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VECTOR DATA MODEL IN GIS AND HOW IT UNDERPINS A RANGE OF WIDELY

USED SPATIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

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 Sabiu et al.
Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132

VECTOR DATA MODEL IN GIS AND HOW IT UNDERPINS A RANGE OF WIDELY

USED SPATIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Sabi’u*,N., Muhammed,S.N., Zakari, N. and Khalil, M.S.
Department of Environmental Sciences, Federal University Dutse, Jigawa, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: nura.sabiu@fud.edu.ng+2348034462646, +2348026378696

ABSTRACT
Spatial data can be manipulated in different formats and patterns. One of the most
important formats is vector data model which holds topological relationships between
geographic features. In this paper we show how vector data model is widely used in many
spatial analysis techniques. A vector data model also known as discrete object model
prepares data in two basic steps so that computer can process the data. First, it uses
points and their x-,y-coordinates to represent discrete spatial features such as points,
lines, and polygons over an empty space. Secondly, it organises geometric objects and
their spatial relationship in to digital data files that the computer can assess, interpret,
and process. Topology in simple context is the science and mathematics of relationships
used to validate the geometry of vector entities, and for operations such as network
tracing and test of polygon adjacency. Vector data structure can be grouped into four
classes namely: Simple features, topological features, network data model TIN data
model, georelational data model and object-based data model in which each has its
spatial application.The vector datasets are wide-spread and increasingly available from
a variety of sources including administrative, political, social, and environmental data
such as census enumerations districts, wards, counties, parishes, national parks, land use,
land cover, geology and so on. Therefore, vector datasets are thus also at the core of wide
range of applications and vital in day-to-day spatial data analysis.
Keywords: Vector Data Model;Vector Topology, GIS; Spatial Analysis; Spatial Data

INTRODUCTION it uses points and their x-,y-coordinates to

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is
defined as the capturing, storing,
processing and presentation of spatially
referenceddata (Star and Estes, 1990;
Grimshaw, 1994; Chang, 2014). This spatial
data can be manipulated in different
formats and patterns. One of the most
important formats is vector data model
which holds topological relationships
between geographic features. These vector
data can be derived from different method,
example using scanning of analogues maps
into raster formats and then digitizing into
vectors forms (Grimshaw, 1994). In vector
data model, points, lines, and polygons are
used to represent spatial features or
objects with clear spatial location and
boundary. Example of vector data features
are; boreholes as point features, drainage
gutters as line features, and buildings as
polygon features (Figure 1). A vector data
model also known as discrete object
modelprepares data in two basic steps so
that computer can process the data. First,
represent discrete spatial features such as
points, lines, and polygons over an empty
space. Secondly, it organises geometric
objects and their spatial relationship in to
digital data files that the computer can
assess, interpret, and process.
The vector data model has undergone more
changes over the past three decades than
any other topic in GIS. With advent of new
vector data model such as coverages,
shapefile, and geodatabase by ESRI for
example and other vector formats used in
GIS, primarily reflects advances in
computer technology and the competitive
nature of the GIS market, but to GIS users,
a new data model means accepting a whole
new set of concepts, terms, and data file
structures. Although some users are still
using shapefiles, many have migrated to
geodatabases to take advantage of
object-oriented technology and new GIS
functionalities developed by GIS software
vendors such as ESRI.

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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015
Vector data model can be simple,
topological, network, georelational and
recently object-based. A georelational data
model stores geometries and attributes of
spatial featuresseparately, while on the
other hand data model that is object-based
store those geometries and attributes of
spatial features in a single scheme.
This paper review vector data model in GIS
and how it underpins a widely used spatial
analysis techniques using relevant
examples.
Spatial Data Structures
Spatial data structure refers to the
implementation of spatial concepts or
techniques. The efficiency derived after
implementing the spatial techniques such
as minimizing storage requirements to hold
the data and maximizing performance to
improve the processing speed of the
geometrical operations (Piwowar, et al.,
1990; Egenhofer and Herring, 1994) has
significant impact on the spatial data
structure. Various methods have been
established to represent information on the
maps, produced by modelling of the spatial
features in computers. These methods are
generally based on the use of vector or
raster data models (Berry, 1993).
Raster Data Model
Little will be said on the raster data
because the emphasis is on the vector data
models. In raster data structure,
information is represented in a pixels or
cell forming grid of network. In simple term
binary numbers is used to represent each
cell (Longley, et al., 2008) where
floating-point values are used in advanced
cases. In raster data, when black/white
colour is used only the spatial data is
stored, and when colour values are used
limited attribute information can be
stored. The raster data to be used must be
very small/light otherwise it has to be
compressed to improve storage efficiency
(Peuquet, 1981; Longley, et al., 2008). This
is the problem of raster data in GIS
application. The vector data uses the
geometric objects of point, line, and
polygon to represent spatial features.
Although ideal for discrete features with
123
pp 122 - 132
well-defined locations and shapes, the
vector data model does not work well with
spatial phenomena that vary continuously
over the space such as precipitation,
elevation, and soil erosion. A better option
for representing continuous phenomena is
the raster data model, also called the
field-based model (Goodchild et al., 2007).
Raster data model uses a regular grid to
cover the space. Unlike the vector data
model, the raster data model has not
change interms of its concept for the past
four decades (Tomlin, 1990). Research on
the raster data model has instead
concentrated on data structure and data
compression. A wide variety of data used in
GIS are encoded in raster format. Such data
include digital elevation data, satellite
images, digital orthophotos etc.
Vector Data Model
Vector data is used in GIS because of
precise nature of its representation
method, storage efficiency, the quantity of
its cartographic output, and the availability
of functional tools for operations like map
projection, overlay and analysis (Berry,
1993; Longley, et al., 2008). Points are
known to be the basic element in vector
data. Each object in vector data model is
first classified into a geometric type: point,
line and polygon. In each object, the
coordinates that define its geometry may
have 2, 3 or 4 dimensions (Longley, et al.,
2003). The points create lines and these
lines later create polygon. Vector data
structure can be grouped into four classes
(Longley, 2008) namely: Simple features
(non-topological), topological features,
network datamodel and TIN data model
and recently Georelational data model
Object-Based Data Model.
Simple Features
In simple data, graphical representation of
information is most common. Features of
the same geometric type (x,y coordinates)
are stored in the same geographic database
as feature class or feature table (Egenhofer
and Herring, 1991; Healy, 1991; Mara, et
al., 2010 ). These features are sometimes
referred to as spaghetti because line and
polygon can overlap with no relationship
between any of the objects.
Sabiu et al.
Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015
Dimensionality and property distinguish the
three types of geometric objects as well as
the features they represent. They are very
useful in situation where large numbers of
simple geometrical edits are involved via a
graphics interface (Egenhofer and Herring,
1991). The spaghetti features are very vital
because they are easy to be created,
stored, retrieved and displayed on screen
(Egenhofer and Herring, 1991). Simple
features are useful in connectivity between
points, but lack more advanced data
structure characteristics such as topology,
it is problematic therefore to carryout
operations like shortest-path network
analysis and polygon adjacency (Longley, et
al., 2008). Due to overlapping nature and
when more complex spatial entities are
considered, it limits the use of simple
vector data structures in certain
applications. It is very difficult to dissolve
common boundaries when amalgamating
zones. Example when dealing with land
ownership, it is obvious that land parcel
cannot overlap, otherwise two people may
end up having the same piece of land.
In simple features, point has
Points Line
Figure 1: Point, line, and polygon features used in vector data model.
Topological Features
Vector data can be topological or
nontopological, depending on whether is
built into the data. The topological
features were derived from simple features.
It refers to the study of those properties of
geometric objects that remain invariant
under certain transformations such as
bending or stretching (Massey 1967).
Distortion in geographic space object will
not cause the features of the topological
relationship to change (because of its
non-metric qualitative properties) (Longley,
et al., 2008). Topology in simple context is
the science and mathematics of
relationships used to validate the geometry
of vector entities, and for operations such
pp 122 - 132
dimension and has only the property of
location. A point feature is made of a point
or a set of separate points. Well,
benchmarks, and gravel pits are example of
point features. A line is one-dimensional
and has the property of length, in addition
to location. A line has two end points and
points in between to mark the shape of the
line. A polyline features is made of lines.
Road, Streams, and Contour lines are
example of polyline features. A polygon is
two-dimensional and has the properties
and has the properties of area (size) and
perimeter, in addition to location. A
polygon feature is made of a set of
polygons. Example of polygon features
include land parcels, buildings, water
bodies like dams etc. (Goodchild et al.,
2007).
The representation of simple features using
points, lines, and polygons is not always
straight-forward because it can depend on
map scale. For example, a building on a
1:1,500,000 scale map may appear as a
point, but the same building may appear as
a polygon on 1:5,000 scale map.
zero
Polygon
as network tracing and test of polygon
adjacency (Longley, et al., 2008). It
clearly shows the spatial relationship
between features like two lines meeting
perfectly at a point. Vector data with
topology are necessary for some analysis
such as shortest path on a road network,
whereas data without topology can display
faster. Subway map is the common example
of topological map because it depicts
correctly the connectivity between the
subway lines and stations on each line but
has distortions in distance and directions
(see figure 2).It is a very interesting
feature introduced which forces all lines
ends that are within user-defined distance
to be snapped together so that the same
coordinate value can
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Sabiu et al.
Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132

be assign to them. Due to its diversity in optimization makes the topology to play a
function such as data validation, editing, major role in GIS analysis(Longley, et al.,
modelling integrated behaviour and query 2008).

Figure 2: A Subway map of Washington DC, U.S.A

To apply it to geospatial data, topology is
often explained through graph theory, a
subfield of mathematics that uses diagrams
or graphs to study the arrangements of
geometric objects and the relationship
among objects (Wilson and Watkins, 1990).
Important to the vector data model are
directed graphs, which include points and
directed lines. The directed lines are called
arc and the points where arcs meet or
intersect are called nodes (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The basic topological elements and their relationships (Source, ESRI ArcGIS Server
9.3 Help, 2011).

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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132
Topology has at least two main advantages. nontopological data can be used across
First, it ensure data quality and integrity. different software packages since they are
Example, topology enables detection of nonproprietary and interoperable.
lines that do not meet. If a gap exist on a
Network Data Model
supposedly continuous road, a shortest
This is a special topologic feature model
path analysis will take a circuitous route to
which is widely used in a GIS environment.
avoid the gap. Secondly, topology can
It defines how lines connect to each other
enhance GIS analysis. Early address
at nodes. The core purpose of a network
geocoding providers typically used the
data model is to provide an accurate
TIGER database as a reference database
representation of a network as a set of
because it not has address ranges but also
links and nodes. Topology is the
separate them according to the left or right
arrangement of nodes and links in a
side of the street (Regnauld and Mackaness,
network of particular relevance which are
2006). Another example of topological data
the representations of location, direction
is wildlife habitat analysis involving edges
and connectivity. Even if graph theory aims
between habitat types. If edges are coded
at the abstraction of transportation
with left and right polygons in a
networks, the topology of a network data
topology-based data set, specific habitat
model should be as close as possible to the
types (e.g. old growth and clear-cuts) along
real world structure it represents.
edges can easily be tabulated and analyzed
Networks are modelled in GIS software
(Chang et al., 1995).
system as points and lines (Longley, et
The nontopological vector data was
al.,2003). Rules must be set for the
adopted for data with nonproprietary data
purpose of the analysis on how flow can
formats. Example the shapefile used in Esri
move through a network. Example, a
products. Although the shapefile treats a
directional movement from the source to a
point as a pair of x-, y-coordinates a line as
treatment plant in sewer network but the
a series of points, and a polygon as a series
flow can be in any direction in a
of line segments, no file describe the
pressurized gas network (Longley, et al.,
spatial relationship among these geometric
2003). Network data model can be used in
objects. Nontopological data such as
various applications such as routing
shapefiles have two main advantages. First,
emergency response vehicles over a street
they can display more rapidly on computer
network, optimising the rout of mail
monitor than topology-based data
deliveries, tracing pollution upstream to a
(Theobald, 2001). This advantage is
source over a stream network (Longley, et
particularly important for people who use,
al., 2003).
rather than produce, GIS data. Secondly,

Figure 3: The basic topology of an urban transport network composed of linked nodes.
(Source, The geography of transport systems website, 2011).
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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015
Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) Data Model
Most of the data models discussed above
focuses mainly on 1- and 2-dimentional
data. The TIN data model is an alternative
to the raster and vector data models for
representing continuous surfaces. It allows
surface models to be generated efficiently
to analyse and display terrain and other
types of surfaces. The TIN model creates a
network of triangles by storing the
topological relationships of the triangles
(Peuker, et al., 1975) as such TIN
represents the terrain surface as a set of
interconnected triangular facets. For each
of the three vertices, the XY (geographic
location) and the (elevation) Z values are
encoded (Kumler1994; Longley, et al.,
2008). There several ways to model 3D data
such as terrain models, sales cost surface,
geologic strata, among others (Healy, 1991;
Longley, et al., 2003). The fundamental
building block of the TIN data is the node.
Nodes are connected to their nearest
neighbours by edges, according to a set of
rules. Left-right topology is associated with
the edges to identify adjacent triangles.
The TIN creates triangles from a set of
points called mass points, which always
become nodes (Longley, et al., 2008). The
user is not responsible for selecting; all the
nodes are added according to a set of rules.
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pp 122 - 132
Mass points can be located anywhere, the
more carefully selected, the more accurate
the model of the surface will be.
Well-placed mass points occur when there
is a major change in the shape of the
surface, for example, at the peak of a
mountain, the floor of a valley, or at the
edge (top and bottom) of cliffs. By
connecting points on a valley floor or along
the edge of a cliff, a linear break in the
surface can be defined. A triangle always
has three and only three straight sides,
making their representation rather simple.
Figure 4: TIN data model (Source: ET
Spatial Techniques, 2011)
In a 3D model, the geometric entities
include not only the primitive spatial
two-dimensional objects such as point, line,
and polygon, but also the primitive spatial
three-dimensional objects such as a cube,
sphere and cylinder (Abdul-Rahman and
Pilouk, 2008). In current GISs, while the
topological relations are represented
between the same spatial units
(layer-based GIS), the spatial relationships
between different spatial units such as
point-polygon relations are implemented
by operations that may require specific
tools in an information system.
Sabiu et al.
Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132

For instance, the point-polygon relations However, the coverage is topological while
are required for inclusion queries. The shapefile is nontopological.
spatial relationships represented in a 3D
The coverage data structure incorporates
model are the topological relationships
the topological relationships in to the
between the spatial three-dimensional
structure of feature data. The structure of
objects. Therefore, the 3D model should
point coverage is simple. The data in point
represent the adjacency and connectivity
coverage contains features identification
relationships between 3D objects because
numbers (IDs) and pair of x-, y- coordinates
the inclusion relations can be derived from
(Figure 6). In line coverages, the starting
the geometric information by using spatial
point is the from-node, and the end point is
query operations such as a point/solid
the to-node (Figure 7). For example, arc 5
classification (Abdul-Rahman and Pilouk,
has 14 as the from-node and 15 as the
2008).
to-node. The arc-coordinate list shows the
Georelational Data Model x-, y-coordinates of the from-node, the
to-node, and other points called vertices)
In georelational data model,
that make up each arc. While in the
implementation of topologic feature model
polygon /arc coverages (Figure 8) shows
both the geometry and the topologic
relationship between polygons and arcs.
information is typically held in the
Lists such as the polygon/arc list in polygon
computer files and the attributes in a
coverages are stored as graphic files in a
linked database (Congalton, 1997).
coverage folder. Another folder, called
Meaning the model stores geometries and
INFO, which is shared by all coverages in
attributes separately in a split system:
the same workspace, stores attributes data
geometries (“geo”) in graphic files and
files. The graphic files such as the
attributes (“relational”) in a relational
arc-coordinate list, the arc-node list, and
database. Typically a georelational data
the polygon-arc list are efficient in
model uses the features identification
reducing data redundancy. A shared or
number (ID) to link the two components.
common boundary between two polygons is
The two components must be synchronized
stored in the arc-coordinate list once, not
so that they can be queried, analysed and
twice. This not only reduces the number of
displayed in unison. The coverage and the
data entries but also makes it easier to
shapefile which are both ESRI products, are
update polygon.
example of georelational data model.

Figure 6: Point coverage in Georetaional data model

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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132

Figure 7: Line coverage in Georetaional data model.

Figure 8: Polygon coverage in Georetaional data model.

Object-Based Data Model
The geo-relational data structure for geospatial data as objects. Bhalla, 1991,
topologic vector data model (as discussed and Healy, 1991, highlighted that, in
above) has been around for many years and object-oriented GIS databases spatial and
is not well suited for object-oriented data attribute information is stored together in
structure (Harmond and Anderson, 2003). a single record for each feature in the
database. This makes it difficult to lose
Using building a house as example, in the
features and easier to completely insert
georelational data structure, the topologic
and remove from the database without
structure to add a room to the house may
having to reconstruct the topology every
involves reconstructing the entire house
time. An object can represent a spatial
but the system knows exactly where the
feature such as road, timber stand,
other rooms the new room is next to, while
hydrologic unit, water bodies, etc and also
in object-oriented database, the room can
represent these spatial features’
be added without affecting the other
coordinate systems on which they are
rooms (Harmond and Anderson, 2003). The
based. In fact almost everything can be
object-based data model is the latest entry
represented as object.
into vector data model which treats
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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132
In GIS environment, object-based data typically held in the computer files and the
model differs from the georelational in two attributes in a linked database which uses
important aspect. First, object-based data the features identification number (ID) to
model stores geometries and attributes in a link the two components which must be
single system. Geometries are stored in a synchronized so that they can be queried,
special field known as BLOB (binary large analysed and displayed in unison. In GIS
object) (Zeila, 2001). Secondly, the environment, object-based data model is
object-based data model allows spatial recently identified as the most important
features (objects) to be associated with a vector data model which treats geospatial
set of properties and methods. While the data as objects and this make it to differ
property describes an attribute or from the georelational in two vital features.
characteristic of an object, the method Object-based data model stores geometries
performs specific action. and attributes in a single system and also
allows spatial features (objects) to be
Generally object-oriented topologic data
associated with a set of properties and
structure allows user to play around with
methods as opposed to georelational data
pieces without affecting the entire
model. Generally object-oriented topologic
database, which is otherwise in
data structure allows user to play around
geo-relational topologic data structure
with pieces without affecting the entire
(Dangermond, 1990; Bhalla, 1991).
database, which is otherwise in
Discussion geo-relational topologic data structure.
In this paper different vector data models
More examples can be found within GIS
were discussed. The simple features are
environment where spatial analysis
very vital because they are easy to be
techniques are used to solve different
created, stored, retrieved and displayed on
problems. For example, in GIS and
screen. Recently simple features has
location/allocation modelling,
limited Topology data model has at least
Fotheringham et al., 2002, used population
two main advantages. Firstly, it ensures
data from 1871 census in USA to examine
data quality and integrity. Example,
the location of ten senior-citizen facilities
topology enables detection of lines that do
under different aggregations of the
not meet. If a gap exists on a supposedly
base-level data. The demand zones are
continuous road, a shortest path analysis
aggregated to various spatial coverages
will take a circuitous route to avoid the gap.
consisting of 800, 400, 200, 100, 50 and 25
Secondly, topology can enhance GIS
zones. Twenty different coverages at each
analysis. The nontopological features also
of these spatial scales were derived using
have advantage to display more rapidly on
an algorithm which uses the topology
computer monitor than topology-based
stored in the GIS to determine whether
data and also can be used across different
zones are neighbours and the length of
software packages since they are their common boundaries (Fotheringham,
nonproprietary and interoperable. Network 2000).
data model can be used in various
In another example, Spiekermann and
applications such as routing emergency
Wegener (2000) demonstrate how
response vehicles over a street network,
vector-based GIS record of land (as
optimising the rout of mail deliveries,
attributes of polygon) can be used in
tracing pollution upstream to a source over
spatial disaggregation of zonal data in
a stream network. TIN data model allows
Dortmund. The land-use coverage and the
surface models to be generated efficiently
coverage containing the zone borders were
to analyse and display terrain and other
overlaid to get land-use polygons for each
types of surfaces which use three
zone which is later converted to raster
dimensional feature as opposed to simple,
representation. The land-use data was then
topological and network data models. In
merged with zonal-activity data such as
georelational data model, implementation
population or employment and other
of topologic feature model both the
analysis were then carried out.
geometry and the topologic information is
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Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences 1(1) June 2015 pp 122 - 132
Conclusion
The vector data model is at core of most Used in Geographic Information Systems.
commercial GIS. It is believed that a pp. 30-51. Introductory Readings in
topologic data model best reflects the Geographic Information.
geography of the real world and provides System. Taylor&Francis Ltd., Burgess
an effective mathematical foundation for Science Press: London.
encoding spatial relationship, providing a Egenhofer, M.J., and Herring, J.R., (1991).
data model for manipulating and analysing High-level spatial data structures
vector based data. The vector datasets are for GIS in Maguire, D.J., Goodchild,
wide-spread and increasingly available M.F., and Rhind, D.W., (eds),
from a variety of sources including Geographical Information Systems
administrative, political, social, and Volume 1: Principles and
environmental data such as census Applications, John Wiley: New York,
enumerations districts, wards, counties, pp. 227-237.
parishes, national parks, land use, land Fotheringham, A.S., (2000). GIS-based
cover, geology and so on. Therefore, vector spatial modelling: a step forward or
topological datasets are thus also at the a step backward in Fotheringham,
core of wide range of applications. Despite A.S., and Weneger, M., (eds),
the vital nature of vector data model in GIS Spatial Models and GIS: New
environment, it may have some limitation Potential and New Models, Taylor
such as analysis in complex data may be and Francis: London, pp.26-27.
time intensive which limits the Fotheringham, A. S., Brunsdon, C., and
functionality of large data sets, e.g. large Charlton, M. E. (2002).
number of features etc. Geographically Weighted
Regression: The Analysis of
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