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36 Drying of Wood: Principles and Practices

Article · July 2014

DOI: 10.1201/b17208-44

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 Drying of Wood: Principles
36 and Practices
Patrick Perré and Roger B. Keey

CONTENTS

36.1 Structure of Wood ............................................................................................................................... 822

36.1.1 Formation of Wood in Trees .................................................................................................. 822
36.1.1.1 Knots ...................................................................................................................... 822
36.1.1.2 Tissue and Cellular Structure of Wood .................................................................. 822
36.1.1.3 Heartwood Formation ............................................................................................ 825
36.1.2 Chemical Composition ............................................................................................................ 826
36.1.3 Reaction Wood and Juvenile Wood........................................................................................ 827
36.1.3.1 Compression Wood ................................................................................................ 828
36.1.3.2 Tension Wood......................................................................................................... 828
36.1.3.3 Juvenile Wood ........................................................................................................ 828
36.1.4 Implications for the Drying Process........................................................................................ 829
36.2 Board Scale .......................................................................................................................................... 830
36.2.1 Water in Wood: Sorbed and Capillary Water, and Shrinkage................................................ 830
36.2.1.1 Moisture Content of Wood .................................................................................... 830
36.2.1.2 Free Water .............................................................................................................. 830
36.2.1.3 Bound Water........................................................................................................... 831
36.2.1.4 Differential Heat of Sorption.................................................................................. 831
36.2.1.5 Shrinkage ................................................................................................................ 832
36.2.2 Heat and Mass Transfer in Wood........................................................................................... 833
36.2.2.1 Fluid Migration in Wood: Single-Phase Flow ........................................................ 833
36.2.2.2 Generalized Darcy’s Law: Multiphase Flow........................................................... 835
36.2.2.3 Capillary Pressure ................................................................................................... 836
36.2.2.4 Bound-Water Diffusion .......................................................................................... 837
36.2.2.5 Physical Formulation.............................................................................................. 839
36.2.3 Process of Drying .................................................................................................................... 840
36.2.3.1 Low-Temperature Convective Drying .................................................................... 840
36.2.3.2 Drying at High Temperature: The Effect of Internal Pressure on Mass Transfer.. 841
36.2.3.3 Typical Drying Behavior: Difference between Sapwood and Heartwood .............. 842
36.2.4 Mechanical Aspects of Wood Drying ..................................................................................... 845
36.2.4.1 Mechanical Behavior of Wood ............................................................................... 845
36.2.4.2 Drying Stress Formulation ..................................................................................... 846
36.2.4.3 Memory Effect ........................................................................................................ 847
36.2.4.4 Stress Development during Drying: Some Examples.............................................. 850
36.2.5 Drying Quality ........................................................................................................................ 855
36.2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Drying Duration .................................................................. 855
36.2.5.2 Factors Affecting the Drying Quality ..................................................................... 856
36.2.5.3 Criteria for Obtaining a Fast and Good Drying Process........................................ 856
36.3 Kiln Scale ............................................................................................................................................. 857
36.3.1 Lumber Quality ....................................................................................................................... 857
36.3.1.1 Gross Features of Wood......................................................................................... 858
36.3.1.2 Intrinsic Features of Wood..................................................................................... 860
36.3.1.3 Sawmilling Strategies .............................................................................................. 862

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 36.3.2 Kiln Design ............................................................................................................................. 862
36.3.2.1 Airflow Considerations ........................................................................................... 863
36.3.2.2 Moisture-Evaporation Considerations.................................................................... 864
36.3.3 Kiln Operation ........................................................................................................................ 864
36.3.4 Practical Considerations.......................................................................................................... 866
36.3.4.1 Schedule Development............................................................................................ 867
36.3.4.2 Kiln Control ........................................................................................................... 867
36.3.4.3 Volatile Emissions................................................................................................... 868
36.3.4.4 Equalization and Stress Relief ................................................................................ 869
36.3.5 Less-Common Drying Methods .............................................................................................. 869
36.3.5.1 Vacuum Drying ...................................................................................................... 869
36.3.5.2 Dehumidifier Kilns.................................................................................................. 870
36.3.5.3 High-Frequency Electrical Heating......................................................................... 870
36.3.5.4 Solar Drying ........................................................................................................... 872
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 872

36.1 STRUCTURE OF WOOD . Bark, differentiated into an outer corky dead

36.1.1 FORMATION OF WOOD IN TREES
Wood is produced in the hard stems and branches of
trees and shrubs. In these plants, the primary growth
is responsible for the stem and branch elongation,
whereas the secondary growth, achieved through the
cambium activity, is responsible for the thickening of
elements (Figure 36.1). Wood has evolved to fulfill the
basic needs of these plants during their life: water
transport of waterborne nutrients; mechanical strength
to support the photoactive canopy of leaves; and resist-
ance to biological attacks. Appearance and properties
of this material depend strongly not only on the spe-
cies but also on the biological diversity and growth
conditions of site and climate. Indeed, even for the
same species, wood properties depend on the tree and
on the position within the tree. One part of this vari-
ability is genetically controlled, whereas the other
part comes from the varying growth conditions (stand
characteristics and silviculture practices). Conse-
quently, wood is a variable material that is extremely
difficult to characterize precisely. Hence wood pro-
cessing, including drying, is very difficult to optimize.
A cross section of a tree (Figure 36.2), from the
core to the outer region, shows the following features:
. Pith, a small core of tissue located near the
middle of a tree’s stem or branches, which ori-
ginates from the primary growth of the plant
. Woody material, the most important part of ma-
ture trees, which is differentiated into sapwood
(outer region), where the sap migrates from roots
to leaves and heartwood (inner region) that is no
longer used for sap transport, which exists only
when the stem, at that height, is old enough
part (external part of the stem), whose thickness
varies greatly with species and age of trees, and
an inner thin living part (just near the cambium
zone), which carries food from the leaves to the
growing elements
36.1.1.1 Knots
As the tree grows in height (primary growth), branch-
ing is initiated by lateral bud development. Knots are
the bases of branches, which have been covered as the
tree grows laterally. After a branch dies, the trunk
continues to increase in diameter and surrounds that
portion of the branch while the dead branch is still
present. This branch has to drop from the tree before
clearwood can form. If the knot was alive when the
trunk grew around it, the xylem of the trunk and the
branch are continuous and the knot fits tightly into
the wood. If the branch was dead when the trunk
grew around it, no anatomical connection exists be-
tween the xylem of the knot and the trunk. The knot
is nonadhesive; it may fall out of the wood, leaving a
knothole (Figure 36.3).
36.1.1.2 Tissue and Cellular Structure of Wood
Growth in thickness of the bark and wood is caused
by cell division in the cambium. New wood cells are
formed on the inside of the cambium and new bark
cells on the outside. In the cambium region, immature
cells differentiate into various kinds of mature xylem
(wood) and phloem (inner bark) cells characteristic of
the species (Panshin and de Zeeuw, 1980). Then en-
largement, elongation, and maturation allow the
woody material to be developed (Figure 36.4). Most
of the wood cells stay alive for not more than few

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Second
annual ring
Primary growth

First
annual ring

Pith

1 mm

Thickening of the structure by secondary growth

FIGURE 36.1 Formation of wood in trees: the pith originates from the primary growth whereas the wood material is added,
along the years, by the secondary growth. (Microphotograph: polished disc of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), LER-
MAB–ENGREF.)

Age of wood cells

Pith Age of tree Bark

Heartwood Cambial activity

formation division,
elongation,
differentiation,
lignification

FIGURE 36.2 Cross section of a tree showing the internal structure of the stem. Growth rings can also be observed: light parts
are earlywood and dark parts are latewood. Due to this stem geometry, three material directions: longitudinal (L), radial (R),
and tangential (T), can be defined at each location. (Photograph: Yew (Taxus baccata L.), LERMAB–ENGREF.)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Clearwood formed
after pruning
FIGURE 36.3 The existence of knots in wood comes from the interaction between primary growth, responsible for the
branch formation, and secondary growth, responsible for thickening of stem and branches. (Photograph: Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris), LERMAB–ENGREF.)
weeks; the last development stage, namely lignifica-
tion, induces the death of these cells. Only parenchyma
cells can live for years and they are responsible for the
development of heartwood.
In most species in temperate climates, the difference
between woods that are formed early in a growing sea-
son (earlywood) and that formed later (latewood) is
sufficient to produce concentric contours in a cross
section (Figure 36.2). These rings are known as growth
rings. Each increment in size in the branch or trunk
diameter can be observed in these growth rings that
remain unchanged once formed. Provided no false
rings exist (due to an interruption of the growth in
diameter by drought or defoliation by insects), the age
at any cross section of the trunk may be determined by
counting these rings. Obviously, this simple rule does
not apply for tropical species for which growth may be
practically continuous throughout the year and no well-
defined growth rings are formed, or for which growth
rings are the result of the individual rhythm of each tree.
Wood cells are of various sizes and shapes. They
are cemented together to form the structural wood
material. The majority of wood cells are elongated
and pointed at the ends. The types and dimensions
of wood cells depend strongly on the species.
In softwoods, woods formed by cone-bearing trees
(e.g., fir, pine, and spruce) with naked seeds, the xylem
contains mainly tracheids (90%). Tracheids are con-
siderably elongated cells (around 40 mm in diameter
and between 2 and 8 mm in length), which ensure both
sap flow, by means of numerous bordered pits situated
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Death of the
branch
Nonadhesive part
of the knot
Adhesive part of
the knot
Pith
on the radial cell walls, and mechanical strength.
In softwoods, the earlywood is characterized by cells
with large radial diameters and thin walls, and hence
relatively large cavities. Latewood cells have a much
smaller radial diameter and thicker walls, which result
in much smaller cavities (Figure 36.4). In addition,
some softwoods have resin canals. Parenchyma cells
surround these canals and actively secret resin into the
canals, and ultimately into the heartwood.
Hardwood is the common name for the wood of
species whose seeds are enclosed in ovaries. These
species are more advanced than softwoods in terms
of biological evolution; consequently, they produce a
more sophisticated anatomical pattern, with cells
much more adapted to meet specific requirements in
relation to water transport, food storage, and mech-
anical support:
. Fibers are usually relatively thick-walled, sparsely
pitted, and about 1 mm in length. Different fiber
cells exist, but the tracheid fibers having bordered
pits are generally the most abundant. Although
fibers may have a certain role in sap conduction,
they basically function as the mechanical support,
making the wood usually stronger, denser, and
more durable than softwoods.
. Vessels of relatively large diameter are also
known as pores. These cells form the main con-
duits for sap flow. A vessel is built up by several
vessel elements, with more or less open end
plates, aligned in the longitudinal direction.
FIGURE 36.4 Wood is formed by cell division in the cambium zone, hence the radial cell lines appear clearly in this figure, in
spite of the large variation of radial diameter between earlywood and latewood. Some bordered pits allowing sap flow from
one tracheid to the other can also be observed on radial cell walls. (ESEM Photograph: Norway spruce (Picea abies),
LERMAB–ENGREF.)

. Longitudinal or axial parenchyma cells function
mainly in the storage of food.
Several thousands of hardwood species exist, and
each one has its own anatomical pattern. The density,
for example, ranges from less than 100 kg m3 (i.e.,
balsa wood) up to more than 1200 kg m3 (i.e., ebony
wood). They are usually divided into ring-porous and
diffuse-porous types, though all intermediate types
can be found:
. A ring-porous species produces very large ves-
sels (up to 500 mm in diameter) in earlywood.
Simple perforation plates allow the vessel cells
to communicate easily.
. Diffuse-porous species have smaller vessels (50
to 100 mm in diameter) of almost uniform size
and distribution throughout the growth ring. In
diffuse-porous species, vessel cells are usually
connected by scalariform (‘‘ladderlike’’) perfor-
ation plates.
Figure 36.5 depicts the typical anatomical patterns
encountered in temperate species.
Both hardwoods and softwoods have cells (usu-
ally grouped into structures or tissues) that are
oriented horizontally in the radial direction and
which are called rays. The rays, composed of paren-
chyma with lignified cell walls or sclerenchyma, con-
nect various layers from pith to bark for storage and
transfer of food. In softwoods, rays are one-cell thick.
In hardwoods, they vary in size from one-cell wide
and a few cells high to more than 15-cell wide and
several centimeters high. Rays represent planes of
weakness along which drying checks develop easily.
36.1.1.3 Heartwood Formation
Just few weeks after the formation of xylem, it contains
mostly dead cells, but continues to play a role of utmost
importance for the plant: the transport of sap. Hence
the vascular system so produced is called sapwood. This
active zone may vary in thickness and number of
growth rings, commonly up to about 15 years, which
represents several centimeters in radial thickness. As a
rule, the more vigorously growing trees have more ex-
tensive sapwood. In sapwood, parenchyma cells stay
alive and function primarily in the storage of food.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 (a) Norway spruce (Picea abies) (b) Pedunculate oak (Quercus rubra) (c) European beech (Fagus sylvatica)

FIGURE 36.5 Typical anatomical patterns encountered in temperate species: (a) softwood, (b) ring-porous species, and (c)
diffuse-porous species. The height of these images represents about 2 mm. (Microphotographs: J.C. Mosnier, LERMAB–
ENGREF.)

After some years, an intense biological activity of
these parenchyma cells gives rise to heartwood for-
mation. Metabolites are deposited in the heartwood
and the tree uses the heartwood as a place to store
waste products that are collectively known as extrac-
tives. These include resins, gums, oils, and tannins
that stop up the vessels (or the tracheids in softwood)
and clog the wood. In heartwood, all the cells are
dead and inactive; they do not function in either
water conduction or food storage. The heartwood is
often darker, slightly denser, and more durable (re-
sistance to fungi or insect attack) than the sapwood
and plays an important role in supporting the tree.
However, numerous species do not have dark heart-
wood (e.g., spruce, fir, and beech) and no correlation
exists between heartwood color and durability.
In some species, such as certain oaks, the vessels
become plugged with the development of cellular
membranes known as tyloses, which enter the vessels
from adjacent parenchyma cells (Figure 36.6).
36.1.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Wood is a typical organic material made up of three
main elements: carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Because
very small variations between different wood species
are observed, the numbers depicted in Table 36.1 are
broadly general but can be higher for some tropical
species. Nitrogen as well as some additional inorganic
elements (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and
silicon) are also essential compounds, which are mostly
involved in the metabolism of living cells during wood

Fibers

Ray cells

Tyloses in
vessels

R T

T L

FIGURE 36.6 Example of tyloses development in the heartwood of Pedunculate oak (Quercus rubra L.). (ESEM photo-
graphs: Patrick Perré and Riad Bakour, LERMAB–ENGREF.)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.


TABLE 36.1
Elementary Composition of Wood
Element Content (%)
Carbon 49–50
Hydrogen 6
Oxygen 43–44
Nitrogen <1
Inorganic elements 1*
(Na, K, Ca, Mg, Si)
Source: Bosshard, H.H., Holzkunde, Band 2, Zur Biologie, Physik
und Chemie des Holzes (Wood Science: Biology, Physics and
Chemistry of Wood, Vol. 2), Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 1984.
*Exceptions exist in tropical species.
formation but are also important for the strength of
the cell wall.
The cell wall has a complex structure, composed
of a network of cellulose microfibrils interconnected
by hemicellulose chains and incrusted by pectins and
proteins (Mark, 1967). Cellulose is a linear polymer
with an average degree of polymerization of 10,000.
These polymer chains are organized in elementary
fibrils that are partly crystalline to the extent of 50
to 70%. Elementary fibrils are bundled with hemicel-
luloses to form microfibrils. The latter are very strong
in their longitudinal direction and their crystalline
part is very difficult to penetrate with water. The
hemicelluloses are branched, low-molecular-weight
polymers composed of several different kinds of pen-
tose- and hexose-sugar monomers. Cells that are dead
at maturity (fibers, tracheids, etc.) may impregnate
their walls with lignin, which makes these walls im-
pervious to water. Lignin is often regarded as the
cementing agent that binds individual cells together
and is insoluble in most solvents. Softwood lignin is
thought to incorporate about 500 phenylpropane
units (Keey et al., 2000), but it is a variable and
complex three-dimensional polymer.
Several layers have to be distinguished in the wall
thickness, not only by the macromolecular compos-
ition but also by the microfibril orientation, i.e., the
angle between the fibril orientation and the longitu-
dinal axis of the cell. Between two adjacent cells lies a
highly lignified region called middle lamella. Both
middle lamella and adjoining primary walls are some-
times referred to as compound middle lamella. The
secondary cell wall is laid down after cell extension is
complete. In direction to the cell lumen, the second-
ary cell wall is subdivided into three zones: S1, S2, and
S3. The lignin content significantly decreases from
about 90% in the middle lamella down to about 20%
of the S2 layer. The varying fibril orientation in the
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
particular layers (508 to 708 in S1, 108 to 308 in S2, and
608 to 908 in S3) causes a mechanical locking effect,
leading to a very high stiffness of the overall cell. Due
to its thickness and low value of microfibril angle, the
S2 layer is responsible for the high strength and low
shrinkage of wood in the longitudinal direction. The
overall distribution of wood polymers does not vary
greatly with common species (see Table 36.2), but
a comprehensive study (Fengel and Wegener, 1984)
reveals much wider variations.
Both organic and inorganic extraneous materials
are found in wood. The organic component takes the
form of extractives, which contribute to such wood
properties as color, odor, taste, decay resistance,
density, hygroscopicity, and flammability. Extractives
include tannins and other polyphenolics, coloring
matter, essential oils, fats, resins, waxes, gum starch,
and simple metabolic intermediates. Extractives may
constitute roughly 5 to 30% of the wood substance.
The inorganic component of extraneous materials
generally constitutes 0.2 to 1.0% of the wood sub-
stance. Calcium, potassium, and magnesium are the
more abundant elemental constituents.
36.1.3 REACTION WOOD AND JUVENILE WOOD
As plants cannot move, they have developed several
features to adapt to their environment such as the
effects of wind and site slope. Reaction wood is part
of this capacity for adaptation; it allows the plants to
maintain or modify the orientation of different axes
in space. In softwood trees, the reaction wood pro-
duces growth stresses smaller than in normal wood;
the tensile level is smaller and can even become nega-
tive in this compression wood. In hardwood trees,
reaction wood forms wood with higher growth-stress
level than in normal wood and is known as tension
wood. For example, branches are horizontal elements
that must work against gravity. In the case of hard-
woods, tension wood is present in the upper part of
the cross sections of branches whereas, in the case of
TABLE 36.2
Typical Wood Composition
Content (%)
Compound
Softwoods Hardwoods
Cellulose 42 + 2 45 + 2
Hemicelluloses 27 + 2 30 + 5
Lignin 28 + 3 20 + 4
Source: Walker, J.C.F., Primary Wood Processing Principles and
Practice, Chapman & Hall, London, 1993.
softwoods, compression wood is found in the lower
part. However, the compression wood can also be
found in some primitive groups of hardwoods (Carl-
quist, 2001).
36.1.3.1 Compression Wood
Compared with normal wood, this tissue is character-
ized by shorter tracheids, higher lignin and hemicel-
lulose content, and lower cellulose content. This
reaction wood is easily identified on smooth surfaces,
in particular in a transverse view. When compression
wood is formed, the growth rings appear darker,
reddish brown, and often wider than on the opposite
side. Therefore, when compression wood develops in
the same side for several years, the cross section of the
stem tends to be oval with an eccentric pith in the
core; this is typical of branches or stem of bent trees.
At the anatomical level the cells observed in cross
section are more rounded than rectangular, showing
large intercellular spaces (Figure 36.7). The cell wall
consists only of ML, P, S1, and S2 layers. Once dry,
the cell wall shows deep, helically arranged checks
from the lumen. The latter is rather thick and its
microfibril angle is much larger than in normal
wood (about 458 from the axial direction). In conse-
quence, the density is higher, the longitudinal shrink-
age is increased to some percentage (compared with
0.1 to 0.2% for normal wood), and, in spite of the
higher density, the longitudinal mechanical properties
are less than in normal wood. Due to the large micro-
fibril angle in the S2 layer, the effect is opposite in the
transverse plane: lower shrinkage and higher stiffness.
36.1.3.2 Tension Wood
Tension wood is characterized by increased cellulose
content and increased density. Sawn surfaces appear
Normal wood
FIGURE 36.7 Compression wood compared with normal wood. (ESEM photographs: White fir (Abies alba), LERMAB–
ENGREF.)
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
woolly and rough. Strength properties are reduced.
Longitudinal shrinkage can be more than 1%. No
significant coloration marks out tension-wood zones.
In addition, the regulation of hardwood seems to be
subtler than in softwoods, sometimes leading to very
localized presence of reaction wood (thin layers in the
radial direction and variable angular position from
one year to the other). Therefore, the macroscopic
features are not very reliable.
At the microscopic level, tension wood is much
easier to identify when it is fully developed. Fiber cell
walls are much thicker than normal, enclosing very
small lumens. Secondary walls are loosely attached to
the primary wall and thus are responsible for some of
the differing mechanical properties. The thick second-
ary wall of tension-wood fibers is significantly lesser
lignified; it consists of almost pure cellulose. Due to
this consistency, this layer is termed gelatinous or
G layer (Figure 36.8). The microfibrils are almost
parallel to the grain. The reason for tension-wood
shrinkage is not well understood. The loose contact
between the G layer and the remaining cell wall,
which does not restrain the outer cell region (i.e.,
primary layer) and from contraction during drying,
is one possible explanation. However, a recent work
tends to prove that the G layer itself has a high
longitudinal shrinkage, which is not consistent with
the small microfibril angle (Clair, 2001). It may be
noted that intermediate indications of tension wood
exist without the G layer.
36.1.3.3 Juvenile Wood
All trees during their growth produce juvenile wood,
i.e., the inner core of xylem surrounding the pith.
The time during which juvenile wood is formed varies
among individuals, with species, and with environ-
mental conditions. It is often recognized that juvenile
Compression wood
FIGURE 36.8 Tension wood in Pedunculate oak (Quercus rubra); note the existence of the G layer. (ESEM photograph:
LERMAB–ENGREF.)
wood formation lasts as long as living branches exist
at the corresponding height of the tree. The transition
from juvenile to mature wood takes place gradually.
No clear demarcation exists between juvenile and
adult wood.
In juvenile wood the cells are smaller than those of
the mature xylem. Particular differences exist in the
length of the cells as well as in the structure of the
layered cell wall. The microfibril angle in the S2 layer
is greater than in cells of the mature tissue. As for
compression wood, this causes a higher value of lon-
gitudinal shrinkage and a reduced tensile strength. In
addition, the spiral grain (angle between the stem axis
and the fiber orientation) is often large in the juvenile
wood. Together with the high longitudinal shrinkage,
this explains why the warping of timber containing
juvenile wood may be dramatic after drying. Juvenile
wood is a major problem in processing wood from
plantations of fast-growing species (eucalyptus,
radiata pine, etc.) that produce logs made up mostly
of juvenile wood.
36.1.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DRYING PROCESS
To induce the ascent of sap in tree, the menisci present in
the leaf stomata pull up water (Zimmerman 1983).
Because most trees are more than 10 m high, one can
deduce that the absolute liquid pressure in the sap
column is negative. No gaseous phase can exist in such
conditions. The vascular system developed in trees has
many other implications for the drying process:
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
. Because the system is designed for longitudinal
sap flow from the roots to the canopy, the wood
material is strongly anisotropic.
. Because of negative pressure, the vascular sys-
tem must be able to support a gas invasion due
to injury or cavitation. This is the role of bor-
dered pits or vessel-to-vessel pits. These ana-
tomical features may dramatically inhibit the
fluid migration in the wood.
. In heartwood, due to metabolite deposition, as-
piration or closure of bordered pits, or tylose
development, the permeability is often reduced
by one or several orders of magnitude.
. The wood is fully saturated in the sapwood part
of logs (an air-free sap column is required to
obtain negative pressures), whereas the heart-
wood zone is generally only partly saturated.
Table 36.3 indicates some orders of magnitude
generally observed for the moisture content of green-
wood. Indeed, because the sapwood part is fully sat-
urated, the maximum moisture content in this zone
can be calculated by assuming that the entire pore
volume is filled with water:
f r‘ r
X¼ with f ¼ 1  0 (36:1)
(1  f)rs rs
where f is the porosity, r0 is the basic density (oven-
dry mass/green volume), rs is the density of the cell
 Moisture in wood is distinguished between the liquid
TABLE 36.3
sap present unattached in the cell lumens (free water)
Typical Values of Moisture Content Found in
and the water molecules held in the cell walls (bound
Greenwood
water), with an activity less than 1.
Wood Type Moisture Content Dry Basis (%)
36.2.1.2 Free Water
Sapwood Heartwood

Softwoods 150–200
Hardwoods 80–120
wall substance (rs ffi 1530 kg m3), and r‘ is the sap
density (r‘ ¼ 1000 kg m3).
To highlight that the development of wood in
trees leads to a very anisotropic material, Table 36.4
indicates some order of magnitude for dimensionless
anisotropy ratios found in wood for the most import-
ant properties involved in drying. The ease of fluid
migration in wood (i.e., the permeability) is by far the
property that presents the highest anisotropy ratio.
The reduction in wood permeability from sapwood to
heartwood affects particularly the longitudinal direc-
tion in hardwoods (especially for ring-porous species
developing tyloses) and all directions in softwoods.
36.2 BOARD SCALE
36.2.1 WATER IN WOOD: SORBED AND CAPILLARY
WATER, AND SHRINKAGE
36.2.1.1 Moisture Content of Wood
The moisture content of wood (dry basis) is defined
by the following mass ratio:
mass of water
X¼
oven-drymass
40–80 The sap flows in wood through the vascular system
60–100 produced by the cambium. This liquid, present in the
cell cavities, is usually referred to as ‘‘free water’’ just
because its properties are very close to those of liquid
water: density, viscosity, saturated vapor pressure, etc.
However, one has to keep in mind that this water is
tied to the solid matrix through capillary forces. Due to
the surface energy of the interface between liquid and
gas (the surface tension), together with the contact angle
between this interface and the woody matrix, a pressure
difference exists between liquid and gaseous phases.
This pressure difference, which obeys Laplace’s law,
increases with decreasing pore diameter. Because liquid
is the wetting phase in the case of water and wood, the
liquid pressure is less than the gaseous one.
In addition, due to the curvature of the interface,
a deviation of the saturated vapor pressure exists.
This deviation can be calculated from the definition
and properties of the Gibbs free energy and leads to
Kelvin equation (Dullien, 1992):
   
Pv 1 1 Mv
ln w ¼ ln ¼ s þ (36:3)
Pvs r1 r2 r‘ RT
In Equation 36.3, Pvs is the saturated vapor pressure, Pv
is the equilibrium vapor pressure at the curved inter-
face, s is the surface tension, r1 and r2 are the two
principal radii of the surface, and Mv is the molar
mass of water. The quantity w is known as the relative
humidity. However, a very small pore radius is required
(36:2) for the deviation to become significant (Table 36.5).

TABLE 36.5
Pressure Difference DP and Relative Humidity w
TABLE 36.4
at the Surface for Different Radii Values (Values
Order of Magnitude of the Dimensionless
Calculated at 208C, for a Perfectly Wetting Liquid
Anisotropy Ratios Encountered in
and Cylindrical Tubes)
Wood Relative to Tangential Value
Radius of the DP (Equivalent Water w ¼ Pv/Pvs
Property Direction
Capillary Column)
T R L
1 mm 0.146 kPa (14.9 mm) 0.999999
Stiffness 1 2 20 100 mm 1.46 kPa (0.149 m) 0.999989
Shrinkage 1 0.5 0 10 mm 14.6 kPa (1.49 m) 0.99989
Thermal conductivity 1 1.5 2 1 mm 0.146 MPa (14.9 m) 0.9989
Mass diffusivity 1 1–2 20 0.1 mm 1.46 MPa (149 m) 0.989
Permeability 1 1–10 100–105 0.01 mm 14.6 MPa (1.49 km) 0.898

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

36.2.1.3 Bound Water
Bound moisture is associated with the hygroscopic
nature of the woody components. There are some
uncertainties about the limits of hygroscopic behav-
ior, particularly with woods of high extractives con-
tent; but it is useful to define a maximum sorptive
moisture content, called the fiber saturation point
(FSP). If the capillary condensation effects in pores
greater than 0.1 mm in equivalent cylindrical diameter
are ignored, FSP of the wood may be defined as the
equilibrium moisture content (EMC) in an environ-
ment of 99% relative humidity. This yields a value of
30 to 32% for most commercial species (Keey et al.,
2000) at room temperature. FSP falls with increasing
temperature. For a softwood such as Sitka spruce
(Picea sitchensis), FSP falls from about 31% at 258C
to 23% at 1008C (Stamm, 1964).
As the relative proportions of the woody compon-
ents vary only within narrow ranges for common
commercial species, the EMCs at a given relative
humidity and temperature are closely similar for
these woods. However, at high relative humidities
deviations from mean values can appear. Shubin’s
data (1990) show, for instance, that at 95% relative
humidity the EMC at 42.48C ranges from 22% for a
pine to 33% for an oak. Hoadley (1980) notes that in
species with a high extractives content, such as red-
wood (Sequoia sempervirens) and mahogany (Swiete-
nia mahogani), the fibers remain saturated at 22 to
24% moisture content, whereas birch (Betula spp.)
may have a moisture content up to 35% at fiber
saturation.
35
30
Equilibrium moisture content (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20
Relative humidity (%)
FIGURE 36.9 Sorption isotherms calculated by a mathematical expression fitted from published data.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Because of sorption hysteresis, the EMC at a
given relative humidity is higher in drying (desorp-
tion) from greenwood than in wetting (adsorption)
from perfectly dried wood. The ratio of values nor-
mally ranges between 0.75 and 0.88 (Schniewind,
1989). However, in previously dried wood subject to
environmental swings in relative humidity, the iso-
therm for adsorption and desorption becomes more
similar. Thus, for practical proposes, the hygroscopi-
city of wood is sufficiently similar for most commer-
cial species for generalized sorption data to be useful.
The curves depicted in Figure 36.9 represent an aver-
age between desorption and adsorption. They were
plotted using the mathematical correlation used in the
numerical code ‘‘Transpore.’’ The parameters of this
expression have been fitted from various data avail-
able in the literature: those published by Rasmussen
in 1961 (Siau, 1984) and those of Loughborough on
Sitka spruce published by Hawley in 1931 and ar-
ranged by Keylwerth in 1949 (Kollmann and Côté,
1968; Joly and More-Chevalier, 1980).
36.2.1.4 Differential Heat of Sorption
Sorbed water in the cell wall has a lower enthalpy
than liquid water. However, contrary to other forms
of water, such as solid, the enthalpy of bound water
increases with increasing moisture content up to FSP.
Above this value, the enthalpy of water in wood is
essentially the same as that of liquid water.
The value of the differential heat of sorption can
be calculated from the sorption isotherms using the
Clausius–Clapeyron equation (Skaar, 1988):
20⬚C 60⬚C
100⬚C
40 60 80 100
 Pure water Water in wood

Vapor

Δhs Lv
Lv

−Lf Fiber saturation point

Liquid
Moisture content
Ice Bound water

≈ −Lv/2

FIGURE 36.10 Differential heat of sorption versus the moisture content. (Adapted from Skaar, C., Wood–Water Relations,
Springer, Berlin, 1988.)

 
Pv
d ln
R Pvs
Dhs ¼    (36:4) Dimension
Mv 1
d
T L

This heat of sorption is slightly higher than 1000 kJ

kg1 for oven-dry wood and decreases rapidly with R
moisture content to reach zero, with a horizontal
slope at the FSP (Figure 36.10). T

36.2.1.5 Shrinkage

In trees, the cell walls of wood are in a fully swollen

condition. However, when sorbed water is removed
from the cell wall, new hydrogen bonds form between
the hydroxyl groups of the molecular chains and
reduce the distance between the chains. This variation
affects the dimension in a direction normal to the
microfibril direction. This fact explains why the lon-
gitudinal shrinkage is usually negligible. In the trans-
verse directions, the dimensional variations plotted
against bound water content are very close to a
straight line (Figure 36.11). Shrinkage can then be
defined by the total shrinkage (variation of dimension
between the green state and the oven-dry condition)
or in terms of a shrinkage coefficient (variation of
dimension divided by the variation in moisture con-
tent). For most species, the tangential shrinkage is
about twice the radial shrinkage. Several features
can explain this observation: the cell arrangement of
tissues, the difference between earlywood and late-
wood, and the presence of ray cells. The extrapolation
of length values against moisture content to the ori-
ginal unshrunken length yields the so-called shrinkage
intersection point (SIP) (Figure 36.11). Normally, this
moisture content is a little higher than the FSP, but
often the two moisture content values are assumed to
be same.
FSP SIP Moisture content
FIGURE 36.11 Dimensional variations of a typical wood
sample vs. moisture content.
The shrinkage values tend to increase with basic
density, but values vary strongly between and within
species. Table 36.6 indicates the order of magnitude
values encountered in some species.
In the case of compression wood, the microfibril
angle in the S2 layer is large, which results in a lower
transverse shrinkage and a significant longitudinal
shrinkage. In spite of the very low value of the
microfibril angle in the G layer, tension wood of
hardwood has also an abnormally high longitudinal
shrinkage.
As logs are sawn in green state, shrinkage occurs
after sawing. The size of each section is reduced by
shrinkage and also the shape of the section changes
caused by the tangential or radial anisotropy in
shrinkage (Figure 36.12):
a. Only the quartersawn sections without the pith
keep their rectangular shape
b. Flatsawn sections cup into a trough-like shape

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 36.2.2 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN WOOD
TABLE 36.6
Order of Magnitude of Shrinkage Values in the 36.2.2.1 Fluid Migration in Wood:
Transverse Plane for Some Species. FSP is Assumed Single-Phase Flow
to be Equal to 30% for All Species
The understanding of the fluid migration in wood is
Species Radial Shrinkage Tangential Shrinkage of utmost importance to understand the drying pro-
Total Coefficient Total Coefficient cess. The differences in drying behavior between spe-
(%) (%/%) (%) (%/%) cies and within the log primarily come from the
permeability value and from the initial moisture sat-
Spruce, pine 5.0 0.17 9.0 0.30 uration. When only one fluid phase is present, the
Oak 6.0 0.20 11.0 0.37
classical Darcy’s law applies:
Beech 6.5 0.22 12.0 0.40
Balsa 3.0 0.10 6.0 0.20
Teak 3.0 0.10 5.0 0.17
K
v¼ r(P) (36:5)
Okoumé 4.0 0.13 6.5 0.22 m
Azobé 8.0 0.27 11.0 0.37
where v is the apparent velocity of the fluid through
Source: Kollmann, F.P. and Côté, W.A., Principles of Wood
the specimen (m s1), K is the permeability (m2), and
Science and Technology, Solid Wood, Vol. 1, Springer, Berlin,
m is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa s1).
1968; Aléon, D., Chanrion, P., Négrié, G., and Perré, P.,
FormaXylos 4—Le séchage (Training in Wood Science: Drying,
Fluid migration in wood uses the vascular system
Vol. 4), CD-Rom français/English, CTBA, Paris, 2003. developed by trees for their physiological require-
ments. For this reason, wood has several specific
features concerning permeability among which the
most important are the anisotropy ratios. Wood has
c. Quartersawn sections, which include the pith, dramatic anisotropy ratios: the longitudinal permea-
present a nonuniform thickness once dried; bility can be 1000 times greater than the transverse
near the pith, the thickness shrinks along the permeability for softwoods and more than a million-
radial direction whereas the tangential shrink- fold for hardwoods (Banks, 1968).
age is involved elsewhere Table 36.7 summarizes some values of directional
d. A squared section cut along the grain direction permeability available in the literature for different
becomes rectangular after drying species. Depending on the experimental apparatus
e. A diamond shape is obtained if the grain direc- and the protocol used by the authors, some data are
tion is along the diagonal missing in the papers. For example, it is not always

Flatsawn

(b)
(d)

(e)

Quartersawn

(a)
(c)

FIGURE 36.12 Section deformations depending on the sawing pattern. The shape after drying results from the anisotropy
ratio between radial and tangential shrinkage. These deformations exist even when the equilibrium is achieved and with a
uniform moisture content throughout the section. (Adapted from Aléon, D., Chanrion, P., Négrié, G., and Perré, P.,
FormaXylos 4—Le séchage (Training in Wood Science: Drying, Vol. 4), CD-Rom français/English, CTBA, Paris, 2003.)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

TABLE 36.7
Order of Magnitude of Permeability for Some Species along the Three Material Directions of Wood

References Species Notes Permeability (m2) Anisotropy Ratio

12 16 16
L · 10 R · 10 T · 10 KL/KR KL/KT KR/KT

Choong and Kimbler, 1971 Populus sp. S. l. a 0.59 — 0.44 — 13,000 —

Populus sp. H. l. a 0.61 0.15 0.18 40,000 33,000 0.835
Alnus rubra S. l. a 1.9 0.15 0.12 125,000 166,000 1.327
Liquidambar sp. S. l. a 2.7 0.19 0.69 145,000 39,000 0.273
Liriodendron sp. H. l. a 5.4 — 0.80 — 67,000 —
Sequoia sp. S. l. a 4.9 11.2 19.4 4,000 2,000 0.580
Sequoia sp. H. l. a 0.25 0.112 0.88 23,000 3,000 0.127
Pseudotsuga sp. H. l. a 0.026 0.000 0.000 — — —
Pseudotsuga sp. S. l. a 0.049 — 0.37 — 1,300 —
Pinus sp. H. l. a 0.0026 0.17 — 153 —
Choong. et al., 1974 Acer rubrum S. g. o 10.3 — — 8,300 11,400 1.4
Acer rubrum H. g. o 7.4 — —
Liriodendron sp. S. g. o 28.9 — — 1,450 1,600 1.1
Liriodendron sp. H. g. o 1.87 — —
Liquidambar sp. S. g.o 13.9 — — 1,300 2,750 2.1
Liquidambar sp. H. g. o 15.3 — —
Quercus rubra Sg 62.0 — — 13,000 18,000 1.4
Quercus rubra Hg 56.0 — —
Quercus falcata Sg 69.0 — — 110,000 143,000 1.3
Quercus falcata Hg 13.0 — —
Chen et al., 1998 Liriodendron sp. Sl 26.0 4.5 — 57,000 — —
Liriodendron sp. Hl 0.1 — — — — —
Juglans nigra Sl 27.0 0.08 — 3  106 — —
Juglans nigra Hl 0.0052 — — — — —
Quercus rubra Sl 61.0 0.68 — 900,000 — —
Quercus rubra Hl 45.0 — — — — —
Perré, 1992 and 2002 Picea sp. S. g. a 0.2 — — 700 — —
Fagus sylvatica S g. a 3.8 — — 3,000 65,000 21.0
Fagus sylvatica H g. a 1.4 — — 3,000 — —
Populus sp. H g. s 0.03 — — 10,000 — —

L, longitudinal; R, radial; T, tangential; S, sapwood; H, heartwood; l, permeability to liquid; g, permeability to gas; a, air-dried sample; o,
oven-dried sample.

easy to calculate the permeability ratios from permea-
bility value, or vice versa. Choong et al. (1974), for
example, have reported the permeability values for
sapwood and heartwood for the longitudinal direction,
but not for the transverse directions. Only the mean
anisotropy ratio is available in this paper. Perré (1992)
and Perré et al. (2002) have used an experimental
procedure to determine the longitudinal permeability
and the anisotropy ratio on the same sample. In these
instances, they just obtained the ratios and decided not
to calculate the transverse permeability accordingly.
The variability is impressive for both the permea-
bility values and the anisotropy ratios. In spite of the
scatter in the data, general trends are exhibited for the
longitudinal permeability:
. The most permeable species in the longitudinal
direction are among the ring-porous species
(Quercus spp.) that have very large vessels (up
to 500 mm in diameter).
. The diffuse-porous hardwoods are fairly per-
meable too; probably, the large number of
vessels can offset their smaller diameter (around
50 mm).
. Softwood species are generally less permeable;
these trees have no specific elements for sap
flow, so the fluid has to pass through the small
openings, the bordered pits, at the end of each
tracheid along the path, which is 1 to 2 mm
each. Certain softwood species, such as Pinus
radiata, however, are very permeable.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 The transverse permeability and the anisotropy
ratios are very variable. The heartwood part of logs
is usually much less permeable than the sapwood part
(Comstock, 1967). This is due to tyloses development
and extractives deposition (tannins, gums, etc.) in
hardwoods and due to the aspiration of bordered
pits in softwoods.
36.2.2.1.1 Pit Aspiration
In softwoods, the tracheids have considerable pitting
in their radial walls. These bordered pits are special-
ized valves to seal and isolate tracheids if they become
damaged or embolized, but remain open for sap flow.
At the pit location, the double cell wall takes the
shape of the external part of a torus. The external
diameter of this torus is in the range 10 to 20 mm,
depending on the position in the annual growth ring
(the diameter is smaller in latewood). The torus is
suspended by the margo, a net of radially oriented
microfibrils, with openings up to some micrometers
wide. In normal operation, the sap flows from one
tracheid to the other simply by using these small
openings (Figure 36.13a).
When gas invades one tracheid, the gas–liquid
interface is blocked in the margo due to capillary
forces. These forces press the torus against the oppos-
ite border of the pit (Figure 36.13b). Then, hydrogen
bonds keep the torus in this position; the pit is now
impermeable (Figure 36.13c). Such sealing of a pit is
known as aspiration.
Middle lamella
Margo
≅10 µm
Torus
Gas
Liquid Liquid
Secondary wall
Conductive bordered pit
FIGURE 36.13 The mechanism of pit aspiration: a clever strategy to limit the damage caused by any gas invasion due to
injury or cavitation of the sap column. (Adapted from Siau, J.F., Transport Processes in Wood, Springer, Berlin, 1984.)
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This subtle mechanism is vital for trees, but causes
some difficulties in wood drying. Indeed, pit aspiration
occurs as soon as water is removed from the wood,
sometimes even during the heartwood formation. In
particular, it is impossible to avoid pit aspiration when
drying softwoods under normal conditions.
Only freeze-drying, or changing the liquid phase for
a solvent with low surface tension before drying, allows
air-dried samples without pit aspiration to be obtained
(Comstock and Côté, 1968; Meyer, 1971; Bolton and
Petty, 1978; Fumoto et al., 1984). The permeability
values depend on the species and on the author,
but all these data show that air-dried samples, with
aspirated pits, have permeability values considerably
smaller than unaspirated samples (typically ranging
from 1 to 10%). Due to thicker cell walls, smaller pit
radii, and more rigid structures, the percentage of as-
pirated pits is much less in the latewood part of samples
(Siau, 1984).
36.2.2.2 Generalized Darcy’s Law:
Multiphase Flow
When two phases coexist, the generalized Darcy’s law
must be used. The volumetric flow rate of each phase
is considered to be proportional to the pressure gra-
dient of the corresponding phase. The phenomeno-
logical coefficient is the product of the permeability
K by a function of saturation called ‘‘relative permea-
bility’’ to the considered phase.
Capillary forces
Position of the
air/liquid
meniscus
Gas Gas
Liquid
Pit aspiration Aspirated pit
For the gaseous phase
K krg (S)
vg ¼  rPg (36:6)
mg
For the liquid phase
K kr‘ (S)
v‘ ¼  rP‘ (36:7)
m‘
The liquid pressure is related to the gaseous pressure
through the capillary pressure function:
P‘ ¼ Pg  Pc (S) (36:8)
Equation 36.6 and Equation 36.7 must be consistent
with Darcy’s law (Equation 36.5) when one single-
fluid phase occupies the porous medium. Conse-
quently, the relative permeability functions fulfill the
following conditions:
Gas only Liquid only
kr‘ (0) ¼ 0, kr‘ (1) ¼ 1 (36:9)
krg (0) ¼ 1, krg (1) ¼ 0
Although depending on both initial and boundary
conditions, the relative permeability values are usu-
ally supposed to be the function of saturation only.
Even with this simple assumption, their experimental
determination remains very challenging.
Very few results are available in the literature for
wood. Some data have been published by Tesoro et al.
(1972, 1974). A recent paper by Tremblay et al. (2000)
describes an indirect method to measure this property.
Based on the geometrical model of tracheids pro-
posed by Comstock (1970), Spolek and Plumb (1980)
derived an expression for the relative permeability in
softwoods. This model assumes that all tracheids are
exactly similar and that the wetting-phase distribution
is ideal. Their final expression involves an irreducible
saturation, below which no liquid flux is possible.
This concept of irreducible saturation has been
widely discussed, especially in the context of petrol-
eum production (Dullien, 1992). Depending on the
boundary conditions, one part of the fluid phase
that occupied the medium at the beginning of the
experiment remains in the medium, even though its
flow rate has vanished. This part seems to be trapped
in the medium in what is called a ‘‘pendular’’ state.
The amount of the residual part increases with the
imbibition or drainage velocity. In addition, the
amount of trapped phase after the experiment reduces
with time; surface spreading in the solid phase and the
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
edge-capillary pressure are the two mechanisms that
can explain this observation (Dullien, 1992). Due to
the microporosity that exists in the cell walls, such
mechanisms are likely to exist in wood also. However,
the concept of irreducible saturation has led to un-
realistic computed moisture content profiles during
drying (Perré, 1987), though later modeling of soft-
wood drying incorporates a similar concept success-
fully as a mean to account for pit aspiration (Nijdam
et al., 2000). In this case, ‘‘irreducible saturation’’
corresponds to the condition when pit aspiration is
sufficiently advanced such that the remaining free
moisture is immobilized in isolated pockets in the
wood.
Based on the measurements in the longitudinal
direction reported by Tesoro et al. (1972), on the
curve computed from the tracheid model (Spolek
and Plumb, 1980), and on those considerations
regarding the concept of irreducible saturation, the
following functions have been proposed for soft-
woods by Perré et al. (1993) (Figure 36.14):
In the transverse direction (radial or tangential)
kTrg ¼ 1 þ (2S  3)S2 and kTr‘ ¼ S3 (36:10)
In the longitudinal direction
kLrg ¼ 1 þ (4S  5)S4 and kLr‘ ¼ S8 (36:11)
36.2.2.3 Capillary Pressure
Some works can be found on the determination of
capillary pressure functions in wood. Mercury porosi-
metry exhibits a dramatic effect of the sample thick-
ness in the longitudinal direction (Trénard, 1980). For
short samples, the cell lumens are directly accessible to
the mercury; whereas for longer samples, the liquid has
to pass through the small openings, the pits that exist
between cells, clearly illustrating their bottlenecking
effect. The centrifuge method has been used success-
fully by Spolek and Plumb (1981) on softwoods and by
Choong and Tesoro (1989) on various species. To
determine the moisture content–water potential rela-
tionship of wood, Cloutier and Fortin (1991) used a
tension plate and a pressure plate. This is a drainage
method and their results could easily be converted into
a classic capillary pressure function.
Because certain anatomical features govern the
morphology of wood pores, particular methods can
be applied to wood:
. To compute a capillary pressure curve, Spolek
and Plumb (1981) have developed the geometrical
 1
0.8
Relative permeability
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4
Saturation
FIGURE 36.14 Relative permeability curves calculated using equations (36.10) and (36.11).
model of the tracheid shape proposed by Com-
stock (1970). Although it may be simplistic to
assume that all tracheids have exactly the same
shape, they obtained a good trend for the capillary
pressure function by this means.
. Because the longitudinal direction of wood is
very marked, it is quite simple to obtain the
three-dimensional structure of the material
from a cross section. Figure 36.15 depicts the
examples of capillary pressure curves calculated
from microscopic images of cross sections of
wood. In this case, the pore-size distribution
has been calculated using image processing
(Perré, 1997; Perré and Turner, 2002).
36.2.2.4 Bound-Water Diffusion
Macroscopic bound-water diffusion results from
transport mechanisms that take place at the micro-
scopic scale, i.e., diffusion of the bound water
through the cell walls and vapor diffusion due to
Fick’s law. At the microscopic scale, these two fluxes
can be expressed as follows:
f b ¼ rs Db rXb (Bound-water flux) (36:12)
f v ¼ rg Dv rvv (Vapor flux) (36:13)
In Equation 36.12 and Equation 36.13, Db and Dv
represent the microscopic bound-liquid and vapor
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Transverse
Longitudinal
0.6 0.8 1
diffusivities, respectively having units m2 s1 and vv
is the mass fraction of vapor in the gaseous phase.
By using the bound-liquid diffusivity data of
Stamm (1963), it is possible to obtain the following
least-squares, best-fit correlation for Db:
 
4300
Db ¼ exp 12:82 þ 10:90 Xb  (36:14)
T
where T is the temperature in Kelvin.
On assuming isothermal conditions and constant
total pressure, the microscopic vapor flux can be ex-
pressed with the gradient of the bound-water content
as the driving force by Equation 36.13.
 
Mv @Pv
fv ¼  Dv rXb (36:15)
RT @Xb
Within the anatomical structure of wood, any
combination in series or parallel of vapor diffusion
(in lumen and pits) and bound-water diffusion (in the
cell walls) is a possible pathway to drive water from
high to low moisture content regions (Figure 36.16).
Because Equation 36.12 and Equation 36.15 use the
same driving force, the expressions for the macroscopic
bound-water diffusivity in the radial and tangential
directions can be calculated even using homogenization
techniques according to these microscopic properties,
together with the pore morphology (Perré and Turner,
2002). Equation 36.14, derived from specific experi-
mental measurements, exhibits a dramatic increase of
 0.4

Late wood
Middle wood

Capillary pressure (Pc/Patm)

0.3 Early wood

0.2
641 kg m3
458 kg m3

0.1

349 kg m3

0
(a) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Saturation
0.8

Late wood
Capillary pressure (Pc/Patm)

0.6 Early wood

656 kg m3
0.4

3
543 kg m
0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(b)
Saturation

FIGURE 36.15 Capillary-function curves determined using image analysis. (a) spruce (Picea abies): the cells have thicker
walls and smaller radial extension in latewood part, hence the highest value of the capillary-pressure curve. One also has to be
aware that full saturation is obtained with a lower amount of water in latewood (the porosity of this part is very small); (b)
beech (Fagus sylvatica): because beech is a pore diffuse-porous hardwood species, no significant difference is observed
between these parts. The low capillary pressure obtained for saturation values above 0.2 corresponds to the meniscus radii
located in the vessel elements. The dramatic increase for low saturation values is due to the small lumen diameters of the
parenchyma and fiber cells.

the bound-water diffusivity as the bound moisture con- This expression is consistent with the derivation of the
tent increases. For this reason, the same trend is pre- second Fick’s law by using the mass balance equation:
dicted from the calculations or measurements at the
macroscopic scale; bound-water diffusion is always @Xb
easier for higher bound-water contents. ¼ r(Db rXb ) (36:17)
@t
When using the gradient of bound water as a
driving force, the macroscopic flux reads
For the sake of simplicity, the foregoing expressions
have always assumed isothermal conditions. However,
f b ¼ r0 Db rXb (36:16) this assumption fails for certain drying processes

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Low moisture content
High moisture content
FIGURE 36.16 Moisture diffusion in the hygroscopic
range: any combination in series or parallel of vapor diffu-
sion (in lumen and pits) and bound-water diffusion (in the
cell walls) is able to drive water from high to low moisture
content regions.
(e.g., impingement drying, radio-frequency, or micro-
wave heating). The problem of mass migration due to a
thermal gradient is a matter of scientific debate. Siau
(1984, 1995) gives a good review of possible formula-
tions that can be used in nonisothermal conditions.
36.2.2.5 Physical Formulation
Several sets of macroscopic equations are proposed in
the literature for the simulation of the drying process.
The first fundamental difference between them lies in
the number of state variables used to describe the
process:
. One: moisture content (or an equivalent vari-
able: saturation, water potential, etc.)
. Two: moisture content (or equivalent) and tem-
perature T (or an equivalent variable: enthalpy
etc.)
. Three: moisture content (or equivalent), T (or
equivalent), and gaseous pressure Pg (or an
equivalent variable: air density, intrinsic air
density, etc.)
Perré (1999) gives a critical review of the possibil-
ities and limitations given by these different sets of
equations. The use of moisture content alone is the
basis of many correlations of lumber-drying rates
(see Keey et al., 2000). Doe et al. (1996a) have found
that, at relatively low temperatures (<408C) used in
drying eucalyptus hardwoods, both moisture content
and temperature are needed in their evaluation of
moisture movement. The importance of gaseous
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
pressure appears in the simulation of high-
temperature seasoning, vacuum drying, or microwave
drying (Perré and Degiovanni, 1990; Perré and Turner,
1996, 1999a).
As a general rule, a one-variable model (moisture
content only) should be avoided (except, possibly,
when considering kiln behavior), especially because
it is not able to account for the very important coup-
ling that exists during drying between heat and mass
transfer. The two-variable model is appropriate for
most of the drying conditions encountered in indus-
try. Finally, the three-variable model, quite complex,
should be reserved for processes during which the
internal pressure has a significant impact on internal
moisture transport (processes with internal vaporiza-
tion: vacuum drying, high-temperature drying, radio-
frequency drying, etc.).
The second fundamental difference between the
drying models lies in the number of space variables
used to describe the process. One-dimensional
models (thickness) are fast running and allow the
most important phenomena to be caught (trans-
fers and drying stress), as the transfers occur mainly
over the long faces of lumber boards in a kiln. For a
more refined approach, a second direction can be
useful:
. The width is needed for a better evaluation of
drying rate and stress development, in particular
to account for the grain direction and the pres-
ence of both sapwood and heartwood.
. The length is absolutely required in the case of
processes with internal vaporization due to the
huge anisotropy ratios of wood.
Finally, a three-dimensional model allows a compre-
hensive geometrical modeling (Perré and Turner,
1999c).
The most comprehensive macroscopic formula-
tion is presented in this chapter; it accounts for all
transfer mechanisms presented in this section, includ-
ing the effect of internal gaseous pressure [Equation
T1 through Equation T5]. The set of equations, as
proposed below, derives for the most part from Whi-
taker’s works (Whitaker, 1977, 1998) with extensions
required to account for wood properties and drying
with internal overpressure (Perré and Degiovanni,
1990). In the equations set out below, all variables
are averaged over a REV (representative elementary
volume), large enough for average local quantities to
be defined but small enough to avoid variations due
to macroscopic gradients. Although very powerful for
numerous different configurations, these equations
assume equilibrium conditions at the microscopic
level and have some limitations (Perré, 1998).
 Water Conservation

@    ¼
«w rw þ «g rv þ rb þ r rwvw þ rvvg þ rb vb ¼ rðrg Deff rvv Þ ðT1Þ
@t

Energy Conservation

@   
« w r w hw þ «g ð r v h v þ r a ha Þ þ r b 
hb þ ro hs  «g Pg þ r rw hw vw þ ðrv hv þ ra ha Þvg þ hb rb vb
@t
 ¼ 
¼ r rgDeff ðhv rvv þ ha rva Þ þ leff rT þ F ðT2Þ

Air Conservation

@     ¼ 
«g ra þ r ravg ¼ r rg Deff rva (T3)
@t

where the gas- and liquid-phase velocities are given by the generalized Darcy’s law:
¼ ¼
K ‘ kr‘
v‘ ¼  rw‘ , rw‘ ¼ rP‘  r‘ grx (T4)
m‘

where ‘ is w, g, the quantity w is known as the phase potential, and x is the depth scalar. All other symbols
have their usual meaning.
Boundary Conditions
For the external drying surfaces of the sample, the boundary conditions are assumed to be of the following form:
 
1  x1
Jw jx¼0þ  ^n ¼ hm cMv ln
1  xv jx¼0
(T5)
Je jx¼0þ  n^ ¼ h(Tjx¼0  T1 )
Pg jx¼0þ ¼ Patm

where Jw and Je represent the fluxes of total moisture and total enthalpy at the boundary, respectively, and x
denotes the normal position from the boundary in the external medium.

36.2.3 PROCESS OF DRYING
36.2.3.1 Low-Temperature Convective Drying
Low-temperature convective drying is the most wide-
spread industrial process for seasoning wood in kilns.
In this case, the role of internal gaseous pressure is
almost negligible and transfer occurs mainly in the
direction of the board thickness. Two periods of dry-
ing may be distinguished: (1) a constant drying-rate
period and (2) a decreasing drying-rate period.
36.2.3.1.1 The Constant Drying-Rate Period
This stage is very common for certain porous media,
but is rarely seen with wood. However, it exists al-
most always for fresh boards consisting of sapwood
that are dried under moderate conditions (Perré et al.,
1993; Perré and Martin, 1994). During this period,
the exposed surface of the board is still above the
FSP. As a result, the vapor pressure at the surface is
equal to the saturated vapor pressure, and is a func-
tion of the surface temperature only.
Coupled heat and vapor transfer occur across in
the boundary layer (Figure 36.17). The heat flux sup-
plied by the airflow is used solely for transforming the
liquid water into vapor. During this stage, the drying
rate is constant and depends only on the external
conditions (temperature, relative humidity, velocity,
and flow configuration). The temperature at the sur-
face is equal to the wet-bulb temperature. Moreover,
because no energy transfer occurs within the medium
during this period, the whole temperature of the
board remains at the wet-bulb temperature.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Boundary layers

T Pv
External flow

Vapor
Heat

Low moisture
Capillary migration content
=
small radius

Liquid flow

High moisture
Wood content
=
large radius

FIGURE 36.17 Constant drying-rate period: the moisture migrates inside the medium mostly by capillary forces; evapor-
ation occurs at the exchange surface with a dynamical equilibrium within the boundary layers between the heat and the vapor
flows. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood drying: an
excellent tool for assisting with the study of new processes, Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth International IUFRO Wood
Drying Conference, Québec, Canada, 1996, 9–38.)

The exposed surface is supplied with liquid water
coming from the inside of the board by capillary
action; the liquid migrates from regions with high
moisture content (liquid–gas interfaces within large
pores) toward regions with low moisture content
(liquid–gas interfaces within small pores).
The constant drying-rate period lasts as long as the
surface is supplied with liquid. Its duration depends
strongly on the drying conditions (magnitude of the
external flux) and on the medium properties. The li-
quid flow inside the medium is expressed by Darcy’s
law (permeability  gradient of liquid pressure).
36.2.3.1.2 The Decreasing Drying-Rate Period
Once the surface attained the hygroscopic range,
the vapor pressure becomes smaller than the satur-
ated vapor pressure (Figure 36.18). Consequently, the
external vapor flux is reduced and the heat flux sup-
plied to the medium is temporarily greater than what
is necessary for liquid evaporation. The energy in
excess is used to heat the board, the surface at first
and then the inner part by conduction. A new, more
subtle, dynamic equilibrium takes place. The surface
vapor pressure, hence the external vapor flow, depends
on both temperature and moisture content. To main-
tain the energy balance, the surface temperature in-
creases as the surface moisture content decreases. This
leads to a decreasing drying rate (the heat supplied by
the airflow becomes smaller and smaller).
A two-zone process develops inside the wood: (1)
an inner zone, where liquid migration prevails, and
(2) a surface zone, where both bound-water and
water-vapor diffusion take place. During this period,
a conductive heat flux must exist inside the board to
increase the temperature and to evaporate the liquid
driven by gaseous diffusion. The region of liquid
migration naturally reduces as the drying progresses
and finally disappears. The process is finished when
the temperature and the moisture content attain the
outside air temperature and the EMC, respectively.
36.2.3.2 Drying at High Temperature: The Effect
of Internal Pressure on Mass Transfer
To reduce the drying time without decreasing the
quality of the dried product, the drying conditions
must be such that the temperature of the product is
above the boiling point of water. Such conditions
ensure that an overpressure exists within the material,
which implies that a pressure gradient drives the
moisture (liquid or vapor) toward the exchange sur-
faces (Lowery, 1979; Kamke and Casey, 1988).
At normal atmospheric pressure, the boiling point
of water equals 1008C. Consequently, in order to

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Diffusion of vapor
and bound water
External flow
Few vapor
molecules

Vapor
Heat

Many vapor
molecules

Capillary migration Low moisture

content
Bound water =
and vapor small radius

Liquid flow
High moisture
content
=
large radius

FIGURE 36.18 Second drying period: a region in the hygroscopic range develops from the exposed surface. In that region,
both vapor diffusion and bound-water diffusion act. Evaporation takes place partly inside the medium. Consequently, a heat
flux has to be driven toward the inner part of the board by conduction. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of
physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood drying: an excellent tool for assisting with the study of new processes,
Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Québec, Canada, 1996, 9–38.)

obtain an internal overpressure, the temperature of

the porous medium must be above that level during at Saturated vapor
Atmospheric pressure
least one part of the process. This is the aim of con- 100
vective drying at high temperature (moist air or
superheated steam) and a possible aim of contact
Pressure (kPa)

Boiling temperature
drying or drying with an electromagnetic field (micro-
wave or radio frequency).
50
However, as shown in Figure 36.19, it is possible
to reduce the boiling point of water by decreasing the External pressure
external pressure and, consequently, to obtain a high-
temperature effect with relatively moderate drying
conditions. This is the principle of vacuum drying, 0
particularly useful for lumber that would be damaged 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
by high temperature levels. Temperature (⬚C)
Whenever an overpressure exists inside a board,
the large anisotropy ratios imply intricate transfer FIGURE 36.19 Vacuum drying seeks to reduce the boiling
mechanisms. Heat is often supplied in the thickness point of water in order to obtain a high-temperature effect
direction while, in spite of the length, the effect of with moderate drying conditions. (saturated vapor pressure
the pressure gradient on gaseous (important for low values from Lide 1995.)
moisture content) or liquid migration (important for
high moisture content) takes place in the longitudinal 36.2.3.3 Typical Drying Behavior: Difference
direction (Figure 36.20). This is a result of the ana- between Sapwood and Heartwood
tomical features of wood. In the case of very intensive
internal transfer, the end piece can be fully saturated In a tree, freshly cut down and sawn, it is easy to
and, sometimes, moisture can leave the sample in the distinguish sapwood from heartwood (by touch or by
liquid state. (This is quite easy to observe during sight). But a few days later, the loss of surface moisture
microwave heating.) content makes it impossible to do that. Nevertheless, in

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Heat
Vessel or
tracheid
Vapor

Liquid

Pits

Endpiece
fully saturated

Liquid evacuation
possible in
Overpressure microwave heating

FIGURE 36.20 Drying at high temperature (second drying period): a high-temperature regime means that an overpressure
develops inside the medium. Depending on the moisture content, this overpressure induces liquid or gaseous flow; in
addition, as wood is strongly anisotropic, the most part of the flow occurs in the longitudinal direction (see the magnified
views). (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood drying:
an excellent tool for assisting with the study of new processes, Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth International IUFRO Wood
Drying Conference, Québec, Canada, 1996, 9–38.)

the case of high-temperature drying, the increase of
internal pressure gives rise to longitudinal migration
of liquid toward the end pieces, provided that the
permeability and the moisture content are high
enough. This is a good way to spot sapwood after a
few hours of drying (Figure 36.21b). This phenomenon
can be observed in industrial kilns (Figure 36.21c).
To illustrate the effect of these differences on the
drying process, Figure 36.22 depicts drying experi-
ments carried out with superheated steam at 1508C
on both sapwood and heartwood of Norway spruce
(Picea abies). They are representative of the trends
observed by different authors (Salin, 1989; Pang et al.,
1994; Perré and Martin, 1994).
After the initial transient period, the constant dry-
ing-rate period takes place for the sapwood board.
During this period, which lasts several hours, all
temperatures are equal to the wet-bulb temperature
and the overpressure remains very small. At the be-
ginning of the second drying period (around 350
min), an important overpressure develops due to
the temperature increase. It disappears only when the

(a) A stack at the beginning of the drying

Heartwood Sapwood
Sapwood Heartwood

(b) The same stack after a few hours of drying

at high temperature
(c)

FIGURE 36.21 A stack of boards during high-temperature drying (shaded areas indicate wet zones).

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Different locations
Air flow 6 in the sample
5
4
1 3 30 mm
0 8
1.0 m

150 1.0

T1
T8
130 0.8
T5

Overpressure (Patm)
Temperature (˚C)

T3
110 0.6

90 P3 0.4

P5

70 0.2

50 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
(a)
Time (min)

150 1.25

T1
T8
130 1.00
T5
T3

Overpressure (Patm)
Temperature (˚C)

110 0.75

P3
90 0.50

70 0.25
P5

50 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
(b) Time (min)

FIGURE 36.22 Experiment on spruce (Picea abies) dried with superheated steam at 1508C. Temperature and internal
pressure at different locations. Note the difference between sapwood (a) and heartwood (b).

entire board enters the hygroscopic range. At this The results obtained for heartwood are quite dif-
moment, all temperatures approach the dry-bulb ferent. No constant drying-rate period can be ob-
temperature. served. Just a short plateau at the boiling point

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.


150
Sapwood
Moisture content (%)
100
Heartwood
50
0
0 200
Time (min)
FIGURE 36.23 Moisture content loss obtained for sapwood
and for heartwood (same experiments as in Figure 36.22).
is detectable at the rear end of the board (T8).
Consequently, the overpressure remains high (espe-
cially for the center pressure P3) up to the end of the
drying. The maximum pressure is higher for heart-
wood than for sapwood. The differences in drying
kinetics are of great interest. In spite of the high initial
moisture content of sapwood (170% against 60%), the
permeability of heartwood is so low that the curves
cross each other at 450 min of drying (Figure 36.23).
This is consistent with the observations on entire
stacks (Salin, 1989).
The strategy of simulating the differences between
heartwood and sapwood lies in only two sets of param-
eters: the permeability and the initial moisture content
(for these experiments, 180% for sapwood and 70% for
heartwood). The values of permeability used to differ-
entiate sapwood from heartwood (Table 36.8) are
based on the considerations concerning pit aspiration.
By using only these differences, Perré and Turner
(1996) found that all the trends observed for sapwood
and heartwood were found in the simulated results.
The most spectacular effect is the longitudinal flow
due to the overpressure (Figure 36.24). In the case of
high-temperature convective drying, the sapwood
board delivers a large supply of water to the end
piece after 5 h, while the heartwood end piece is
already within the hygroscopic range. These carpet
plots should be compared with Figure 36.21.
36.2.4 MECHANICAL ASPECTS
36.2.4.1 Mechanical Behavior of Wood
Industrial wood drying consists of not only re-
moving moisture from greenwood but also ensur-
ing that its quality (fitness for purpose) is adequate
in end use. Because wood shrinks during drying,
deformations and stresses develop that can lead to
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
TABLE 36.8
Intrinsic Permeabilities Used in the Drying Modeling
Direction Heartwood Sapwood
Longitudinal
Gas 1013 m2 2.1013 m2
Liquid 1013 m2 1012 m2
Transverse
Gas 1016 m2 2.1016 m2
Liquid 1016 m2 1015 m2
400 600
unusable products (Figure 36.25). The understanding
of these aspects must account for the complex mech-
anical behavior of wood, including its memory effect.
Shrinkage is the ‘‘driving’’ force for drying stress,
i.e., without shrinkage, no drying stresses would de-
velop. Figure 36.26 exhibits the dimensional variation
of an unladen sample with the moisture content
(the latter is assumed to be uniform). Under normal
conditions, the dimensions do not change until the
moisture content attains a moisture content close to
the acknowledged FSP. This condition is sometimes
called SIP. Then, the dimension variations are almost
proportional to the change in moisture content. This
strain field is called free shrinkage.
A sample subjected to tensile or compressive stress
(Figure 36.27) exhibits the instantaneous deformation
(elastic part) at first, which then increases with time
(viscoelastic creep). After cycling the moisture con-
tent to and from a higher moisture content, the creep
has been significantly greater due to mechanosorptive
action.
Thus, a sample subjected to a compressive stress
(as shown in case 1, Figure 36.28) exhibits a smaller
length at the end of drying than an unloaded speci-
men (case 2), which itself has a smaller length than
the sample subjected to a tensile stress (case 3). In
this experiment, the viscoelastic behavior acts be-
cause of time and the mechanosorptive behavior
acts because of the removal of water molecules due
to drying.
These ideas can now be applied to the drying of
lumber boards, which is assumed to be stress-free at
the beginning. At the beginning of drying (constant
drying-rate period), sap throughout the entire board
OF WOOD DRYING
remains free. No shrinkage occurs; hence, stress
buildup is absent.
At the beginning of the second drying period,
shrinkage exists close to the exposed surfaces
(Figure 36.29a). At this moment, if the section was
cut into slices, the outer slices would have a shorter
length than the inner ones (Figure 36.29b). This dis-
placement field is not compatible and induces, in the
 Moisture content
Moisture content
50 50

40 40
1.0 1.0
30 30
0.5 0.5
Len 20 Len 20
gth gth
(cm 0.0 (cm 10 0.0
) 10 2 ) 2 )
1 ) 1
(cm
(cm
0
0 0 0 h
idth idt
W W

Temperature
Temperature
50 150 50 150
40 125 40 125
30 100 30 100
Len 75 Len 20 75
gth 20
gth
(cm (cm 50
) 10 50 ) 10
2 ) 2 )
1 cm 1 cm
h(
0 0 ( 0 0
i dth idt
W W

Pressure
Pressure

50 50

40 1.8 40 1.8
1.6 1.6
30 30
1.4 Len 1.4
Len gth 20
gth 20 1.2 (cm 1.2
(cm )
) 10 1.0 10 1.0 )
2 m) 2 (cm
1 c 1
0 0 th ( 0 0 h
d
i idt
(a) W (b) W

FIGURE 36.24 High-temperature drying (140/858C). Carpet plot after 5 h of drying. Internal overpressure, resaturation of
the end piece, thermal conduction along the thickness, and end piece close to the wet-bulb temperature are evident on these
plots. Note the high value of internal pressure and the absence of end-piece resaturation obtained for heartwood (b).

actual section, a tensile stress in the surface layers and prong test or cup method commonly used in industry
(because of equilibrium conditions) a counteracting to assess stress levels (Figure 36.31). When the inner
compressive stress in the core layers (Figure 36.29c). tensile stress is too high, internal checking occurs
During this period, surface checking is possible. (Figure 36.25). An interesting simulation of this test
From this point onward, the wood layers dry under can be found in Dahlblom et al. (1994).
load.
As the drying proceeds, viscoelastic creep develops, 36.2.4.2 Drying Stress Formulation
together with mechanosorptive creep. The outer slices
appear similar in configuration to that exhibited for During drying, shrinkage appears in all parts of the
slice n83 in Figure 36.28, while the internal slices resem- board for which the moisture content X is within the
ble slice n81. Consequently, in spite of the flat moisture hygroscopic range. The shrinkage strain is proportional
content profile, slicing the section at the end of the to the difference between the local moisture content and
drying would give picture Figure 36.30b; the core slices, the local value of the moisture content at fiber saturation
dried under compression, are smaller than the outer at the same temperature. A deformation field noted, «sh,
ones, dried under tension. In the actual section, com- is defined in the material’s axes by Equation S1.
pressive stress exists in the inner part (Figure 36.30c). If this deformation field does not fulfill the geo-
This phenomenon is known as stress reversal or case- metrical compatibility, a strain tensor «mec related to
hardening. The residual stress level depends on many stress is generated. The constitutive equation, which
parameters (growth history, sawing pattern, drying represents the mechanical behavior of the material,
conditions, species, thickness, etc.), which provide most relates this strain tensor «mec and the stress tensor.
of the problems of drying optimization. In addition, Due to the memory effect of wood, this tensor «mec
one must keep in mind that gradients of moisture has to be divided into two parts: (1) an elastic strain,
content, strain, and stress exist along the thickness. «elas, connected to the actual stress tensor and (2) a
This explains the curvature of the slices observed in memory strain, «mem, which includes all the strain due

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

to the history of that point («mem can deal with plas-
ticity, creep, mechanosorption, etc.).
The geometrical compatibility applies to the
total strain field «tot. When solving the mechanical
problems in terms of displacement, the total strain
tensor is deduced from the displacement field and this
geometrical condition is automatically fulfilled within
the domain. The stress field must satisfy the local mech-
anical equilibrium and the boundary conditions.
Finally, the complete formulation of the stress problem
is given by Equation S1 through Equation S4.
36.2.4.3 Memory Effect
While describing the strain field, «mem, lies the entire
problem of developing a constitutive model for
wood, which requires both theoretical and numerical
work. Comprehensive formulations are also very
difficult to characterize (Ranta-Maunus, 1975). The
problem lies in the fact that the memory effect of
wood depends not only on the temperature and mois-
ture content values but also on their variations in time
and on the history of their variations in time. This

2 3
A 0 0
x)4 0
«sh ¼ H(~ B 05 (S1)
0 0 C

with

0 if X (~
x) $ X fsp
x) ¼
H(~
x)  Xfsp
X (~ if X (~
x) # X fsp

«mec ¼ «elas þ «mem (S2)

8 tot 1
>
> « ¼ 2 (ui, j þ uj,i ) over V
> ij
>
< sij , j þ rfi ¼ 0 over V
sij ¼ aijkl («tot 0
kl  «kl ) over V with «0 = «sh + «mem and 8i , GDi  GTi = G (S3)
>
>
>
> s n ¼ Ti on GTi
: ij j
ui ¼ D i ¼ 0 on GDi

Remarks:

. This static formulation requires that boundary and volumetric forces satisfy the global equilibrium.
. G is the surface surrounding the domain V. GDi refers to the subdomain of G where the i component
of the displacement is known and GTi to the subdomain of G where the i component of the traction
force is known. In order to ensure the uniqueness of the solution, additional conditions are required
on the boundary conditions: 8i, mes(GDi) > 0. Otherwise, the solution is defined within a rigid body
motion.
. As wood is orthotropic, each behavior law involves nine independent terms. In fact, it is more
common to define the inverse of aijkl that, for the case of linear elasticity, leads to the generalized
Hooke’s law:

2 3
1 RL TL
6 EL   0 0 0 7
6 ER ET 7
2 3 6 
6  LR
1

TR
0 0
7
0 72 s 3
«LL 6 EL ER ET 7 LL
6 «RR 7 6 LT RT 1 76
76 sRR 7
6 7 6 7
6 « 7 6 6

EL

ER ET
0 0 0 76
76 sTT 7
6 TT 7 7
6 2«LR ¼ g LR 7 ¼ 6
6 1 76
7 sLR 7
(S4)
6 7 0 0 0 0 0 76 7
4 2«LT ¼ g LT 5 6 6 GLR 74 sLT 5
6 1 7
2«RT ¼ g RT 6 0 0 7 s
6 0 0 0 7 RT
6 GLT 7
4 1 5
0 0 0 0 0
GRT

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

FIGURE 36.25 Two examples of mechanical degrade during wood drying: board deformation and internal checking.

Greenwood Length
SIP Oven-dried

0 SIP Moisture content

FIGURE 36.26 Wood shrinkage: the shrinkage intersection point (SIP), often close to 30%, depends on species and
temperature.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Moisture
Time t = 0+ After cycles of content
Time t
moisture content
Constant
moisture Load Time
Load
content
Load Load

Time
Mechanosorptive
Length
variation
Viscoelastic

Time

FIGURE 36.27 Viscoelastic and mechanosorptive behavior of wood. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of
physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood drying: an excellent tool for assisting with the study of new processes,
Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Québec, Canada, 1996, 9–38.)

subject remains a matter of some scientific debate (Keey a spring and dashpot in parallel (Genevaux, 1989;
et al., 2000). Martensson, 1992; Mohager and Toratti, 1993; Han-
Nevertheless, in the case of drying, the moisture hijärvi, 1999 Passard and Perre, 2005). In the case of
content only decreases and some simplifications uniaxial load, this leads to
apply. Here, only the most common way to express !
creep and mechanosorptive effect will be presented. X
N t
The general formulation of the time dependency of J(t) ¼ J0 1 þ an (1  e t n ) (36:19)
the creep property involves the whole stress history: n¼1

ðt The temperature and moisture dependency of that

dskl function can be expressed using a material time or
«ij ¼ Jijkl (t  t ) 0 dt0
0
(36:18)
dt changing the characteristic time tn. The thermal acti-
1 vation, for example, is often expressed with the aid of
an Arrhenius law:
where Jijkl(t) is the creep compliance tensor and t is  
the actual time. The experimental creep function is DWn
tn ¼ t1n exp  (36:20)
often analyzed as a number of Kelvin elements in RT
series (Figure 36.32), each having the property of

+
Time t = 0 high Time t low
moisture content moisture content

Load

1 2 3 Drying 1 2 3

Load

FIGURE 36.28 Dimension changes of a specimen loaded during drying. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of
physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood drying: an excellent tool for assisting with the study of new processes,
Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Québec, Canada, 1996, 9–38.)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Second drying period
Tensile
stress
FSP
Compressive
stress
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 36.29 Appearance of drying stresses following
shrinkage. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical model-
ing of physical and mechanical phenomena involved in
wood drying: an excellent tool for assisting with the study
of new processes, Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth Inter-
national IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Québec, Can-
ada, 1996, 9–38.)
where DWn is the activation energy associated to
element n.
The mechanosorptive effect occurs as soon as the
moisture content changes during load. The simpler
way to express this effect consists in assuming that
the strain rate depends linearly on both the stress field
and the time derivative of the moisture content ḣ:
«_ ms
ij ¼ mijkl skl (sign ḣ)ḣ (36:21)
The mechanosorptive strain rate is always in the dir-
ection of the stress field, hence the factor sign u_ in
Equation 36.21.
A three-dimensional resolution is very costly in
terms of calculation time and computer memory
space. The need for such a cost is justified whenever
the objective of the calculation lies in evaluating the
overall deformation of the board. In this way, the
effect of reaction wood, fiber angle, and property
End of drying
Tensile
stress
FSP
Compressive
Xeq stress
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 36.30 Stress reversal due to the memory effect of
wood. (Adapted from Perré, P., The numerical modeling of
physical and mechanical phenomena involved in wood
drying: an excellent tool for assisting with the study
of new processes, Tutorial, Proceedings of the Fifth Inter-
national IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Québec,
Canada, 1996, 9–38.)
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Second drying period End of drying
Prong
test
Cup
method
FIGURE 36.31 Two experimental methods used to assess
drying stresses.
variations can be analyzed. Good examples of these
possibilities can be found in the literature (Dahlblom
et al., 1994, 1996; Ormarsson, 1999). Nevertheless, to
study the stress development within a section far
from the ends of the board, a two-dimensional simu-
lation is sufficient. A ‘‘planar displacement’’ formula-
tion has to be used in this case, assuming small
displacements (Perré and Passard, 1995; Chen et al.,
1997a) or large displacements (Mauget and Perré, 1999).
36.2.4.4 Stress Development during Drying:
Some Examples
All examples presented in this section, except the non-
symmetric case, refer to a flatsawn board of heart-
wood, 20-mm thick and 40-mm wide. They have been
computed using the computer code Transpore (Perré
and Turner, 1996b and c, 1999; Mauget and Perré,
1999; Perré and Passard, 2002;). Figure 36.33 depicts
the moisture and stress fields calculated at different
drying stages for quite severe conditions at a medium
temperature level (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 608C). After 6 h
of drying, the external part of the section is within the
hygroscopic range, which gives rise to tensile stress due
to shrinkage in the zones close to the exchange surface.
As a consequence of the mechanical equilibrium, in-
ternal zones undergo compressive stress. A negative
shear stress exists close to the edge (the right angles
have decreased). At the end of the drying process (60 h)
the moisture content is almost equal to the EMC (7%)
throughout the section. The stress reversal due to the
memory effect of wood is clearly exhibited. It can be
noted that the shear stress also changes in sign.
When a face of a board is insulated, the dry-
ing conditions are not symmetrical anymore and
 Element 1 Element 2 Element N

Element 0

FIGURE 36.32 Modeling the viscoelastic behavior of wood with the number of Kelvin elements in series.

significant section deformations can be observed ex- large displacement formulation is essential in this
perimentally (Brandão and Perré, 1996). Figure 36.34 case. In this configuration, one part of the drying
is an example of nonsymmetrical drying. In order to stress is transformed into section deformation; hence
increase the section deformation, a thin quartersawn the stress-reversal phenomenon induces a negative
board has been simulated, here 5 mm by 80 mm. The final curvature.

Moisture content Sigma xx

1.0 1.0
Thickness (cm)

Thickness (cm)
0.8 0.65 0.8 1.54
0.58 1.24
0.51 0.93
0.6 0.44 0.6 0.63
0.37 0.32
0.4 0.29 0.4 0.01
0.22 −0.29
0.15 −0.60
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Width (cm) Width (cm)

Sigma xy Sigma yy
1.0 1.0
Thickness (cm)

Thickness (cm)

0.8 0.15 0.8 1.29

0.09 1.04
0.03 0.79
0.6 −0.03 0.6 0.53
−0.09 0.28
0.4 −0.15 0.4 0.03
−0.21 −0.22
−0.28 −0.47
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
(a) Width (cm) Width (cm)

Moisture content Sigma xx

1.0 1.0
Thickness (cm)

Thickness (cm)

0.8 0.08 0.8 0.12

0.08 −0.29
0.07 −0.70
0.6 0.07 0.6 −1.11
0.07 −1.52
0.4 0.07 0.4 −1.93
0.07 −2.34
0.07 −2.75
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Width (cm) Width (cm)

Sigma xy Sigma yy
1.0 1.0
aThickness (cm)

Thickness (cm)

0.8 0.24 0.8 −0.10

0.21 −0.35
0.18 −0.60
0.6 0.15 0.6 −0.86
0.12 −1.11
0.4 0.09 0.4 −1.36
0.06 −1.62
0.03 −1.87
0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(b) Width (cm) Width (cm)

FIGURE 36.33 Moisture content and stress fields after (a) 6 h and (b) 60 h (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 608C).

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 7h
Moisture:
30 h
FIGURE 36.34 Example of nonsymmetrical drying: moisture content and section deformation (80/608C).
The next example illustrates three different con-
stant drying conditions chosen to analyze the possibil-
ities of prediction (Td stands for dry-bulb temperature
and Tw for wet-bulb temperature):
1. Td ¼ 408C, Tw ¼ 358C; mild conditions at low
temperature (EMC ¼ 15%)
2. Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 608C; rather severe condi-
tions at medium temperature (EMC ¼ 7%)
3. Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 768C; mild conditions at
medium temperature (EMC ¼ 14%)
Figure 36.35 depicts the variations of the averaged
moisture content and the stress level (direction paral-
lel to the exchange surface) at different positions vs.
time. All tests show a first drying period, without
drying stress, then a stage with tensile stress in the
peripheral zones, and finally the last drying stage that
exhibits the stress reversal. However, the duration of
each stage and the stress level depend strongly on the
drying conditions.
For the mild drying conditions at low temperature
(Td ¼ 408C, Tw ¼ 358C), the drying time is rather
important. The first drying period lasts for around 10 h
and the stress level is high for both the second drying
stage and the final drying stage. The drying condi-
tions are mild concerning heat and mass transfer,
while the temperature level is not high enough for
the creep field to relax the stress field; the final stress
level reveals the importance of the memory effect.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
0.05 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.31 0.35
As a consequence of the low relative humidity of
air, the second test (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 608C) is very
fast. However, both the maximum tensile stress level
and the final stress reversal are important; the rapid
external transfer imposes a high moisture content
gradient within the board. In addition, the viscoelas-
tic creep is not sufficient to cancel the memory effect.
At the beginning of drying, the board temperature is
close to the wet-bulb temperature, which is below the
glass-transition zone (Geoffray 1984, Goreng 1963,
Salmen 1984, Ostberg et al. 1990, Passard and Perre
2001). At the end of drying, the temperature level is
sufficient for greenwood, but not for the dry part of
the board to activate the viscoelastic behavior. Con-
sequently, the outer parts, which are close to EMC,
are below the glass-transition zone.
In the third test (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 768C), the
difference in moisture content between surface and
core remains low. The first drying period lasts an
important part of the total drying time. Due to the
high value of EMC, the board temperature is always
above the softening zone; consequently, all stress
levels remain very low. These conditions allow wood
of good quality to be obtained relatively free of stress
reversal with a moderate drying time (less than 150 h
against 400 h for the low-temperature test).
These simulations are in good agreement with
nonsymmetrical drying experiments performed on
oak (Quercus rubra) boards using the same drying
conditions (Figure 36.36; Perré, 2001). However, a
 90 1.5
Moisture
content

Averaged moisture content (%)

75 Surface 1.0
5 mm
10 mm
60 Center 0.5

sxx (MPa)
45 0

30 −0.5

15 −1.0

0 −1.5
(a) 0 100 200 300 400
Time (h)
90 1.5
Moisture
content
Averaged moisture content (%)

75 Surface 1.0
5 mm
10 mm
60 Center 0.5

sxx (MPa)
45 0

30 −0.5

15 −1.0

0 −1.5
(b) 0 50 100 150
Time (h)
90 1.5
Moisture
content
Averaged moisture content (%)

75 Surface 1.0
5 mm
10 mm
60 Center 0.5
sxx (MPa)

45 0

30 −0.5

15 −1.0

0 −1.5
0 50 100 150 200
(c) Time (h)

FIGURE 36.35 Averaged moisture content and sxx vs. time: (a) Td ¼ 408C, Tw ¼ 358C; (b) Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 608C; and
(c) Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 768C.

closely similar schedule for another hardwood
(Nothofagus truncata) resulted in gross deformations
and thermal degradation due to the high extractives
content of the wood (Grace, 1996).
Based on this reasoning, new drying procedures
have been devised and tested on different tropical
species, including numerous tests in industrial kiln of
100-m3 capacity (Aguiar and Perré, 2000b). The prod-
uct quality was always very good, often with very little
checking and rather less deformation than with
conventional drying. Most importantly, this method
needs only one half to one third of the time required
for drying according to conventional schedules.
The code can also be used to test different drying
schedules (Figure 36.37). The first one (Schedule A) is
recommended for softwoods while the second one

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

FIGURE 36.36 Final section curvature of oak samples dried on their upper face with conditions n 2 (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼
608C) and n3 (Td ¼ 808C, Tw ¼ 768C), respectively.

(Schedule B) is recommended for hardwoods. Sched- derived to improve existing drying schedules or to
ule B proposes lower temperature levels and higher devise innovative drying procedures.
relative humidity values. In this drying schedule,
EMC decreases significantly only at the end of the
process, when the board is supposed to be dry with a Schedule A
low moisture content gradient. As the first conse- Average Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Relative
quence of these drying conditions, one can notice a Moisture Temperature Temperature Humidity
much longer drying time for Schedule B (130 h Content (%) (8C) (8C) (%)
against 50 h). The first drying period lasts also for a Green 71 66 80
longer time for the second procedure (30 h instead of 50 76.5 68.5 70
10 h). It may be noted that the first drying–period 30 82 70.5 60
duration represents about the same percentage of the 20 88 67.5 40
total drying time for both schedules. This remark still Schedule B
stands for the stress level. One can easily consider a Average Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb Relative
relative time (current time over total drying time) at Moisture Temperature Temperature Humidity
which all curves have the same shape and the same Content (%) (8C) (8C) (%)
stress magnitude.
Green 40.5 38 85
In the first example, the advantages to be gained
60 40.5 37 80
from using a high relative humidity level (low mois- 40 43.5 39 75
ture content gradient, high hygroactivation of the 35 43.5 38 70
viscoelastic behavior) hardly offset the negative ef- 30 46 39.5 65
fect of the low temperature levels (slow moisture 25 51.5 43 60
migration and low thermoactivation of the viscoe- 20 60 47.5 50
lastic behavior). A careful analysis of these ap- 15 65.5 49 40
proaches is very promising. New rules can be

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Average moisture Dry-bulb Wet-bulb Relative
Average moisture Dry-bulb Wet-bulb Relative content temperature temperature humidity
(%) (8C) (8C) (%)
content temperature temperature humidity
(%) (8C) (8C) (%) Green 40.5 38 85
60 40.5 37 80
Green 71 66 80
40 43.5 39 75
50 76.5 68.5 70
35 43.5 38 70
30 82 70.5 60
30 46 39.5 65
20 88 67.5 40
25 51.5 43 60
20 60 47.5 50
15 65.5 49 40
120 90
100 70
Temperature edge
100 Temperature center 80
Moisture content (%)

MC edge

Temperature (8C)
Moisture content (%)
MC center 80 60

Temperature (8C)
MC surface Temperature edge
80 MC average 70 Temperature center
MC edge
MC center
60 MC surface 50
60 60 MC average

40 40
40 50

20 40 20 30

0 30 0 20
0 20 40 60 0 50 100 150
Time (h) Time (h)
2 2
Surface Surface
5 mm 5 mm
10 mm 10 mm
1 Center 1 Center
sxx (MPa)

sxx (MPa)

0 0

−1 −1

−2 −2
0 20 40 60 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Time (h) Time (h)
Schedule A Schedule B

FIGURE 36.37 Simulation of two different drying schedules: moisture content, temperature, and stress level at different
positions vs. time.

An alternative procedure in improving kiln sched- only are to be considered (Figure 36.38). Some param-
ules has been the estimation of strain levels to provide a eters depending on the load are important, but they are
safe envelope of dry- and wet-bulb temperatures in kiln not under control:
operation. One industrial method uses acoustic emis-
sions on sample boards to determine a stress threshold . The thickness is a very important parameter
to keep the surface strain under 50 to 75% of the esti- (roughly speaking, the drying time increases as
mated ultimate value (Doe et al., 1996b). Later opti- the thickness doubled)
mized schedules have been developed by Langrish et al. . The transfer properties of the wood (diffusivity,
(1997) using a model predictive control technique to permeability, capillary pressure, thermal con-
keep within the strain criterion. The technique reduced ductivity, etc.)
the number of small- and medium-sized cracks, both
internally and at the surface, to less than one quarter of In conventional drying, the controlled parameters
those observed in the original conventional schedule. are the dry- and wet-bulb temperatures as well as the
velocity of the airflow. These three parameters deter-
36.2.5 DRYING QUALITY mine the external heat- and mass-transfer rates:

36.2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Drying Duration

. The ‘‘drying potential’’ of the air flow is the
heat-transfer coefficient (which increases with
Let us assume that the duration of drying is the single the air velocity) times the difference between
important factor. In this case, heat and mass transfer dry- and wet-bulb temperatures.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Parameters Low value High value

Velocity
External

Drying potential
(dry bulb−wet bulb)

Thickness

Internal Mass diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity

Temperature

FIGURE 36.38 Guidelines on how to obtain a fast drying operation (from good to excellent and from poor to
disastrous). (Adapted from Perré, P., The drying of wood: the benefit of fundamental research to shift from
improvement to innovation, Proceedings of the Seventh International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 2001,
2–13.)

. The air velocity also plays an important role in
uniform drying within the stack. However, its
effect becomes less important as the drying pro-
gresses when internal transfer mainly controls
the moisture migration.
In addition, we have to keep in mind some more
subtle effects:
. The internal transfer (diffusion, liquid migra-
tion) becomes easier when the temperature
level increases.
. Above the boiling point of water, an additional
driving force, the gradient of total pressure, acts
with a dramatic effect (Perré, 1995). Drying
by internal vaporization takes place in such
conditions.
. The internal transfer rates depend on the local
moisture content (liquid migration is usually much
more effective than bound or vapor diffusion).
In addition, diffusion becomes very slow when
the bound-water content decreases toward zero.
In general, the drying time is reduced when the
velocity and the temperature of air are high and its
relative humidity is low. However, an excessively low
relative humidity may produce a surface zone with low
moisture content, thus reducing moisture migration
close to the surface. All high-temperature arrange-
ments (convective drying at high temperature, vacuum
drying, contact drying, etc.) are processes that acceler-
ate internal moisture migration due to the overpres-
sures generated within the product.
Finally, drying with electromagnetic heating
(microwave or radio frequency) offers an entirely
new possibility: any internal temperature can be
attained without resorting to a heating medium such
as a hot gas.
36.2.5.2 Factors Affecting the Drying Quality
Drying stresses originate from shrinkage; as soon as
the shrinkage field within the board is not geometric-
ally compatible, a stress field develops in the material,
which is responsible for mechanical degradation. In
order to reduce the stress level throughout the pro-
cess, and thereby the surface checking, the internal
checking, and the residual stress, several conditions
should be fulfilled (Figure 36.39):
. Low shrinkage coefficients, not under control
. Small thickness, not under control
. Low moisture content values between surface
and core
. Retaining important possibilities of viscoelastic
creep (mechanosorptive creep is always a source
of stress reversal); such an effect is obtained at
high temperatures, provided the moisture con-
tent is sufficiently high (Irvine, 1984)
It may be noted that a low-temperature level is some-
times desired (for example to avoid collapse), because
a high-temperature level may produce thermal deg-
radation or discoloration.
36.2.5.3 Criteria for Obtaining a Fast and Good
Drying Process
A fast and good drying process should incorporate the
criteria listed in Section 36.2.5.1 and Section 36.2.5.2,

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Second drying period
Parameters Low value High value
Tension

Compression Thickness

Tension Moisture content

(bound) gradient
(center−surface)
End of drying
Shrinkage
Compression

Tension Surface moisture

content
Compression
Temperature

FIGURE 36.39 Guidelines on how to obtain a good-quality product (from good to excellent and from poor to
disastrous). (Adapted from Perré, P., The drying of wood: the benefit of fundamental research to shift from
improvement to innovation, Proceedings of the Seventh International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 2001,
2–13.)

which are, to a large extent, contradictory. Numerous
mechanisms involved during drying have to be con-
sidered (Figure 36.40).
Because of this complexity, compromises have to
be found. Nevertheless, some general rules can be
listed (Figure 36.41):
. Rule 1: high relative humidity. To ensure a low
moisture content gradient, one way is to reduce
the drying potential (wet-bulb depression) as
much as possible. In addition, this condition
imposes a relatively high value of EMC (only
one part of shrinkage is effected and the influ-
ence of temperature on the viscoelastic creep is
not inhibited by a relatively low moisture con-
tent level). However, a high relative humidity
value can activate the development of fungi.
. Rule 2: high temperature. A high value of tem-
perature is most often a positive factor. This
accelerates the internal moisture transfer and
activates the viscoelastic creep. However, care
should be taken with sensitive species; high tem-
perature levels can increase the risk of collapse,
problems of color, or even thermal degradation
of the wood constituents.
. Rule 3: high air velocity. A high air velocity
promotes good uniformity of drying throughout
the stack. However, a higher velocity increases
the electricity consumption and may produce,
by the heat-transfer coefficient, an excessively
high external transfer flux, which is opposite to
the effect intended in Rule 1.
Concerning moisture transfer, Rule 1 and Rule 2
mean that internal transfer has to be increased whereas
external transfer should be reduced. Exceeding the
boiling point of water is decisive for internal transfer.
However, these rules also require the temperature to
be high with a high value of relative humidity. Such
conditions may be difficult to ensure for certain
dryers. Innovative drying procedures may need new
dryer designs. Finally, too often, the effect of tem-
perature and moisture content on the viscoelastic
behavior is disregarded in the optimization of drying
schedules. The situation strongly differs from one
species to the other. Usually, softwood species are
quite easily dried. On the other hand, hardwoods are
often intractable because of their low permeability.
36.3 KILN SCALE
36.3.1 LUMBER QUALITY
The ultimate fitness for the purpose of dried lumber
depends not only on the chosen drying conditions but
also on the lumber quality itself. This quality may be
thought of in terms of gross defects such as knots as well
as intrinsic wood properties such as the degree of anisot-
ropy. Drying, which causes anisotropic shrinkage, inter-
acts with various wood features in various ways. The
objective of kiln seasoning, then, is to acknowledge this
interaction by setting process conditions that yield dried
lumber to the specifications in terms of a grade for an
end use. There is a world of difference between drying
decorative hardwoods and drying structural softwoods.
Increasingly, kiln operators are drying wood from
ever younger, fast-growing stands rather than from ma-
ture, old-growth forest. The drying behavior of this new
kind of wood is requiring operators to adapt traditional
processes on the basis of better understanding of the
drying mechanism, as outlined in the previous sections.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 External conditions Shrinkage field
(dry bulb, wet bulb, air flow, (results from temperature and
pressure) moisture content fields)
Internal transfer Constitutive equation
(conductivity, diffusivity, (elasticity, viscoelasticity,
permeability, anisotropy mechanosorption)
ratios) Dimensions
Dimensions (length, thickness)
(length, thickness) Anisotropy
Heterogeneity

Coupled heat and

mass transfer Solid mechanics

4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4

Specific phenomena Deformation and

Temperature and
chemical degradation, stress fields
moisture content
discoloration, vs. time
fields vs. time
cementation,
collapse

FSP

Thickness

Quality of the
Drying time
dried products

Energy Moisture Product

consumption content value
variations

Cost

FIGURE 36.40 Some of the phenomena involved in the drying quality. (Adapted from Perré, P., The drying of wood: the
benefit of fundamental research to shift from improvement to innovation, Proceedings of the Seventh International IUFRO
Wood Drying Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 2001, 2–13.)

36.3.1.1 Gross Features of Wood
Most hard pines and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga men-
ziesii) show large differences in green density and the
amount of water in logs, varying with age and height
up the stem. Figure 36.42 illustrates these variations
for P. radiata (Cown, 1992). The large amount of
water in the younger trees and the top logs of
older trees add to both the costs of transport from
the forest to the mill and the energy costs of kiln
drying. Generally, the green moisture content in soft-
woods lies in the range of 150 to 200% in sapwood and
in the range of 30 to 80% in heartwood.
However, unlike softwoods, the green moisture
contents of sapwood and heartwood of hardwoods
are roughly comparable, and there is little variation
with age and position in the tree’s stem (Forest Prod-
ucts Laboratory, 1999). Depending on the species and
its density, the green moisture content for hardwoods
ranges from 50% to about 100%.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Bad Good
Sharp profiles Smooth profiles with low drying time

FSP FSP

Thickness Thickness

Parameters Value Why? Problems

Drying potential
(dry bulb−wet bulb)
Unique way obtain a low moisture
Low content gradient
Imposes a high
equilibrium moisture content
(few shrinkage, high creep)
May be difficult to ensure for
certain dryers
Other problems (coloration, fungi)

High Easy internal transfer + high

Temperature Can increase the risk of collapse
viscoelastic effect
Velocity High Good homogeneity throughout the Electricity consumption
stack

FIGURE 36.41 Guidelines on how to obtain a fast drying operation together with a good product quality. (Adapted from
Perré, P., The drying of wood: the benefit of fundamental research to shift from improvement to innovation, Proceedings of
the Seventh International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 2001, 2–13.)

Basic density zones

Low <400 kg m−3
Medium 400−450 kg m−3
High >450 kg m−3

(a) 10 y 20 y 30 y 40 y 50 y

Top logs 920

Green density 900

980
880 830

1060
920 880 830

1130 1030 930 890 820

1170 1030 990 940 840

(b) 10 y 20 y 30 y 40 y 50 y

FIGURE 36.42 (a) Density zones, (b) within-tree variations in green density for Pinus radiata of various ages. (Adapted from
Cown, D.J., New Zealand radiata pine and Douglas-fir suitability for processing, FRI Bull., 168, NZFRI, Rotorua, 1992.)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 The term wetwood refers to the discoloration that
occurs with high moisture contents in both soft- and
hardwoods. Wetwood differs from the wood held in
wet storage, as it is a slow-drying tissue confined
mainly to heartwood. An acrid odor is associated
with anaerobic and other bacteria that can live with
very little oxygen in the wetwood, which is found with
ring failure and frost damage in the standing forest.
Weakened cell walls enhance the susceptibility of the
wood to collapse and check, even under mild sched-
ules. The practical difficulty in drying wetwood lies in
the danger of overdrying the bulk of lumber.
In the drying of softwoods, it may be important to
segregate heartwood from sapwood because of the large
differences in moisture saturation and drying behavior.
In spite of the high difference in the green moisture
content, the drying time can sometimes be comparable
for sapwood and heartwood (Salin, 1989; Perré and
Martin, 1994). However, with species like P. radiata,
even though the heartwood is much less permeable than
the sapwood, the latter takes twice the time to dry
(Haslett, 1998). The presence of heartwood influences
the drying of lumber in other ways. Sometimes, for
some tropical hardwood species, there is reduced
shrinkage, a desirable feature, due to the bulking of
cell walls by extractives. There are also greater volatile
emissions from the kiln’s exhaust, especially in high-
temperature drying, with implications for meeting ever
increasing environmental and health standards.
Although many lumber-grading procedures pre-
sume that each knot is a defect and that boards are
graded on the basis of the extent of clearwood, many
highly valued decorative woods contain knots and
other blemishes. Small knots, which may add charac-
ter to the wood, may create no difficulties in drying,
whereas large knots or knotty clusters can cause
problems in both drying and subsequent manufactur-
ing. Whenever visual characteristics are unimportant,
such as the requirements for structural timber, knots
and knotholes are of little concern.
TABLE 36.9
Undesirable Features in Juvenile Wood of Pinus spp. as They Affect Solid Wood Quality
Features
Above-average amounts of compression wood, especially in butt log
Large microfibril angle in initial growth rings, especially in butt log
Severe spiral grain in the first few growth rings, especially above butt log
Above-average hemicellulose content
High moisture content in sapwood of young trees
Lower basic density
Source: Keey, R.B., Langrish, T.A.L., and Walker, J.C.F., The Kiln-Drying of Lumber, Springer, Berlin, 2000.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Large dead knots (where the growing stem has
encased a dead branch over the years), however, can
be a problem, either falling out during drying or
causing difficulties in later millwork. The width of
checks associated with knots increases with the knot
diameter, and chipping out of knots during machin-
ing has been found to treble the level of board rejec-
tion for unacceptable knot checks (Haslett, 1998).
The gradual exhaustion of natural forest resources
has forced the industries to accept juvenile wood from
plantations and second-growth forests. Although ju-
venile wood is often considered unsatisfactory, result-
ing in inferior solid wood products, some juvenile
wood, being of higher density, can be of better quality
than some mature wood. Some of the deficiencies of
juvenile wood for fast-grown pines are set out in
Table 36.9, ranked subjectively in the decreasing
order of significance.
Similar differences between mature and juvenile
wood occur in hardwoods. Further, large growth-stress
gradients are often present in young hardwood trees. To
reduce this problem, it is wise to prolong the rotation of
plantation hardwoods until the butt-log diameter is at
least 0.6 m. (Keey et al., 2000). Although juvenile wood
is still there as long as there are living branches where
the wood is formed, the proportion of such wood is
much less in the larger-diameter trees.
36.3.1.2 Intrinsic Features of Wood
Wood density is regarded as the easiest and most
reliable measure of wood quality. Data from the dry-
ing of 106 North American hardwoods show that the
volumetric shrinkage of wood increases with its basic
density (Stamm, 1964). There is also a correlation
between the permeability and the basic density for
the sapwood of a softwood (Nijdam and Keey,
2000). Presorting a sapwood load into high-density
and low-density groups can reduce the moisture vari-
ability of the final recombined kiln-dried boards.
Effects
Problems with crook, bow, and stiffness
Problems with crook, bow, and stiffness
Problems with twist
Enhances any instability in lumber
Higher transport and drying-energy costs
Increased potential for collapse during high-temperature drying
 Transition zone
0.55

0.50 Douglas-fir

Relative density at breast height

Western larch
Western hemlock
0.45
Yellow - cypress
0.40 Lodgepole pine
Sitka spruce
Interior spruce
0.35
Subalpine fir
0.30
Western red cedar
0.25

Juvenile wood Mature wood

0.20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age (y)

FIGURE 36.43 Trends in basic density at breast height for commercial second-growth softwoods in British Columbia.
(Adapted from Josza, L.A. and Middleton, G.R., A discussion of wood quality attributes and their practical implications,
Forintek Canada Special Publ. SP-34, 1994.)

In practice, however, it is not easy to distinguish the basic density for a number of second-growth soft-
effect of density with that of moisture content. woods are illustrated in Figure 36.43.
Within-ring density variations can cause problems The situation is more complex with hardwoods.
because of the differential shrinkage at the ring The growth rate has little effect on the wood proper-
boundary. Subsequently, severe drying stresses may ties of diffuse-porous hardwoods, but has a marked
cause deformation and internal checking (Booker, impact on the density of ring-porous hardwoods. Un-
1994). Further, a low absolute density in earlywood like softwoods, these produce denser wood when fast
can result in collapse on drying, particularly under grown.
high-temperature conditions (Booker, 1996). Regardless of the species or where the forests are
Within-tree variations in density can be highly established, the variation in wood properties between
significant. Cown and McConchie (1983) show that trees is very great and can be great even in boards
the density in a 24-year-old radiata pine tree can vary sawn from the same tree. In particular, the social
from 300 kg m3 in the top log to greater than 450 kg status of the tree in the stand (whether dominated
m3 in the outer wood of the butt log. Consequently, or dominant trees) has a great effect on the growth
the drying kinetics of boards taken from the same log rate in diameter and the occurrence of reaction
may be markedly different (Davis, 2001). Trends in wood. Table 36.10 lists some of the characteristics of

TABLE 36.10
Characteristics and Properties of Reaction Wood Compared with Corresponding Normal Wood

Features Compression Wood Tension Wood

Physical characteristics Darker in color and very hard Darker in color and silvery sheen in most
temperate hardwoods
Density 10–100% greater 10–30% greater
Longitudinal shrinkage Order of magnitude greater (up to several fold) About fivefold greater
Warp on drying Liable to warp badly Can warp and is liable to collapse
Strength Comparable strength, does not reflect higher density Superior strength

Source: Keey, R.B., Langrish, T.A.L., and Walker, J.C.F., The Kiln-Drying of Lumber, Springer, Berlin, 2000.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

reaction wood produced by environmental factors in
the forest. Compression wood has been found to have
a significant effect on drying, with lower drying rates
over the moisture content range of 40 to 100% for
boards of P. radiata (Davis et al., 2002). This reduc-
tion is attributed to the lower permeability of the
compression-wood zone, with its denser wood and
more thick-walled cells.
Large microfibril angles are found in both com-
pression wood and normal wood near the pith, induc-
ing larger than normal longitudinal shrinkage and a
greater tendency to warp. The longitudinal shrinkage
of tension wood, although larger than normal wood,
is less than in compression wood.
36.3.1.3 Sawmilling Strategies
Timell (1986) describes sawmilling strategies to re-
duce warp in juvenile lumber and compression
wood. The cutting pattern influences the quality of
drying either by releasing stresses on sawing or the
cutting induces a stress pattern in the board that can
be balanced on drying. Warp has become more of a
problem with harvesting from second-growth forests
of short rotation, which contain proportionately
more juvenile wood than lumber from old-growth
forests. Crook and bow are most severe in the core
wood of the butt log and where compression wood is
encountered; whereas twist is most severe in the core
wood of the upper logs where spiral-grain angles are
large and changing rapidly. The variation of properties
about the mean is the critical factor with core wood.
Vázquez (2001) examines silvicultural practice
and sawmilling strategies to counteract the effect of
growth stresses in fast-grown Iberian eucalypts (Eu-
calyptus globulus). A model of the stress distribution
that enables to determine the deformations on sawing
FIGURE 36.44 Sawing pattern to limit the appearance of checks. (Adapted from Vázquez, M.C.T., Tensiones de crecimiento en
Eucalyptus globulus de Galicia (España). Influencia de la silvicultura y estrategias de aserrado (Growth stresses in E. globulus
from Galicia (Spain). Influence of silviculture and sawing strategies), Maderas: Ciencia Tecnologia, 2(1), 68–89, 2001.)
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
is given. The appearance of checks and warps can be
limited by the choice of a suitable sawing pattern, as
shown in Figure 36.44. Pang and Haslett (2002) note
that the residual drying stresses in quartersawn
P. radiata boards are less than flatsawn boards, par-
ticularly under low-temperature drying conditions
when the effect of mechanosorptive stress relief is
relatively minor. The difference in behavior is attrib-
uted to the lesser shrinkage in the width direction with
quatersawn boards.
36.3.2 KILN DESIGN
Although there are differences in detail between
manufacturers, a lumber kiln is essentially a special-
purpose room fitted with overhead fans for circulat-
ing the drying air and heating coils for maintaining
the air (and thus the wood) temperature at the set
levels. The moisture in the air is controlled by means
of opening the vents in the kiln’s roof, thus governing
the amount of moist air that returns to the fan which
is to be mixed with the fresh air drawn in. Although
many kilns are operated batchwise for ease of con-
trolling the drying conditions, which may change
through out the drying schedule, a kiln can be con-
tinuously worked by arranging the lumber to be
slowly railed through the chamber. In this latter
case, the drying schedule is maintained by varying the
temperature and humidity settings along the length of
the kiln. There is some increase in interest in continu-
ous kilns, which might provide energy savings and
better quality control (McLean, 2003).
The lumber is stacked externally in a rectangular
pile on a low, flat-bed trolley, with rows of boards
separated by wooden stickers of uniform thickness to
provide duct-like spaces between the boards for the
kiln air to flow through. The boards may be stacked
in separate packages on bearers and loaded into the
kiln by a forklift vehicle. The boards are butted up,
with their long faces incident to the airflow. The stack
is squared off as far as possible to provide a uniform
resistance to the airflow, and thus minimize variations
in drying throughout the kiln. In Scandinavian prac-
tice, kiln stacks are normally built from boards of
random length, so that every second board is placed
flush at one end of the stack and the other boards flush
at the other end (Salin, 2001). Kilns may be single-
tracked with a 2.4-m wide stack, or twin-tracked with
two stacks side by side, to yield a double-width stack
of 4.8 m. Figure 36.45 illustrates a vertical cross sec-
tion through a single-tracked, batch kiln.
To obtain a uniform air distribution to the air-
inlet face of the stack as possible, the plenum spaces
at each side of the stack must be sufficiently wide
(Nijdam and Keey, 2000). An internal ceiling directs
the air through the lumber stack or stacks, with baf-
fles or curtains to direct the airflow through the lum-
ber pile. Inward-swinging baffles and contoured,
right-angled bends to the plenum space from the
ceiling zone improve the uniformity of this airflow
(Nijdam and Keey, 2002). Bypass of air around the
stack is minimized by the fitting of side baffles or
curtains. The kiln is designed so that the pressure
loss through the heating coils and other ancillary
fittings is small compared with that through the
stack of lumber.
Heater coils
Ceiling
space
Weight
Plenum
chamber
Fillet
FIGURE 36.45 A vertical cross section through a single-tracked, box kiln. (Adapted from Keey, R.B., Langrish, T.A.L., and
Walker J.C.F., The Kiln-Drying of Lumber, Springer, Berlin, 2000.)
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
36.3.2.1 Airflow Considerations
Kröll (1978) reports the air distribution in a batch
dryer fitted with 15 shelves, a heat exchanger, and a
fan above a false ceiling, which thus resembles a box-
type lumber kiln in a number of respects. In the fifth
gap from the top, the air velocity was over twice the
average, whereas in the top gap there was a small
backflow with air streaming toward the inlet. The
flow reversal appeared to be the result of a vortex
generated at the top of inlet plenum below the half-
circle bend out of the ceiling space. Although such air
maldistribution may be extreme in a modern lumber
kiln, existing kiln designs may still yield a nonuniform
airflow through well-stacked lumber loads, as may be
inferred from the kiln audits reported by Nijdam and
Keey (1996). Haslett (1998) recommends that the co-
efficient of variation across the outlet face of the stack
should not exceed 0.12 at velocities through the stack
between 4.5 and 8 m s1 when the dry-bulb tempera-
ture is greater than 908C.
Industrial rules of thumb generally equate the
ceiling-space height to the plenum-space width and
to the combined sticker-spacing height. Hydrau-
lic tests on a model kiln confirm the former rule
(Nijdam and Keey, 1999), and the latter is verified
by a pressure-drop analysis (Nijdam, 1998).
The transverse gaps between the boards are not
simple smooth ducts, but there may be irregularities
Roof vent
Reversible fan
Plenum
chamber
where the boards butt up due to shrinkage on drying
or unevenness in thickness and there may be gaps due
to the presence of boards with uneven length. Fluid-
dynamic simulation of the flow over inline slabs
(Langrish et al., 1993) has suggested that gaps as
small as 1 mm might be sufficient to disrupt the
flow, with circulation within the gaps themselves.
The magnitude of the side gaps in the board influ-
ences both the drying rates and the development of
drying stresses (Langrish, 1999), so that experiments
on the drying of single boards (as often done) may
yield uncertain information about the drying of a load
of the same wood in a kiln. With regard to variations
in board thickness, Haslett (1998) recommends that
the coefficient of variation for the board thickness
must be under 0.04 for successful high-temperature
drying.
Whenever kiln stacks are built from random-
length lumber so that every second board is flush at
each end of the stack, variations in openness of the
stack result. This gives two different zones: (1) a
central zone in which all the available space is filled
and (2) two end zones where alternate boards are
missing (Salin, 2001). This arrangement results in
higher within-stack velocities (about 30% higher) in
the center than in the end zones, with corresponding
implications in the variation in drying behavior.
36.3.2.2 Moisture-Evaporation Considerations
The airflow through the stack influences the magni-
tude of the local airside mass-transfer coefficient, and
thus the evaporation into the airstream. Particularly,
at the higher air velocities used in high-temperature
drying, any variations in these transfer coefficients
have a significant effect on the uniformity of drying
throughout the stack.
The air-inlet face of the lumber stack presents a set
of blunt edges to the incident airflow, resulting in an
enhancement of the mass-transfer coefficients near
the leading edges (Kho et al., 1990). Computational
studies (Sun, 2001) of the flow over a series of slabs
with inline gaps suggest that for gaps greater than
about 2 mm there will be similar, but lesser, enhance-
ments at subsequent boards downstream.
With Scandinavian stacking practice, the end
zones of the stack dry faster than the central, fully
filled part (Salin and Öhman, 1998). The lower air
velocity in the ends is more than compensated by
higher heat-transfer coefficients associated with the
flow disturbance and smaller wood volume. (There
is a smaller decrease in temperature and increase in
humidity along the stack in the airflow direction.) In
general, it is expected that the local transfer coeffi-
cients diminish with distance in the airflow direction
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
due to a thickening of the boundary layer. This vari-
ation and the downwind accumulation of moisture in
the airstream result in the maximum possible evapor-
ation rate dwindling with distance from the air inlet to
the air outlet from the stack.
Traditionally, the variation of evaporative rates
across the stack has been counteracted by the instal-
lation of bidirectional fans and by periodically revers-
ing the airflow direction through the stack. This
policy has minimal effect on the drying rates in the
center of the stack, but reduces the variation in be-
havior between the two end zones. If only moisture
content variations are considered, many reversals are
not needed to achieve this equalization (Pang et al.,
1995; Nijdam and Keey, 1996; Wagner et al., 1996).
However, if stress development in the surface layer
with the likelihood of checking is taken into account,
then the flow reversals for a timber such as Pinus
sylvestris should be less than 2 h apart (Salin and
Öhman, 1998). A period of 4 h is a common industrial
practice for permeable softwoods such as P. radiata.
36.3.3 KILN OPERATION
To understand kiln-wide behavior, it is useful to in-
voke the concept of the characteristic drying curve
(van Meel, 1958; Keey, 1978). The concept reduces
the drying kinetics for a specific material of specific
geometry to a single function of the local averaged
moisture content. The concept when applied to the
kiln drying of lumber boards is rough, not only due to
variations in drying behavior between boards (Davis
et al., 2001) but also due to embedded assumptions in
the concept itself. Nevertheless, it is a sufficient rep-
resentation of drying behavior to determine the effect
of kiln parameters on the course of drying. These
things, such as the uniformity of the airflow, the
number of airflow reversals, the velocity, tempera-
ture, and humidity settings, are all those under the
control of the kiln operator.
The concept of a characteristic drying curve leads to
the following expression for the moisture-evaporation
rate per unit of exposed board surface:
Nv ¼ f bf(YW  YG ) (36:22)
where f is the evaporation rate relative to that at a
given moisture content (either the initial or some crit-
ical value of transition from unhindered drying), and is
a unique function of the mean free moisture content;
b is the external (airside) mass-transfer coefficient; f is
the humidity-potential coefficient, which takes a con-
stant value when the wet-bulb temperature remains the
same throughout the kiln; YW is the saturation humid-
ity at the wet-bulb temperature; and YG is the bulk-air
humidity between the boards. Although the values of
the parameter f depend on the extent of drying that has
taken place and the nature of the wood itself, the other
parameters are under the control of the kiln operator ∂Φ
by varying either the stack extent, the kiln-air velocity, ∂q
Inlet
or the dry- and wet-bulb temperatures.
Consideration (Keey et al., 2000) of the moisture
transfer over a small zone in the kiln leads to the equa- z
tions, which can be conveniently expressed in nondi-
mensional form as follows: Outlet

@F @P
¼ ¼ f P (36:23)
@u @z
0 Φ 1 = Φ0
(a)
where F is the moisture content relative to unit value
when f is 1, P is the humidity potential (YWYG)
relative to unit value at the air inlet, z is a nondimen-
sional extent of the kiln in the airflow direction and
∂Φ
is a weak function of the kiln-air velocity, and u is
∂q Inlet
the relative time of drying which itself depends upon
the value of z for the kiln stack and the capacity of the
air to pick up moisture. These equations can be solved
z
if the parameter f is known as a function of the
moisture content (averaged over the board thickness). Outlet
They imply that the rate of change of moisture con-
tent with time (i.e., the drying rate) directly depends
on the rate at which the bulk air humidifies in its
passage through the kiln. The drying rate is also 0 Φ 1 Φ0
directly dependent upon the humidity potential (the (b)
driving force for the evaporation) and the parameter
f, which reflects the ease of moisture movement FIGURE 36.46 Normalized drying rates in a kiln with an
through the wood. extent z of 1 and one-way airflow as a function of board-
These equations have been used to examine the averaged moisture contents: (a) an indicative hardwood with
influence of kiln variables on the course of drying, f ¼ F, (b) an indicative sapwood of a softwood with f ¼ F0.5.
(Adapted from Keey, R.B., Langrish, T.A.L., and Walker,
including the impact of exhaust-air recycle and the
J.C.F., The Kiln-Drying of Lumber, Springer, Berlin, 2000.)
switching of airflow direction (e.g., Tetzlaff, 1967;
Ashworth, 1977; Ashworth and Keey, 1979; Keey
and Pang, 1994; Nijdam and Keey, 1996). A summary
of this work is given by Keey et al. (2000).
Figure 36.46 shows the variation in the dimen- point is reached at the air-inlet face of the stack, the
sionless drying rate, @F/@u, as a function of the nor- intrinsic drying rate falls there, resulting in less pro-
malized moisture content F for one-way flow through gressive humidification in the kiln; the downstream
a single-tracked kiln, for which the nondimensional drying rates can now rise until the local critical point
extent z in the airflow direction is 1. In the case of a is attained. The greatest effect is seen at the outlet face
timber, whose initial green moisture content is equal of the stack.
to the critical point of transition between unhindered Figure 36.47 shows the effect of reversing the air-
and hindered drying by the rate of moisture move- flow direction through the stack. On switching over the
ment through the wood, the drying rate falls mono- flow, what was once the ‘‘inlet’’ face now becomes the
tonically with both time and distance in the airflow ‘‘outlet’’ face, and vice versa, giving a temporary boost
direction. The effect with time is due to the intrinsic to the drying rate at the former outlet and a moderation
drying rate as the wood dries out, whereas that with to that at the former inlet. The rates within the center
distance is due to the progressive humidification in of the kiln are essentially unaffected. With flow
the kiln. Whenever there is free moisture content in switchovers, the leaflike moisture content profiles be-
the wood above the critical point, the drying-rate come more pinched with a lesser variation in moisture
profiles are more complex. As soon as the critical content across the kiln.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 1.2

Air-inlet face

Normalized moisture content (Φ)

1.0 1.0

Normalized drying rate (dΦ/dq)

0.8 Air-outlet face 0.8

Middle
0.6 0.6
Middle
Air-outlet face
0.4 0.4

0.2 Air-inlet face 0.2

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
(a) Normalized time (q)

1.2
Outlet
Inlet
Normalized moisture content (Φ)

1.0 1.0

0.8 Normalized drying rate (dΦ/dq) 0.8

Middle
Middle

0.6 0.6 Outlet

Outlet

0.4 0.4

Inlet
0.2 0.2
Inlet

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Normalized time (q)
(b)

FIGURE 36.47 Board-average moisture contents and normalized drying rates as a function of time and distance in the
airflow direction for a twin-stack kiln without reversals in the schedule (a) and for two flow reversals in the schedule (b). The
profiles represent the drying of 100  50-mm sapwood Pinus radiata dried at 77/65.58C and an air velocity of 2.5 m s1.
(Adapted from Tetzlaff, A.R., An investigation of drying schedules when kiln-drying radiata pine, B.E. Report, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand, 1967.)

Typically, lumber kilns operate at very high ratios the stack initially and even to exceed them (Keey,
of recycled air to that discharged through the vent to 1968). Although the necessary combination of factors
the outside air to maintain the wet-bulb temperature to get substantial rate enhancements is unlikely in the
at the scheduled values. For that reason, commercial kiln drying of most lumber species, the potential for
kilns appear to operate under very steamy conditions increases in drying rate (and strain development)
to the casual observer. The high degree of air recycle should be borne in mind.
means that small deviations in evaporation are fed
back to the air-inlet face of the stack, disturbing the 36.3.4 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
conditions there. This disturbance is then propagated
through the stack. In theory, with high recycle ratios Various works give a detailed overview of kiln
and extensive dryers (z > 1), it is possible, once the practice. Such overviews include those by Pratt and
wood has reached the critical moisture content at the Turner (1986), Boone et al. (1988), Hilderbrand (1989),
air-inlet face, for internal drying rates to rise above Mackay and Oliveira (1989), Simpson (1992), and
those for very wet greenwood at the air-inlet face of Haslett (1998).

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

36.3.4.1 Schedule Development
Kiln schedules are of two kinds. A tropical forest con-
tains many species, often diffusely spread, so that indi-
vidual identification of species and separate drying is
rarely economic or feasible. Economic drying of mixed
species involves the grouping of these according to some
criteria. Simpson and Baah (1989), for example, choose
basic density and initial moisture content, on the
grounds that high-density, moist lumber is the most
susceptible to drying defects and requires the longest
drying times. Using this system, Hidayat and Simpson
(1994) were about to define drying-time factors for 12
species groups. On the other hand, temperate produc-
tion forests may be confined to a single kind of tree or a
limited range of species, and comprehensive species-
specific schedules can be developed for these. For ex-
ample, Haslett (1998) specifies various schedules for a
single species, P. radiata, according to the grade and
end use of the wood.
Traditionally, schedules have been developed on a
cautious, trial-and-error basis from small-scale tests
on the woods of interest. Pandey (2001) notes that the
seven standard, empirically derived schedules for
nearly 150 Indian woods could be fitted to a diffu-
sional model. Brandaõ and Perré (1996) propose a
drying test at 908C on small boards to provide infor-
mation on drying rates and deformation criteria. This
leads to an alternative species-grouping approach to
that put forward by Hidayat and Simpson (1994).
Increasingly, however, detailed simulation of the
mass-transfer and strain-development behavior is
used as a basis for determining appropriate kiln-
temperature settings (e.g., Langrish et al., 1997; Aguiar
and Perré, 2000a; Nijdam et al., 2000).
Kiln drying involves both the transfer of moisture
through the boards and the evaporation from the
exposed surfaces into the air circulating through the
kiln. These processes must be kept in balance to
maintain the fastest possible drying rate. With imper-
meable timbers, the transfer processes within the
wood are rate-limiting. The wood temperature is the
important variable. With permeable timbers, particu-
larly under high-temperature conditions, external
transfer mechanisms become important and high
kiln-air velocities (7 m s1 and higher) are used to
enhance the heat- and mass-transfer coefficients.
To sustain the rate of drying as the wood dries
out, either the dry-bulb temperature or the wet-bulb
depression may be raised, thus providing a greater
overall driving force for the drying process. However,
faster drying rates can lead to steeper moisture con-
tent gradients with the risk of excessive strain devel-
opment and checking. Thus most schedules specify
relatively small wet-bulb depressions, corresponding
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
to relatively high EMC at kiln temperatures, produ-
cing modest surface shrinkage. In a conventional
schedule the wet-bulb depression is typically about
5 to 108C, whereas for high-temperature drying
wet-bulb depressions can be 508C or more.
Whenever it is important to avoid significant color
development in the wood on drying, low kiln temper-
atures have to be used. Even though in New Zealand
where accelerated conventional schedules (with dry/
wet-bulb temperatures of 90/608C) are used to dry
appearance-grade timbers, commercially, kiln tem-
peratures not greater than 508C are employed to get
very pale wood (Keey, 2003).
Although higher airflows seem justifiable at the
start of a schedule when the evaporation from the
exposed surface is more controlling, there is some
doubt whether there is an economical advantage in
designing kilns with variable-speed fans (Riley and
Haslett, 1996). However, one manufacturer claims sig-
nificant fan-energy savings by reducing the rate of
circulating air toward the end of the schedule in the
drying of a softwood without causing any significant
extension of drying time (Fogarty, Priv. Comm., 2002).
36.3.4.2 Kiln Control
As the basic control of the drying process depends
upon the wet- and dry-bulb readings, control of these
temperatures has been the normal method of main-
taining the drying schedule. Most single-zone, steam-
heated kilns mount split bulbs under the overhead
heating coils, one in each plenum some distance off
the floor (Culpepper, 1990). In kilns divided into two
zones along their length, the bulbs are placed midway
in each zone. The thermometer bulbs must be pro-
tected from radiation from hot surfaces and have an
adequate air circulation over them. Careful location
of the bulbs is important, as significant air-temperature
gradients can exist in the plenum spaces.
Simple lumber-drying installations having one or
two kilns might have simple electronic-control sys-
tems with discrete programmable controls, timers,
and chart recorders for temperature and steaming
control. A more sophisticated system for a medium-
sized faculty might have a computer-based system
running on windows-type software to give a visual
readout of kiln conditions during the schedule (Keey
et al., 2000). Endpoint determination can be based on
the temperature drop across the load (TDAL), which
is a function of the extent of drying (Taylor and
Landoch, 1990; Martin et al., 1995).
As pointed out by Morén (2001), TDAL reflects
the average drying rate in the kiln directly. He sug-
gests that monitoring of the TDAL provides a
method of ‘‘adaptive kiln control,’’ with the TDAL
set at a constant value at constant wet-bulb tempera-
ture after an initialization period, followed by a
period at constant dry-bulb temperature.
The measurement of the boards’ moisture content,
at the end of drying, has frequently been done with
hand-held resistivity meters, often complemented
with more time-consuming gravimetric measurements
with sample boards (EN 13183-1). The Standard EN
13183-2, Round and Sawn Lumber—Procedure to
Measure the Moisture Content, employs a hammer
probe with insulated measuring pins, which are
inserted to a depth of approximately one third of
the board’s thickness, and is valid over the moisture
content range from about 7 to 30%. This technique
has been adapted by inserting probes in the kiln
stacks to give a continuous reading of the moisture
content in the later stages of drying. Nonpenetrative
systems are available in which the resistivity probes
are aluminum fillets placed along the length of the
lumber charge to measure the resistance of all the
boards that the probes are in contact with. All resist-
ive methods, however, are limited to measuring mois-
ture contents from just above fiber saturation and
below, with one system having a claimed repeatability
of +2% when the average moisture content is less
than 16% (Furniss, Priv. Comm., 2002).
The alternative use of microwave-sensing tech-
nologies is attractive in enabling a wider range of
moisture contents to be determined from green to
dry (Holmes and Riley, 1996; Riley and Holmes,
2001). The first prototype tested used a waveguide,
40  20  1.2 mm, with angled slots in the long face,
connected by a high-temperature coaxial cable to the
oscillator and placed in a stack so that the slots were
in contact with the lower face of a board. A later
development enabled the possibility of the stack’s
moisture distribution to be determined. The experi-
ments have demonstrated the potential for the manu-
facture of a rugged industrial system. However, unless
the timber is very uniform in properties, this tech-
nique is uncertain as the relationship between the
microwave signal and the moisture content becomes
fuzzy because of factors such as variations in wood
density among the boards.
An online contact-free method of measuring the
moisture content of wood, which involves traversing
the boards on a band between sensor heads, could be
developed based on techniques used in papermaking.
The method would be suitable for sorting boards
after drying. At least one such method is commer-
cially available, but the measurement principle has
not been divulged (Smith, Priv. Comm., 2002).
The benefits of even a relatively simple kiln-
control system are illustrated in an example quo-
ted by Culpepper (1990). The incorporation of a
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
programmable logic controller at one site increased
the overall grade recovery from 70.7 to 81.9%, with a
reduction in energy costs of 43% for steam and 10%
for electrical power. The total saving represented a
1.2-y payback on the investment.
36.3.4.3 Volatile Emissions
Acidic corrosion is a well-recognized feature of kiln
drying, particularly with certain species such as oaks.
Packman (1960) notes that, of some 150 species stud-
ies of both hardwoods and softwoods, the majority
(80%) has a pH between 4 and 6 and only one had a
pH consistently above 7. In an extreme case, with a
hardwood of high extractives content, sufficiently se-
vere rusting of steel trolley wheels and other ferrous
fittings in a pilot-plant kiln required their replacement
after a 2-week period. Extensive use of aluminum
linings with plastic piping in modern kilns has largely
avoided the problems of corrosion.
The corrosive nature of the volatile substances re-
leased during kiln drying is derived from the presence of
free acetic acid in the wood and from the hydrolysis of
the various acetyl groups attached to the hemicellu-
loses. Softwoods generally yield greater emissions than
hardwoods, because the latter are normally dried at
lower temperatures and have lower resin content.
Some volatile substances, such as formaldehyde, come
from the thermal degradation of the hemicelluloses and
lignin, whereas green pines release terpenes and their
derivatives. Table 36.11 lists the concentrations of vola-
tile emissions from two high-temperature schedules.
Milota (2001) compared the emissions from various
North American lumber species in a small-scale kiln
TABLE 36.11
Concentrations of Volatile Emissions Arising
from Two High-Temperature Kiln Schedules
for Pinus radiata
Compound Concentration, g m3 at dry/
wet-bulb temperatures (8C)
120/70 140/90
Formaldehyde 19.5 31.0
Acetic acid 21.7 38.2
Monoterpenes 34.8 66.4
Hydroxylated monoterpenes 12.6 10.7
Condenser residues 16.4 16.4
(resins and fatty acids)
Source: McDonald, K.A. and Wastney, S., Analysis of volatile
emission from kiln drying of radiata pine, Proceedings of the
Eighth International Symposium on Wood Pulp Chemistry, Vol. 3,
431–436, 1995.
with those from the same wood in a commercial kiln.
The laboratory kiln functioned like the mill kiln with
respect to venting characteristics, temperature, and
humidity, but it dried the wood faster, possibly because
the load is narrower. In general, the small-scale method
was fairly repeatable for the determination of volatile
organic chemicals, with a standard deviation of 8 to
16% of the mean value, but the repeatability was poorer
for methanol and formaldehyde.
36.3.4.4 Equalization and Stress Relief
At the end of kiln drying there is always some board-to-
board variations in moisture content, arising from the
inherent differences in drying characteristics of individ-
ual boards and the progressive humidification of the
circulating air. Because kiln drying is basically a process
in which the boards are forced to reach a new equilib-
rium, moisture content profiles also exist within each
piece of wood. With moisture-based schedules, the kiln
conditions are reset at the end of the schedule to give an
EMC that is 2 to 3% below the desired value. This
strategy prevents overdrying of the drier boards while
allowing the wetter boards to dry further toward the
target end moisture content. Some authorities (e.g.,
Haslett, 1998) recommend that the softwood lumber
should be slightly overdried to ensure that the moisture
content variation both within and between boards be-
comes small. Any subsequent steaming, which is under-
taken for stress relief, will raise the moisture content of
the overdried load toward the specified value.
Kiln schedules are designed to dry the lumber as
fast as possible without causing unacceptable defects
to appear due to excessive strain development. Re-
sidual stresses in the wood must be relieved if the
lumber is to be further processed. Steaming is a com-
mon method of doing this.
In smaller installations, steaming may be done in
the kiln; but, in larger installations, a separate cham-
ber supplied with low-pressure, saturated steam is
used for this purpose. Such chambers are not nor-
mally supplied with fans, and stratification of the
steam and air can be a problem. Lumber that is
high-temperature dried should be cooled so that the
wood temperature falls to about 70 to 958C to enable
the wood to pick up moisture. The steaming induces a
reversal of the moisture content profile through the
wood, with concomitant reduction in the residual
stresses.
Chen et al. (1997b) examined various stress-relief
strategies for sapwood boards of softwoods and have
found that other procedures are suitable in addition
to final cooling and steaming. These include simple
cooling under cover or the use of a schedule consist-
ing of intermittent drying and conditioning cycles.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
36.3.5 LESS-COMMON DRYING METHODS
The majority of lumber-drying installations are con-
vective drying chambers worked at atmospheric condi-
tions and temperatures not greatly above ambient. For
structural-grade, permeable softwoods, however, when
color development is not a prime concern, elevated
temperatures can be used to get very fast drying pro-
cesses. Designs under consideration include kilns being
worked to temperatures of 2008C, with air velocities
between the boards up to 15 m s1. Continuously
worked kilns then become attractive with very fast
drying. Such designs will require particular attention
to thermal expansion, reliable heat-exchange equip-
ment, and venting of moisture vapor.
Many of the advantages of high-temperature dry-
ing can be obtained by working under vacuum. In
particular, such a process gives rise to an internal
overpressure and an additional and efficient driving
force for internal moisture migration. The lower op-
erating temperatures are an advantage in drying heat-
sensitive woods and in minimizing color development
when pale products are required.
Similar advantages of lower working temperat-
ures are obtained in the use of dehumidifying heat-
pump systems, with the added bonus of lower thermal-
energy use to compensate for extended drying times.
The drying principle of these kilns, however, is the
same as vented conventional kilns.
Most kilns, either direct-fired or steam-heated, use
wastewood as the primary fuel. Other heating arrange-
ments have been advocated such as the use of micro-
wave, radio frequency, and solar energy, with the latter
being attractive in remote locations for small kilns.
36.3.5.1 Vacuum Drying
Vacuum dryers have been commercially available for
many years and their use is regarded as a standard
practice in Europe for the drying of high-quality
hardwoods economically, which would otherwise be
difficult to dry (Hilderbrand, 1989). Descriptions of
vacuum drying are given by Ressel (1994), Audebert
and Temmar (1997), and Jomaa and Baixeras (1997).
Because of the enhanced internal moisture migra-
tion under vacuum, the rate of drying can be as rapid as
that at a much higher temperature at atmospheric pres-
sure. However, the higher specific volume of vapor asso-
ciated with the reduced pressure is a severe limitation for
heat transport by convection (Perré et al., 1995).
Several industrial solutions have been proposed:
. The use of plates heated by electrical resistance
or circulation of heated water are placed be-
tween each layer of boards; heat is supplied to
 boards by conduction whereas the vacuum level
is used to enhance the internal mass transfer.
. Discontinuously operating kilns, with two
periods of about 1 h alternate: a heating period
at atmospheric pressure and a drying period at
reduced pressure.
. Finally, the most recent ‘‘high-vac’’ kilns use a
slightly higher pressure level (more than 100
mbar), together a very high linear air velocity
(10 m s1 or more), to compensate for the loss of
thermal capacity of the air; this method has
proved to be very effective.
In the latter method, uniformity of the air distribution
through the load is important to ensure evenness of
drying, with regions of low velocities resulting in
higher final moisture contents (Ledig and Militzer,
1999). The positions of fans and heating coils have
an important bearing on the temperature and on the
final moisture content of the load (Hedlund, 1996).
Vacuum dryers with overhead fans provide a fairly
controlled airflow path through the load, but other
fan locations can result in ill-defined pressure and
suction sides. An overhead-fan dryer, however, was
found to yield a systematic variation in temperature
between the door and the other end of the dryer,
which might have been reduced by dividing the unit
into separate temperature-control zones. Techniques
to overcome the inherent poor heat transfer in
vacuum dryers include the use of heated plates be-
tween the boards or intermittent heating with super-
heated steam. Another suggested technique employs a
heating cycle at atmospheric pressure, when the heat
transfer is better, followed by a vacuum-drying cycle
(Guilmain et al., 1996). Tests on drying oakwood at
pilot and industrial scales showed that the discontinu-
ous process was faster, with less susceptibility to
mechanical damage of the wood, but the thermal
consumption was higher than under continuous
vacuum conditions.
Behnke and Militzer (1996) have produced a
vacuum-dryer model for design and process-control
purposes based on a characteristic drying curve for the
wood’s drying behavior. Hilderbrand (1989) claims that
commercial drying time in vacuum kilns varies between
one half and one third of those found in conventional
convective kilns under atmospheric pressure.
36.3.5.2 Dehumidifier Kilns
Drying at low temperatures, which is a feature of
seasoning refractory timbers, is energy-inefficient.
A dehumidifier kiln reduces the thermal-energy con-
sumption by incorporating an air-conditioning unit
that recovers heat by cooling the kiln air below its
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
dew point and, in effect, recycling the latent heat of
condensation. As moisture is removed as condensed
liquid rather than vapor in warm discharged air, the
associated thermal loss is avoided. However, a small
amount of venting is needed for humidity-control
purposes. Volatile organic chemicals normally re-
moved with the vented moist air now appear in the
condensate stream, which potentially could be sent to
a separate unit for chemical recovery.
Figure 36.48 shows the layout of a heat-pump
dehumidifying kiln. Moist air is drawn over the evap-
orator and condenser consecutively in a Rankine cycle
heat pump. Besides these basic elements such as an
evaporator, a condenser with its associated compres-
sor, and expansion valve, there is an accumulator that
prevents the refrigerant from entering and damaging
the compressor and a subcooling heat exchanger to
enhance the effectiveness of the heat pump.
The performance of dehumidifier kilns is normally
expressed in terms of the specific moisture-extraction
rate (SMER), which is the amount of moisture
extracted per unit energy input. Two such ratios
may be defined: one representing how effectively the
dehumidifier extracts moisture from the air as con-
densate and the other (the kiln SMER) representing
how efficiently the kiln removes moisture from the
lumber including the condensate and venting. The
kiln SMER for convective kilns is limited to about
0.8 to 0.9 kg kWh1, compared with values in the
range of 1.5 to 2.5 kg kWh1 for commercial dehu-
midifier kilns (Davis, 2001). Some of the lower values
may reflect the poor insulation of the tested kilns
rather than a defect in the process.
Dehumidifying kilns are limited in operating tem-
perature by the working limits of the compressor
(<708C) and the size of the unit (<40 HP). However,
dehumidifying heat-pump units can be coupled to-
gether and a mill with as many as 14 units is operating
(Kerr, Priv. Comm., 2002).
Dehumidifier drying has attractions when high-
quality solid wood is sought. Because of the relatively
low operating temperatures, color and kiln brown
stain development is reduced significantly while
checking is less than in standard alternative schedules.
36.3.5.3 High-Frequency Electrical Heating
In wood drying, heating with high-frequency electric
fields in both the dielectric and microwave range has
been considered and some specialized applications
have been found. Schiffmann (1995) defines the di-
electric frequencies of electromagnetic radiation as
those covering the range from 1 to 100 MHz, whereas
microwave frequencies are considered to span from
300 MHz to 300 GHz. He suggests that, as a rule of
 Air
Weights
Stickers
Timber
FIGURE 36.48 A typical configuration for a heat-pump dehumidifying kiln. (Adapted from Davis, C.P., Drying Pinus
radiata boards in dehumidifier conditions, Ph.D. thesis, Otago University, New Zealand, 2001.)
thumb, these high-frequency heating methods become
economically attractive for new kilns if the drying
rate is increased fourfold over that for conventional
drying. In general, the use of dielectric and microwave
heating may become attractive for the small-scale
drying of high-value hardwood species that are diffi-
cult to dry by conventional means. For example, Smith
and Smith (1994) report the use of radio-frequency
heating for the drying of oakwood in a small vacuum
kiln of 23-m3 capacity, which had a lower capital cost
but higher energy costs than a conventional dryer
for the same duty. For very small power require-
ments, microwave heating is more attractive; when
the power requirement exceeds 50 kW, how-
ever, economics favor the higher-power tubes in the
radio-frequency range. In one Canadian system, radio-
frequency drying is used to finish the seasoning of
conventionally dried lumber that has not met target
moisture content.
Heating is generated in the dipolar rotation of
water molecules as they try to orient themselves in
the rapidly changing polarity of the applied electrical
field. The power developed per unit volume is given by
P ¼ kE 2 f «0 tan d (36:24)
where k is the dielectric constant, E is the electric
field strength, f is the field’s frequency, «’ is the rela-
tive permeability, and tan d is the loss tangent or
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Circulation fan
Condenser
Compressor
Accumulator
Evaporator Subcooler
Expansion
valve
Liquid
water
dissipation factor. The field’s strength and its fre-
quency are fixed by the equipment, whereas the
other parameters are material-dependent. As the di-
electric constant of water is over an order of magni-
tude greater than the woody materials, moisture is
preferentially heated, a process that leads to a more
uniformly moist product with time. This feature is
one of the attractions of the technique, for example,
in moisture leveling in the manufacture of plywood to
avoid delamination during subsequent hot pressing
(Schiffmann, 1995).
There is also a contribution due to ionic conduc-
tion because of the presence of ions in the sap. This
mode of heating is not significantly dependent on
either the temperature or the frequency of the applied
field, but is directly dependent on the charge density
and mobility of the ions.
Because the heating is internally generated, rather
than convectively warmed at the exposed surface of the
boards, high and damaging internal pressures can be
created in the process. For example, internal overpres-
sures of 60 kPa have been reported by Antti (1992) for
power inputs of 1.25 kW on drying 100  50  1660-
mm boards. Under vacuum drying, such overpressures
become less damaging. Thus, high-frequency heating
has been advocated for use with vacuum drying because
of the difficulty in achieving adequate convective heat-
ing under vacuum, and a summary of its historic devel-
opment is given by Resch and Gautsch (2001). This

Solar
collector
Blower
Damper
Evaporator
FIGURE 36.49 A solar-dehumidifier dryer. (Adapted from Chen, P.Y.S., Helmer, W.A., and Rosen, H.N., Experimental
solar-dehumidifier kiln for drying lumber, Forest Prod. J., 32(9): 35–41, 1982.)
technique is attractive for beech and oak timbers in the
European market because of the retention of their nat-
ural light color with low-temperature drying.
Perré and Turner (1997, 1999a) have described a
numerical model of microwave drying of softwood
with an oversized waveguide. In this work, internal
overpressure reaching two to three times the atmos-
pheric pressure has been reported both in experimen-
tal and numerical results.
36.3.5.4 Solar Drying
Solar drying of lumber has attractions in remote
locations with favorable climates because of the
‘‘free’’ nature of the energy source. Imré (1995) has
classified solar-heated dryers into three main groups:
1. Solar natural dryers that use only the sun
2. Semiartificial solar dryers with a fan to supply a
continuous flow of air through the load
3. Solar-assisted artificial dryers, which may use an
auxiliary energy source for boosting the heating
rate
Mixed types include a solar-dehumidifier dryer with
forced-air recirculation, as shown in Figure 36.49.
Many solar dryers described in the literature are
simple greenhouse kilns (e.g., Langrish and Keey,
1992). In these units, the solar collector is fitted within
the structure that holds the load and the airflow is
maintained by fans. The solar energy, in other cases,
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Kiln
Condenser
Air
Control flow
Refrigerant
valve Fan discharge line
Wood
stack
Compressor
Motor
Refrigerant
suction line
is collected externally in heat-storage systems or
panels, as illustrated in Figure 36.49. Greenhouse
kilns have attractions in simplicity of construction
and operation.
The daily world-average solar radiation on a hori-
zontal surface is 3.82 kWh m2 (McDaniels, 1984),
with values in tropical countries being higher (up to
7.15 kWh m2) (Imré, 1995). However, Plumptre
(1989), reported by Keey et al. (2000) on reviewing
35 solar kiln designs, notes that the location of these
was spread almost uniformly over the range in lati-
tude from 0 to 508.
Langrish and Keey (1992) observed one oper-
ational feature of the use of a greenhouse kiln. With
the kiln’s vents shut overnight and with the drop in
ambient temperature, the relative humidity in the kiln
would rise sufficiently for moisture to condense on the
wood’s surface. This provided a degree of condition-
ing, which prevented the development of excessive
checking in a refractory hardwood being dried.
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