 4.08 3.74 3.6 3.76 3.99 3.94 3.73 3.84 3.79 3.46 3.83 3.65
SD 0.71 0.68 0.68 0.61 0.71 0.69 0.73 0.77 0.79 0.66 0.70 0.69

F(6,75) = .75, p = ns, η2p = .06 and Wilk’s λ = .92, F(24,465) = 1.17, p = ns, η2p = .04,
respectively) and whether parents viewed 9/11 (Wilk’s λ = .93, F(6,75) = .91, p = ns,
η2p = .07 and Wilk’s λ = .88, F(12,310) = 1.77, p = ns, η2p = .06, respectively).
However, for child’s age, even though there was no main effect (Wilk’s λ = .69, F(18,207)
= 1.62, p = ns, η2p = .12), there was a significant interaction (Wilk’s λ = .67, F(36,666) =
1.74, p < .01, η2p = .06). Univariate ANOVAs reveal the interaction between child’s age and
time to be significant in all six PBFQ scales: bonding (F(6,156) = 4.77, p < .001, η2p = .16),
discipline (F(6,156) = 4.16, p < .001, η2p = .14, education (F(6,156)) = 4.51, p < .001,
general welfare and protection (F(6,156) = 5.66, p < .01, η2p = .18, responsivity (F(6,156)
= 3.26, p < .01, η2p = .11, and sensitivity (F(6,156) = 5.80, p < .001, η2p = .18).
Post-hoc Scheffe pair-wise comparisons (p < .05) reveal that parents who had chil-
dren in the 0–5 year old age group differed significantly from parents in the other three
age groups. Thus, parents who had very young children reported a decrease in fre-
quency of parental behaviors grouped by associated characteristic from T1 to T2, and
from T1 to T3 this change was significantly different from changes reported by par-
ents of 6–12 year olds on all of the subscales or categories of bonding, discipline,
education, general welfare and protection, responsivity (only T1 to T3 was signifi-
cant), and sensitivity. A similar pattern of ratings were found for parents of 0–5 year
olds when compared to the ratings obtained from parents of 19 year olds and older (the
exception was for T1 to T3 on discipline). The mean frequency ratings, in conjunction with
children’s ages, are found in Table 6.

Discussion

The findings of our research indicate that soon after 9/11, a specific stressor perpetrated by
terrorists, a cluster of important parenting variables changed for those who work in proximity
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to the Ground Zero site. Soon after 9/11, parents in this study altered their perceptions of
the parenting role, placing greater importance on bonding and loving, providing for and
protecting, and being sensitive than prior to 9/11. Likely, as parents began appreciating their
children’s lack of stability and greater insecurity after 9/11, they perceived their role differ-
ently, prioritizing parenting aspects associated with loving, protecting, and being attuned to
their children’s needs. With time, such changes tend to swing back in the direction of their
original levels, with the exception of sensitivity. In this case, parents generally sustained an
increased consideration of sensitivity to the individual needs of their child. Perhaps, such
increased sensitivity may wane over time, though, if so, apparently more slowly than other
parenting beliefs and priorities.
Not surprisingly, the more restrictive parenting role, of disciplining and setting limits for
children, decreased. Conceivably, subsequent to a major traumatic event, parents perceive
their child’s need for loving and closeness, protection and fulfillment of basic needs, and
attention to individual concerns assuming greater importance than disciplining. Ultimately,
however, the importance of discipline assumes a pre-stress level. Therefore, in times of
trauma, parents’ perceptions of their individual child’s needs for attention, security, and
sensitivity most likely increases, while maintaining limits assumes a secondary position. On
the other hand, following a tragedy such as 9/11, parents may alternatively be reflecting, in
their parenting beliefs, their own needs following a traumatic event rather than a heightened
awareness of their child’s upset or discomfort. Future research may address these possible
explanations.
While most aspects of the parent role assumed different levels of perceived importance
subsequent to 9/11, one did not. Apparently, educating, guiding, and teaching children
is a relatively stable parent role characteristic mostly unaffected by trauma. Conceivably,
education is an aspect of parenting which is ongoing, pervasive, and perhaps less emotionally
charged, than the other parent role characteristics. There may be factors associated with
education, in contrast to the five other characteristics, which are relatively unaffected by
trauma; future research may explore this question.
Most of the additional variables examined in this study do not appear related to changes
either in perceived parent role importance or parenting frequency. For example, viewing
9/11 and/or participating in the evacuation did not seem to influence parents’ perceptions or
behavior. Likewise, parents’ age and gender, as well as child’s gender, were not related to
the results. However, child age was a significant factor in parents’ perceptions and parenting
activities related to 9/11. The finding that child age is significant in terms of parents’ beliefs
and behaviors already is well established (Mowder et al., 1993, 1995) and consistent with the
PDT. That parents differentially perceive parenting importance and frequency as a function
of their child’s age is important since children developmentally display specific variations
in their reactions to trauma (Deering, 2000; McDermott & Palmer, 2002; Ronen, 2002). For
instance, underly stressed infants and toddlers often show many signs of distress, such as
increased crying and irritability, sleep disturbances, and fears of being alone (Appleyard &
Osofsky, 2003). In addition, children five years of age and younger often fear separation,
display facial expressions of fear, and cry, whimper, and/or tremble (Osofsky, 1995; Pynoos,
Steinberg, & Goenjian, 1996). In contrast, highly stressed elementary school aged children
are prone to withdraw, display disruptive behavior, and have difficulty paying attention, while
adolescents (e.g., 12–17 years of age) may have responses to trauma, such as depression,
flashbacks, and nightmares, which mirror adult reactions (NIMH, 2001).
While this research reveals a number of findings regarding parents and their parenting
beliefs and behaviors following a major traumatic event, there are limitations to this research.
The necessarily retrospective nature of the study represents one issue and another is the sole
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reliance in this study on parental report. While it may be arguable that the current design
cannot assure the validity of parental report, the design does capture parental representations
of such changes. These represented shifts in thinking and behavior carry meaning and
predictive relevance. Indeed, future research can examine how closely such represented
changes in parenting align with observed changes.
In summary, our research represents one of few attempts to capture parenting beliefs and
activities relative to the 9/11 tragedy. While the retrospective nature of the study has associ-
ated limitations, nonetheless the results reveal that parents perceive changes in their parenting
beliefs and parenting behaviors relative to the recent terrorist act. Some beliefs became more
important, such as bonding and being responsive, while others, such as discipline, became
less important immediately after the attack. One parenting dimension, education, however,
stayed relatively stable over time. And, one additional dimension, sensitivity, seems to have
assumed a greater level of importance immediately following 9/11 and that level of im-
portance remained elevated over time, even though associated sensitivity-related parenting
did not. Further research may determine whether these results are consistent with parenting
perceptions and activities associated with other traumatic, uncontrollable and unpredictable
events. Clearly this research has implications for mental health professionals working with
both parents and children and may provide avenues for intervention services.

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