Solar Energy, Vol. 54, No. 5, pp.

287-299, 1995
Pergamon Copyright © 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
0038-092X/95 $9.50 + .00
0038-092X(94) 00132-4

THE RADIATION TRANSFER THROUGH COATED

AND TINTED GLAZING

P. PFROMMER,* K. J. LOMAS,** C. SEALE,** and CHR. KUPKE*

*FHT Stuttgart, Fachbereich Bauphysik, Willi-Bleicher Str. 29, 10174 Stuttgart, Germany;
* *ECADAP Group, School of the Built Environment, De Montfort University, Leicester LEI 9BH, U.K.

Abstract--The incidence angle dependent transmittance and absorptance of special glazing containing
coated or tinted glass are conventionally modelled using a simple application of the Fresnel equations,
treating the glazing as if it were clear glass. This simplified approach leads to only a rough approximation
of the true transmission and can result in an inaccurate assessment of the solar energy gains in highly
glazed spaces such as atria and in commercial buildings where special glazing is popular. An improved
calculation technique has been developed which is based on the fundamental optical behaviour of radiation
in thin films and in substrates. It considers the physical effects of coherent and incoherent layers, interference,
and absorption. The main feature of the model is its applicability to any combination of coating and glass,
with no limitation on the number or sequence of the layers. This paper shows the theoretical basis of the
calculation technique and demonstrates its ability to produce wavelength and incidence angle dependent
properties of special glazing. The validity of the predictions is illustrated by comparison with measurements.

1. INTRODUCTION Researchers at the Fachhochschule fur Technik in

The use of detailed thermal simulation programs to
evaluate the thermal performance of buildings is in-
creasing. In these programs the energy transport
through the individual building components is calcu-
lated on the basis of hourly values for the external
climatic conditions and the assumed behaviour of the
building occupants. The resulting predictions of the
indoor temperature and of the necessary heating or
cooling energy arise from the energy balance of the
different energy fluxes. While simulation programs
usually calculate the conduction of heat through solid
building elements very accurately (see Bland 1992;
Martin et al., 1994), they either model radiation trans-
port through glazing approximately (e.g., SERI-RES
(Palmiter and Wheeling, 1983)), or they rely on the
program user to supply the incidence angle dependent
properties (e.g., ESP; Clark and McLean, 1988). Un-
fortunately, manufacturers rarely quote the incidence
angle dependent properties of their products, so pro-
gram users often assume that the angle dependent
properties of clear glazing also apply to special,
coated, or tinted glazing. With this approach, the radia-
tion transfer is usually described quite accurately up
to an incidence angle of about 50 °, but for higher
incidence a n g l e s - - w h i c h are the usual case for direct
solar radiation--this assumption can only be a rough
approximation.
Because the energy transport into and out of build-
ings through the glazing is often many times larger
than the energy transport through the solid elements,
an accurate knowledge of the radiation transfer at high
incidence angles is essential in order to obtain accurate
simulation results. This becomes more important as
the levels of insulation increase in the opaque elements
or the areas of glazing, or the use of special glazing
increases.
Stuttgart, Department of Building Physics, are work-
ing with researchers in the Environmental Computer
Aided Design and Performance ( E C A D A P ) group at
De Montfort University in Leicester, to improve the
calculation methods used by detailed simulation
models. A program, G L S I M (Glazing Simulator),
has been developed to calculate the wavelength and
incidence angle dependent radiation transfer through
coated and tinted glazing. G L S I M is written in
F O R T R A N and runs on a PC.
The calculation technique is based on the models
of Harbeke (1986) and Heinz ( 1991 ) which calculate
the radiation transfer properties of multi-layer struc-
tures. Their models were modified to generate an
equivalent application in the domain of window glaz-
ing and building simulation. The main feature of the
modified model is the rigorous use of matrices to pre-
sent each layer and every interface in the glazing sys-
tem. It is applicable to any combination of coatings
(thin layers) and substrates (thick layers in this case
glass), without any limitation on the number or se-
quence o f the layers.
The theory upon which GLSIM is based is similar
to that presented by others, most notably Rubin
(1982). However, whereas the matrix multiplication
approach used by Rubin is limited to calculating the
radiation transfer through a set of thin films, the more
rigorous matrix approach described here can be used
for thin films, as well as for subst~ates. It produces a
clear formulation which can be easily understood and
programmed by others. It also proved to be flexible
in use and it enables different glazing systems to be
quickly modelled on a PC.
This paper explains the theoretical basis of G L S I M
and demonstrates its application to produce radiation
transfer properties (wavelength and incidence angle
dependent transmittance, reflectance, and absorp-

287
288 P. PFROMMERet al.
tance) of coated and tinted glazing. The validity of
the model is demonstrated by comparing its predic-
tions with measurements.
2. TYPES OF GLAZING
Modem sun- or heat-protective glazings consist of
several glass panes with a combination of metal and/
or metal oxide coatings. The coatings in a double
glazed system are usually applied to the glass surfaces
facing into the cavity. Glazing systems may be divided
into three categories:
1. glazings with a single pure noble metal coating,
2. tinted glass, and
3. glazings with multi-layer coatings.
This paper illustrates how GLSIM can be used for
these three types of glazing system when only standard
manufacturers' data are available.
Noble metal coating is one of the oldest glazing
treatment processes. Compared to clear glazings,
systems with a noble metal coating have increased
absorptance and reflectance in the visible range and
a high long-wave reflectance. These glazings,
therefore, reduce solar heat gain and light transmis-
sion. The metals used are mostly those with the
highest electrical conductivity (copper, silver, or
gold). The colour of the coated glass is the same
as that of the bulk metal. A layer thickness of
around 10 nm is sufficient to reduce the emittance
to less than 0.1. This reduced emittance decreases
the U-value of the glass. Thus double glazing with
a noble coating can have a U-value similar to that
of clear triple glazing.
Tinted glass is sometimes used as the outer pane
of a double glazed system. The tinting can produce
various colours (e.g., green, grey, bronze). These
glazing systems absorb solar radiation and reduce,
both, the heat and light transmission.
Because noble metal coatings reduce the transmis-
sion of visible light, such coatings are often combined
with additional dielectric films (usually metal oxides)
which selectively raise the transmittance over a chosen
waveband. The noble metal may be combined with a
single dielectric film or sandwiched between two such
films. By the appropriate choice of coating, transmis-
sion can be selectively raised in the range of highest
eye sensitivity (550 nm). The reflectance is corre-
spondingly reduced in this region whereas it remains
high in the near infra-red range due to the metal layer.
Glazing with multi-layered systems can be recognized
by the pronounced coloured reflection in the near UV-
range. This usually gives the glazing a slightly blue
outside appearance although other colours are also
possible.
There are other types of coatings without a noble
metal film, such as single-layer coatings of conduc-
tive metal-oxide (tin oxide or indium-tin oxide) for
highly transparent heat-protective glazing, or pure
dielectric single-layer coatings (e.g., titanium diox-
ide) for sun-reflective glazing. A general characteri-
sation of these systems is not possible. However, the
derivation of the composition from known measured
attributes is, in principle, possible. It is shown later
in this paper for one glazing system with an oxide
coating.
3. THEORY
This section describes the key points of the theory
upon which the computer program GLSIM is based.
By considering the transfer of radiation through both
coherent (short optical path) and incoherent (thick
optical path) layers as well as the effects of interfer-
ence and absorption, it enables the total reflectance
(pT) and total transmittance ( T x ) of any combination
of thin and thick layers to be determined. The term
total means that the net reflectance and transmittance
due to all of the layers comprising the glazing are
being considered. The solution method uses a matrix
multiplication approach in which the effect on the
radiation of each interface and of each layer is repre-
sented by individual matrices. The interface matrix
represents the relationship between the amplitudes or
intensities of the radiation fields on each side of the
interface between two layers. The layer matrix de-
scribes the attenuation of the radiation as it propagates
through a layer.
3.1 Radiation transfer across an interface
When light is incident upon the interface between
two optically different materials, in general part of the
light is reflected and part transmitted. If the medium
on what is nominally chosen to be the outside (o) of
the interface has a complex refractive index n" and
the medium on the inside (i) has a refractive index
n ( , then, for a given wavelength of radiation, Snell's
law states that
n'sin(~Oo) = hi' sin(cpi) (1)
qao and % being the angles of incidence and refraction.
For an incident wave of amplitude Co* travelling
across an interface from outside to inside (the super-
script denotes the direction of propagation), the ampli-
tude reflection coefficient (r) and amplitude transmis-
sion coefficient (t) are defined as
•o •~-
roi •o* toi •o+ (2)
where • o and • ~- are the amplitudes of the reflected
and transmitted waves. Similar expressions hold for
waves travelling in the opposite direction, for which
it can be shown that
rio ---- --roi toitio-- roirio = 1. (3)
The reflectance (p) and transmittance ( r ) of an
interface are defined in terms of the incident, reflected
and transmitted beam intensities (I):
 Radiation transfer
Poi = " ~ Yoi = " ' ~ ' -
1o Io
Plane-polarized radiation can be regarded as the
superposition of two orthogonal plane-polarized
waves with zero phase difference, one with the
electric field normal to the plane of incidence (S-
polarization), the other with the electric field par-
allel to the plane of incidence (P-polarization).
The physical laws governing the reflection and
transmission of radiation at an interface are differ-
ent for each polarization and are given by the fol-
lowing Fresnel equations and standardized in DIN
1349 ( 1972):
roSi = n'cos(~0o) - ni' cos(~oi)
n'cos(~Oo) + n[ cos(~oi)
roPi = n(cos(tpo) - n'cos(qoi)
n'cos(~oi) + n ' cos(tpo)
tsi = 2n'cos(~Oo)
n'cos(~Oo) + n[ cos(~oi)
toei = 2n'cos(~Oo)
n'cos(qoi) + n[ cos(tpo)
It can be shown that
pS = (rS)2 p? = (rP)2
rs n(cos(~i) (ts) 2 TP -- n(cos(~i) (tP)2.
n~cos(~o) n~cos(~o)
When calculating the radiation transfer properties
of multi-layer systems (Section 3.3.3) the total re-
flectance of the system (p~) is found by averaging
the reflectances determined from the two separate
treatments of polarized radiation. The total transmit-
tance (T T ) is similarly found by taking the mean of
the two polarized transmittances.
3.2 Radiation transfer through a single absorbing
layer
The transmission of radiation through an absorbing
material is characterised by the material's complex
refractive index n ' (see Bergmann, 1978):
n' = n - ik
The imaginary part of the complex refractive index,
the absorptance index k, is responsible for the
absorption in the layer, the real part n describes
the refraction. If a plane-polarized electromagnetic
wave of electric field strength e propagates in
the positive x-direction through the medium,
then
289
(4)
where el is the initial amplitude of the wave, w the
angular frequency, t the time variable, and c the speed
of light in a vacuum. Substituting for n ' , eqn (8)
becomes
.:.lexp[.(, )]exp[ (9,
The imaginary part describes the phase of the wave
and the real part its spatial attenuation.
To calculate the radiation transmission through an
absorbing material it is necessary to distinguish be-
tween layers with thin or thick optical paths. A thin
layer has a thickness of the order of the wavelength
of light or less. The short path-differences between
the waves inter-reflected between the interfaces of a
thin layer mean that coherence of the waves is main-
tained, resulting in interference. The destructive inter-
ference which occurs leads to attenuation of the elec-
tric fields which manifests itself as absorption. It is,
therefore, appropriate to consider the electric fields
when modelling the transfer of radiation through thin
(5) layers.
When the thickness of a layer is greater than the
coherence length of about 1500 nm, disturbances
along the path of propagation due to in-homogeneities
in the material, disrupt the phases of the waves and
destroy coherency. For thick layers it is therefore not
possible to describe the radiation in terms of electric
field strengths; instead the intensity (I) of the trans-
ported energy is used. The resulting reduction of the
(6)
radiation intensity, referred to as extinction, is caused
by absorption and scattering.
The attenuation factor (A:) of a thin layer (film-
f ) relates the initial amplitude el of a wave within the
layer to its final amplitude e2 as it propagates between
the interfaces. If d is the layer thickness and k the
wavelength, then eqn (9) leads to the following defi-
nition of A::
Az(d ) = e~=exp
el
[-]["]
- i 2 7 r n d exp -
k
kd (10)
For a thick layer (substrate-s), the attenuation factor
(As) describes the reduction in intensity of the radia-
tion from an initial intensity 11 to the final intensity 12
as it traverses the layer. Because intensity is propor-
tional to the square of the wave amplitude,
(7)
= 1_2= exp ---kd (11)
As(d) II h.
3.3 Radiation transfer through multiple layers
The propagation of radiation through multi-layer
systems is normally represented by a recursive formu-
lation which explicitly models the multiple inter-re-
flections between and transmissions through the inter-
290 P. PFROMMERet al.

o i When transmission across an interface is considered

in terms of energy intensities, the following matrix
E equation is obtained

E
0

0
(
outside
<
inside
E
I

[lo+1=
['to, 'roi . [ I+
' "J L I o /P°' T,o - p,opo___~, LI.

+
) L roi Toi
= M<t). [ li+ ]
Interface I (14)
.,-o, LI; "

Fig. 1. The electric fields at an interface between two layers.

3.3.2 The layer matrix. The layer matrix (N) de-

scribes the attenuation of a wave as it traverses the
faces. This is an appropriate technique for one or two
medium within a layer. In thin layers ( f ) one is inter-
layers, but for a greater number, the formulation of
ested in the attenuation of the electric field strength
the problem and its solution become extremely com-
and in thick layers (s) the attenuation of the intensity.
plicated.
When a wave propagates in the positive direction
An alternative approach is to calculate the trans-
between the interfaces of a thin layer, its initial ampli-
mission through the multi-layer system using transfer
tude ET( 1 ) within the layer is attenuated to, say,
matrices (Harbeke, 1986). Each matrix, in an ordered
E7(2) on reaching the second interface (Fig. 2). A
sequence of matrix multiplications, represents one of
wave of initial amplitude E7(2) travelling in the oppo-
two possible transformations of the radiation fields.
site direction through the layer is reduced to E z ( 1 ).
Transformation are due to:
If the layer has thickness d then, from the definition
1. transmission across an interface (interface matrix) ;
of attenuation factor in eqn (10),
and
2. transmission through a layer (layer matrix).
E;(2) = A f ( d ) E ; ( 1 )
Polarization, multiple inter-reflections between the in-
terfaces and the effects of wave interference are all E:(2) = A/(-d)ET(1) (15)
accounted for in this model. Each layer can be either
thick or thin. or

3.3.1 The interface matrix. The definition of the

interface matrix (M) follows from consideration of
the boundary conditions at an interface. Let Eo+ and
E,+ represent the amplitudes of the net electric fields A:( d)
propagating towards, and away from, an interface in
the direction from the outside to the inside medium
= N}E' • [ E7(2) (16)
(Fig. 1 ). E is the net field because it arises from the
E/(2) ] "
superposition of multiply inter-reflected and transmit-
ted waves. Eo and E , are the corresponding net elec-
tric fields travelling in the reverse direction. E3 is For thick layers the layer matrix is similar, except
then composed of the transmitted component of Eo+ that intensities rather than electric field strengths are
and the reflected component of E l , and Eo consists considered.
of the transmitted component of E , and the reflected
component of E0+. Equations (2) and (3) enable this 1 0 .[1+(2)]
I+(1)] = A~(d)
to be expressed mathematically as
I;(1) L/~-(2)J
0 Add)
E { = toiE+o + rioE,
(12)
= N~I). [ I~+(2) ]
E~ = t~oE? + ro~E0+ Is(2) " (17)

or
3.3.3 Matrix multiplication. The following equa-
tion represents the transformation of the electric fields

ez
I1 r°l
iro, L e; j
by a thin layer ( f ) sandwiched between a pair of outer
(o) and inner (i) media (e.g., both air):

Lto, ~J E o J = lVloz ",,/ ,,,/i " E f " (18)

.,.,[e?] (13)
= -,-oi ° E, "
This involves the multiplication of three matrices, the
 Radiation transfer 291

of coated glazing). The first step is to use eqn (20)

to calculate the total amplitude reflection and transmis-
sion coefficients (R and T) of the thin layer structure,
the outside medium being air, the inner medium the
thick layer. Equations (6) are then used to convert R
and T to pT and ~_Twhere, in this case, the refractive
( gin) <
indices n [ and no', refer to the thick layer and the
adjacent thin layer respectively. The thin layer struc-
< d > + ) ture is then treated as an interface of the thick layer
outside inside and the interface matrix W,o~ • -a) forme d using pTand wT
2
Substituting M~o~) into eqn (21) for q = 1 yields the
Fig. 2. Transmission through a thin absorbing layer. total reflection and transmission coefficients of the
glazing. This procedure is performed separately for
each of the S- and P-polarizations and the correspond-
first and third being interface matrices, the second a
ing values averaged to give the full reflectance and
layer matrix.
transmittance.
A system composed of a greater number of thin
To determine the spectrum averaged transmittance
layers, say layers l, 2 . . . . . q, sandwiched between
and reflectance for a particular angle of incidence, a
media o and i (Fig. 3 ) would result in the transforma-
weighted sum (integration) is performed over the de-
tion
sired bandwidth using the solar radiation distribution
function standardized in DIN 67507 (1980). The ab-
E°+ ] ,.tE~ . N]e). M]~). NCzE) sorptance is obtained by taking the difference of the
Eo m ol
sum of the reflectance and transmittance from 1. Typi-
cally, GLSIM would be used to calculate these wave-
. . . N~qe_) . , , ~ e > . N~qE). Mce~ [ E+] (! 9) length dependent properties for normally incident so-
IV'q_l,q ""qi " L J E f "
lar radiation.
The flexibility of the above matrix formulation en-
One can use eqn (19) to obtain the total amplitude ables the angle dependent transmissivities for the com-
reflection and transmission coefficients Ro~ and To~ of plete solar spectrum and for any type of glazing system
the multiple thin layer structure. This follows by con- to be found, provided the properties of the coatings
sidering the surrounding media o and i to be of infinite are known.
thickness so that there is no net reflected wave in
medium i incident upon the inner interface (i.e., E , 4. M A T E R I A L P R O P E R T I E S
= 0). By setting Eo+ to 1, eqn (19) becomes
The basic data for the calculation method are the
wavelength dependent material properties (refraction
= "¢" ol " N(2 E) and absorption indices) of the absorption and interfer-
Roi ence coatings. Some values are available in the pub-
lished literature (Landlt-Bornstein, 1962; Otter, 1961;
"" " N(qE) l " IVIi'#(E)q
_ l ,q ° ]/~(E)- "- M(qiE)
q " I- T°i (20) Palik, 1985).
LoJ The interference coatings are mostly non-absorbing
and show a relatively constant refractive index over
which can be solved for Roi and Toi. the total solar spectrum. The refractive index lies be-
The corresponding equation for a sequence of thick tween 2.0 and 2.5 depending on the material used
layers is derived in terms of intensities, reflectances, (normally metal oxides). The representation of the
and transmittances, namely absorbing low-emittance noble metal films, such as
gold, silver, or copper, is much more complicated.
The optical properties of these coatings are highly
[ p1or, ] =M~o~). N~I~ -M~) . N~21)
dependent on the wavelength of the incident light and
on the material used. Pulker (1984) indicated that the
• • • N~qQl • Mq_''tl)l,q " "'qN(I)"---qiM(t)" ' (21)
2 i-2 i-1

where poV~ and ToV~, the variables ultimately being E0 > > E~
sought, are the total reflectance and transmittance of I
the structure. outside inside
To illustrate the method for calculating the total
reflectance and transmittance of a multi-layer system ( EI
composed of both thin and thick layers, consider a
single thick layer in air with the outer surface coated Fig. 3. The electric fields at the outer and inner interfaces of
in a sequence of thin layers (a commonly used form a multiple thin layer structure.
292 P. PFROMMER et al.
refraction and absorption indices differ considerably
from the constants of the bulk material and depend
also on the film thickness. For a few exemplary coat-
ings these dependencies are measured and presented
as material values (Landlt-Bornstein, 1962; Memarza-
deh et al., 1988), but in practice different manufactur-
ing processes can lead to a variation in these properties
(possibly even within a single pane). The accuracy
with which thin noble metal films can be modelled is
limited by these practical considerations. It is im-
portant to stress that these difficulties also limit the
reliability of using physical measurement on one ex-
ample sheet of glass as a reference for a certain glazing
system.
The calculation of the radiation transfer through
clear and tinted glass also requires a knowledge of the
wavelength dependent optical constants (refraction
and absorption indices ). These constants can be back-
calculated from measurements of the spectral transmit-
tance and reflectance at various wavelengths. The cal-
culation considers the application of eqn (21) to a
single glass pane. The resultant eqn (22) is then in-
verted to calculate the basic opical constants n and k
of the glass pane (for a given wavelength) from the
spectral transmittance 7"oTi and reflectance PSi. The de-
tailed mathematical formulation is not shown here.
[]1
p or
A,r(t)
= M~o~)" N ~ ) ' , ' , li " (22)
Wavelength dependent transmittance and reflectance
values are presented in many technical descriptions
produced by glazing manufacturers (see Vegla, 1985;
Interpane, 1990).
5. APPLICATION
5.1 Wavelength dependent properties
The wavelength dependent glazing properties are
responsible for the special characteristics of the glaz-
ing such as solar radiation and light transmittance,
reflectance, and colour impression. By varying the ma-
terials, their thicknesses, and the sequence of coatings,
a glazing can be adapted to a desired characteristic.
Similarly, by parametric variations, the wavelength
dependent properties predicted by GLSIM can be
adapted to a certain measured characteristic.
It was valuable to test the plausibility of the GLSIM
predictions of the wavelength dependent properties.
This was done by using the measured curves presented
by Gl~iser (1980, 1990); Groth (1977); Dislich
(1984); and Vegla (1985). The curve matching
method proved capable of producing credible values
for unknown parameters (normally layer thicknesses
and material) from known measured spectral glazing
properties.
As an example, the results of one study are shown
here. The predicted transmittance and reflectance val-
ues of the coated double glazing system Eliotherm
Cosmos ® are compared with measured values pre-
sented by Vegla ( 1985; Fig. 4). The glazing consists
of clear glass panes with a thickness of 2 x 6 mm
(normal transmittance = 0.40), The coating system
was assumed to be a typical example of the multi-
layer systems with selective qualities. In this case, the
interference layers are designed to minimise reflection
in the visible light range and permit a maximum trans-
mission at a wavelength of 550 nm. This is the best
case for high light transmittance. The reflection maxi-
mum at 380 nm (which is caused by an interference
effect in the protective layer) is very pronounced (Fig.
4) and gives the glazing a slightly blue outside appear-
ance.
The best fit to the measured curves was achieved by
the following coating system (from outside to inside):
• metal oxide (n = 2.3), 31 nm (adhesive layer
between glass and silver);
• silver, 17 nm; and
• metal oxide (n = 2.3), 47 nm (protective layer
between silver and air).
For the silver layer the optical constants of the bulk
material were used.
5.2 The incidence angle dependent properties
To describe the shape of the transmittance versus
incident angle curves, the relative transmittance repre-
sentation of Krochmann et al. (1992) has been used.
The relative transmittance is simply the ratio of the
transmittance at any given angle of incidence to the
transmittance at normal incidence. All relative trans-
mittance curves therefore vary from 1 (at 0 ° inci-
dence) to 0 (at 90 ° incidence). The absolute transmit-
tance is found by multiplying the relative transmit-
tance values by the known, usually published,
transmittance at normal (0 °) incidence.
It was useful to evaluate the calculated incidence
angle dependent properties by comparison with mea-
sured values. However, the measured values which
were available acknowledged a high (but not defined)
measurement uncertainty and the measured glazing
systems were not always fully described. The compar-
isons shown must therefore be considered with these
limitations in mind. The large differences in the mea-
sured values quoted for the same glazing systems in
different sources clearly demonstrates the need of
more confident measurements. A more detailed de-
scription of the relative transmittance values and the
validation work is presented elsewhere (Pfrommer et
al., 1993).
5.2.1 Pure noble metal coatings. The reflection
and transmission properties of glazing with noble
metal coatings vary with the layer thickness, material
type, and the wavelength of light (Section 4). Sensi-
tivity analyses using GLSIM have shown, however,
that the angle dependent solar radiation transmission
properties are relatively insensitive to the precise val-
ues of the refraction and absorption indices, provided
they are chosen from within the plausible ranges. Al-
though the bulk optical constants of different noble
metal materials (Ag, Au, Co) differ considerably, all
materials produced nearly the same relative transmit-
tance curve. In addition, an investigation showed, that
 Radiation transfer 293

transmittance reflectance
100% L -- 0%
b I

90% ........ . . ........ ...... .. .... ~ ....... ....... M e , ~ u r . r ~ , , , i. . . .

I~.. ~ / ' ~ ...... ~i........ i.......... L.......... il ..... Cal.cul:.:at!°

n. i ...... 20%
80%
/~ i i f i ! ! !
70%

60% 40%

50%

40% 60%

30%

20% 80%
10%
I I r i -- 100%
0%
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
wavelength, nm
UV VISIBLE IR
Fig. 4. Comparison of the calculated and measured spectrum radiation properties T, p at normal radiation
incidence for the coated glazing Eliotherm Cosmos ®. The coating system consists of one silver and two
metal oxide layers located on the inside of the outer pane.

there was almost no difference in the predicted relative metal used (Fig. 5). The layer thickness can be esti-
transmission curve, if the optical constants of the bulk mated from knowing the normal transmittance, which
metal were replaced by more accurate values [mea- is usually quoted by manufacturers, (Fig. 5) and,
sured by M e m a r z a d e h et al. (1988) as a function of hence, the angle dependent curves predicted by
the film thickness ]. G L S I M (Fig. 6 ) . The choice of metal can be based
Therefore, the normal transmission depends on the on the k n o w n colour of the glass, but has very little
layer thickness and, to a m u c h lesser extent, on the impact on the predicted curve.

0,7[ normal transmittance

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2 ........... "

I ~ Silver
~- ~t~'~...-Gold-....
O'1 I- H~'~"G°ld
X Copper~ .................................................................................................................................................
~I
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
film thickness, nm
Fig. 5. Measured transmittance (for solar radiation) at normal incidence against film thickness of double
glazings with single noble metal coatings.
294 P. PFROMMERet al.
relative transmittance
1,2 [
o°i i ! • ! i .....
0,4 - )l( ..Floatglass .~. . . . . . . . i.......
[] N!ble metal 5nm i :
X N@blemetali0nm i . . .
A .0 ,o meta, 20nm
0 J I i
0" 10 ° 20" 30" 40"
incidence angle
Fig. 6. Calculated relative transmissivities (for solar radiation) of double glazing with a single noble metal
coating and its dependency on the film thickness.
The predicted relative transmittance curves for var-
ious thicknesses of noble metal layer lie above the
corresponding curve for clear float glass (Fig. 6).
However, the normal transmittance is less because the
noble metal is present. Usually, the absolute transmit-
tance at each angle is also less.
To validate GLSIM, two measured transmittance
curves for glazings with noble metal coatings were
available. The measured and predicted curves are com-
pared in Fig. 7. The measured values for Pilkington
SunCool ® glass (Pilkington, 1988) were graphically
presented in their technical brochure but no more in-
formation was given. It was estimated, from the
known normal transmittance of 0.16, that the silver
coating was about 20 nm thick.
Krochmann et al. ( 1 9 9 2 ) quoted in detail the rela-
tive transmittance values of a 4 mm thick Infrastop-
silber ® glass pane. The glazing was indicated to have a
noble metal coating on the glass. However, the normal
transmittance of the glazing was not given, nor could
it be derived from other information sources. It was
therefore not possible to determine the noble metal
layer thickness accurately. However, the large differ-
ences between the measured curve for Infrastop-sil-
ber ® and the other curves shown in Fig. 7 is unlikely
to be a result of this uncertainty. It is much more
probable that the differences (and the curious shape
of the measured curve) are due to measurement uncer-
tainties.
5.2.2 Multilayer systems. To circumvent the lack
of published data describing the materials and layer
thicknesses used by manufacturers for multi-layer sys-
tems, an extensive examination of two- and three-
layer coating systems was performed to establish the
relationship between the incidence angle dependent
~j~
. . . . . . "~...j
:
I -~
50" 60" 70" 80" 90"
transmittance curve of a coating system and its con-
struction. The material and film thicknesses of individ-
ual components were varied and the corresponding
relative transmittance curves compared. The predicted
relative transmittance values varied by less than ___2%
as changes were made to: the material of the noble
metal film (Ag, Au, Co); the material of the metal
oxide films (n between 2.0 and 2.5); the thickness of
the noble metal films ( 1 0 - 2 0 nm) and the thickness
of the metal oxide films ( 0 - 3 5 nm for the adhesion
layer and 2 0 - 5 0 nm for the protective layer).
Therefore, the investigation led to the simple result
that all multi-layer coating systems (dielectric/noble
metal/dielectric), irrespective of the material and film
thicknesses, had virtually the same relative transmit-
tance curves. The curve shape (Fig. 8) is determined
entirely by the interface between the highly absorbing
noble metal layer and the adjacent highly refractive
dielectric layer. The individual values of the absorp-
tion and refraction indices are inconsequential. If there
is a dielectric protective layer above the noble metal
film, the adhesion layer between the glass and noble
metal also has no influence on the curve shape.
The location of the layer system also has insignifi-
cant influence on the transmission. The layers may be
at the inside of the outer pane or at the outside of the
inner pane. The location of the coating will influence
the absorptance in the single layers and this could be
important when modelling the detailed thermal effect
of the glazing.
For comparison purpose two different measured
curves were available. The measured values from
Snatzke and Ktinzel (1974) relate to Infrastop-aure-
sin ® double glazing. The coating system of this glaz-
ing was indicated by Gl~iser (1990) to consist of three
 Radiation transfer 295

relative transmittanc~
1,2 l

0,8.............~....
0,6 ...... i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~. . . . . . . . . . : i ~

0,4 ................. i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Piikington (1991)
0,2 K c"n,a"ni ,'2i ................ ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "

.,co,atioo ''\I
0 / i I i
O" 10" 20" 30" 40" 50 ° 60" 70" 80" 90"

incidence angle
Fig. 7. Comparison between the calculated and measured relative transmittance (for solar radiation) of
single noble metal coated glazings.

layers (dielectric/noble metal/dielectric). In addition, from both of the other curves (Fig. 8 ). Infrastop-grtin®
Gl~ser demonstrated the wavelength dependent prop- was indicated by Krochmann et al. to be a metal oxide
erties (transmittance and reflectance) of the glazing. coated glazing. The coating system was assumed to
These were also shown in a producers' brochure be multi-layered (dielectric and noble metal films)
(Flachglas AG, 1975). The measured curves of In- because of its low-emittance quality (quoted by the
frastop-auresin® are in close agreement with the producers: Flachglas AG, 1975) and its green colour
GLSIM predictions (Fig. 8). appearance, which is typical for additional dielectric
The measured curve from Krochmann et al. (1992) (metal oxide) coatings. No further information on this
for Infrastop-grOn® (6 mm single glazing) deviates glazing was available. The high deviation of Infrastop-

relative transmittance
1,2

1:= ~ m r~ .......... . . . . . . . . . +. . . . . . . . . : .... i ....... ......

0,8

0,6

0,4

C~lculation
0,2 ~ Srmtschke(1974). " i ~ \ I
•--)(-- Krochmann (i992)
0 + i
O" 1 O" 20" 30" 40" 50" 60" 70" 80" 90"

incidence angle
Fig. 8. Comparison between the calculated and measured relative transmittance (for solar radiation) of
glazings with a multi-layer coating.
296 P. PFROMMERet al.

relative transmittance
1,2

i ~. = ...........Z ....................... ' ............ f ........ i......... i ............ i . . . . . . . . . . .

0,8

0,6

0,4
Float glass
Gisonglass :: ~ . . . . . ~ ......... i...........

÷ Broooog,ass i : -\
0 I I I l I ~
0" 10" 20" 30" 40" 50" 60" 70" 80" 90"
incidence angle
Fig. 9. Relative transmittance (for solar radiation) of double glazing with an absorbing (tinted) outer pane
and its dependency on the colouration.

grtin® from both other curves cannot be explained by
the uncertainty in the coating system. Again, measure-
ment uncertainties are much more probable.
5.2.3 H e a t a b s o r b i n g glass. To investigate the
wavelength dependent properties of heat absorbing
glass, the sun-protective glazing Parsol ® (Vegla,
1985) was used. A comparison with other products
(e.g., Pilkington, 1988) showed that different types of
glass with the same colour have similar wavelength
dependent properties. Similarly, different types of
glass of the same colour have nearly the same inci-
dence angle dependent relative transmittance curves.
Therefore, the colour of a glazing can be used as guid-
ance to derive the relative transmittance curve of heat
absorbing glass.
Unlike noble metal coatings, the relative transmit-
tance curve of clear glazing is now the upper limit.
Compared with clear glass, tinted glazing has a re-
duced relative transmittance (Fig. 9).
To validate the predicted transmittance curves for
heat absorbing glasses, measured curves for green
glass from Krochmann et al, ( 1 9 9 2 ) and Snatzke and
Ktinzel (1974) were used. The measured glass in
Krochmann et al. was indicated to be Parsol green®
(Vegla, 1985 ). The exact green glazing type measured
by Snatschke and Ktinzel was not given. However, as
indicated before, the relative transmittance curves only
depend on the colour of the glazing, which for both
glazings was the same (green). The calculated and
measured curves are compared in Fig. 10.
5.2.4 Dielectric single coatings. T h e most simple
coating systems, which are used to reduce or enhance
reflectance in the visible light range, are dielectric
single coatings. A homogeneous characterisation of
these systems, as presented for the previous glazing
types, is not possible. One way to find the type and
thickness of a dielectric single-coating is to look at the
wavelength dependent glazing properties for normal
incidence. These properties are often published by the
producers (see also Section 5.1 ).
By considering the physics of light in thin films
(interference effects) the following formulations can
be derived ( j is the order of the reflectance extreme:
0, 1 , 2 , 3 .... ):
For maximum of reflectance:
2 d n = ( j + 0.5)X. (23)
For minimum of reflectance:
2 d n = ( j + 1)k. (24)
Noting that the refractive index of a dielectric coating
is relatively independent of the wavelength, these
equations can be used to predict the product of layer
thickness and refraction ( d . n ) from the wavelength
dependent transmission curve of the glazing.
As an example, the predicted and measured curves
for the sun-protective glazing Calorex A0 ® were com-
pared. This glazing consists of a single 6 mm pane
coated on both sides with titanium dioxide using a
dipping process (Dislich, 1984). The wavelength de-
pendent properties of the glazing were presented by
Dislich as well as by the producer (Schott, 1982). By
considering these wavelength dependent properties,
the thickness of the coatings (n ~-, 2.3) were found to
be 85 nm (for optical constants of titanium dioxide;
see also Memarzadeh et al., 1988). The curves pre-
dicted by GLS1M and measured values by Krochmann
(1992) for Calorex A0 ® are compared in Fig. 11.
 Radiation transfer 297

relative transmittance

1
0,8 ................. ................... ................... 4................... i................... ~......................... ................... ; ..................

0,6 ! .... ....... i .............. .............. i. . . . . . ! ............... .... ........

o,,, .......... .- ..i. ........................ ~ ...............

C~lculation

/ s,.oo..o<.,..) i i \/
O" 10 ° 20" 30" 40" 50" 60 ° 70" 80" 90"
incidence angle
Fig. 10. Comparison between the calculated and measured transmittance (for solar radiation) of absorbing
green glass.

5.2.5 Other glazing systems. Most glazing systems 6. D I S C U S S I O N

fall into one of the three categories given in Sections
5.2.1-5.2.3 above. Their incidence angle dependent It is clear that GLSIM provides a valuable insight
transmittance curves can be calculated using the meth- into the optical properties of glazing systems. It would
ods outlined. A lack of data about the glass and the be beneficial, however, to verify its performance by
coating system often precludes predictions being made undertaking further comparisons against high quality
for other glazing systems. However, GLSIM is able measurements made on glazings for which the precise
to simulate them. composition is known. Even without such work,

relative transmittance
1,2 l

1 ~.~'~ , ~r "~'~,~ - ~ . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . . . . .

0,8 ................. .................. ................... i ................... ................... i .................. i .................. ............... i .................

o,6 ............ ! ......... ...... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . .

o,, ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

O'I / 'K- ~"~~qcuia{i°n

-° c h m a n n ( i 9 9 2J............
)t !......................... " : \1

O" 10 ° 20" 30" 40" 50 ° 60" 70" 80" 90"

incidence angle
Fig. 1l. Comparison between the calculated and measured relative transmittance (for solar radiation) of
the sun-protective glazing Calorex AO®. The coating system consists of one metal oxide layer on each
side of the pane.
298 P. PFROMMER et al.
G L S I M produces more credible incidence angle de-
pendent solar transmittance estimates for special glaz-
ings than the conventional approach, in which the
angle dependent properties of clear glass are assumed
to apply.
It has been shown that the predicted energy con-
sumption of office buildings with special glazings may
be significantly in error if glazing properties are esti-
mated by the conventional approach rather than pre-
dicted more accurately using GLSIM. The availability
of G L S I M will enhance the credibility of predictions
from thermal simulation programs, particularly when
glazing performance is important.
For detailed thermal simulation programs which
produce hour-by-hour predictions, angle-dependent
transmittance and absorptance data are of primary im-
portance, but they also need the transmittance and
absorptance for diffuse radiation from the sky vault.
A routine has been incorporated in GLSIM which cal-
culates these assuming standard overcast or clear sky
conditions standardized in DIN 5034 ( 1983 ). For sim-
ple programs (which perform monthly or annual cal-
culations) a single value of transmittance is needed
for each month or the whole year. One way to find
these values is to calculate the average of the hourly
transmittance values (calculated by G L S I M ) during
the month or year, weighted in proportion to the inci-
dent solar energy.
In many m o d e m buildings, louvres or other shad-
ing devices are incorporated to reduce unwanted solar
gain. As part of their continuing endeavours the An-
glo-German research team has developed software
which predicts the optical effect of such devices when
used in association with any type of glazing system.
This work will be the topic of a future publication.
7. CONCLUSIONS
1. The G L S I M program has been produced and is
capable of predicting the variation of spectral trans-
mittance with wavelength and the variation of
transmittance with the angle of solar incidence for
any type of clear or coated glazing system.
2. The calculations were based on multiplying matri-
ces rather than a recursive technique. They are,
therefore, applicable to any combination of coating
and glass with no limitation on the number or se-
quence of the layers.
3. Strategies have been developed for calculating the
variation of relative transmittance with angle of
incidence from standard published manufacturers'
data. These strategies are applicable to glazing sys-
tems of clear glass, tinted glazing, or systems incor-
porating a noble metal layer or multiple layers of
noble metal and dielectric (metal oxide) films.
4. The predictions of the program GLS1M compared
favourably with published, measured data for glaz-
ing systems. However, the measured data were of-
ten incompletely described and no measurement
range of uncertainty was given. Further data to
evaluate this software would be useful.
5. GLSIM is valuable as a pre-processor for dynamic
thermal simulation programs to enable them to pro-
duce more accurate predictions for buildings with
special glazing.
6. The clarity afforded by the matrix formulation en-
ables different glazing systems to be modelled
quickly. The equations can be solved quickly on a
PC. GLSIM, therefore, offers a cost-effective route
to generating a data base of glazing properties
which could be used by detailed, thermal simula-
tion programs.
Acknowledgments--The authors are grateful to the British
Council and the DAAD for an ARC grant which provided
the travel funds necessary to make this Anglo-German collab-
oration a success.
NOMENCLATURE
c velocity of light in vacuum (m/s)
d thickness of layer (m)
e electric field strength (V/m)
E net electric field strength (V/m)
1 intensity (W/m 2)
k absorption index
n refractive index
n' complex refractive index
r interface amplitude reflection coefficient
R multi-layer total amplitude reflection coefficient
t time variable (s), interface amplitude transmission coef-
ficient
T multi-layer total amplitude transmission coefficient
A attenuation factor
h wavelength (m)
p reflectance
~- transmittance
w angular frequency (rad/s)
~o incidence or refraction angle
Indices
o outside medium
i inside medium
E electric field
I intensity
f thin layer (film)
s thick layer (substrate)
T total (transmittance or reflectance of a multi-layer sys-
tem)
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