(HASA-Tfl-84091) V O Y A G E S 2 AT S A T O B N : EAflLY
F I N D I N G S (National A e r o n a u t i c s and Space
Administration) 11 p
I
Report
Vol. 9, No. 3 Fall 1981
Voyager 2 at Saturn—Early Findings
On August 25th, 2.7 seconds early and only 30 miles from
the aim point, Voyager 2 ended its four-year journey to
Saturn with a second spectacular view of the planet. Its
images equalled those of Voyager 1 and its experiments
provided an abundance of riches with new data.
Taking advantage of knowledge gained from the Voyager
1 flyby, Voyager 2's instruments were adjusted to
August 23. 1981. Saturn's C Ring from a distance of 2.7 million kilometers.
-7 1775
Unclas
00/91 07568
concentrate on selected targets: a closer study of the planet's
atmospheric motion, the rings, five of the near and seven of
the new satellites, and the magnetosphere. Its path took it
23,000 kilometers closer to the planet than Voyager 1 and it
approached from above the rings, with the Sun behind it.
The resultant photographic conditions were superb and,
along with better cameras that produced sharper images,
allowed the spacecraft to send back remarkably detailed
pictures.
The early results were stunning.
The Atmosphere. The placid, bland-looking Saturn seen
through a telescope was shown by Voyager 1 to be a sphere
of many colored bands, violent weather storms, jet streams,
high and low pressure systems.
Voyager 1 passed under the South Pole. Voyager 2
imaged more of the planet covering the northern hemisphere
up to the North Pole, and showed the formation of bands
and clouds that circle it in much greater detail. This second
look at the turbulent atmosphere revealed new features:
clouds vortices (small hurricanes), high-speed jet streams,
and eddies evident at higher latitudes (up to 80°N); a train of
vortices at about 40°N; and a curious cloud system that
curled into a figure 6.
Saturn is cold. Voyager 2's infrared interferometer
spectrometer data show that its temperature ranges from
80°K to 95°K at the cloudtops. However, the planet still
radiates almost 2.5 times as much energy as it receives from
the Sun. Saturn's upper, or outer, atmospheric mass is 89%
hydrogen with most of the remaining 11%, helium. This is
much less helium than has been measured in Jupiter's
atmosphere (19%), and lends credence to the theory that on
Saturn the helium, which is heavier than hydrogen,
separates out and sinks toward the center of the planet. The
separation process provides a source of heat. Traces of
ammonia, phosphine, methane, and other hydrocarbons
have also been detected in its atmosphere.
•o
3
-• 30
-200 -100
Wind Velocity (meters/sec)
Wind velocities plotted on a photograph of Saturn's northern hemisphere. A westward-flowing wind current appears to drive a wedge through a train of
vortices (small hurricanes) with obvious eastward streams above and below. As the vortice separates, smaller cyclones are formed. Those to the north
route clockwise, to the south, counterclockwise. This is one of the many interesting phenomena observed by Voyager 2.
The Rings. Before last fall, it was believed there were five
rings about Saturn. Voyager 1's cameras showed hundreds.
Voyager 2's photographs have revised the count to
thousands. Both spacecraft showed the ring system as
complex and mysterious.
Areas of concentrated study by Voyager 2 were the B
Ring and its spokes, the braided F Ring and its satellites,
the eccentric rings (C Ring and one in the Cassini Division)
and the Encke Division, and a photopolarimeter observation
of the rings.
Voyager photographed the A, B, C, and F Rings and
re-verified the existence of and photographed the D and G
Rings; the E Ring was detected by the fields and particles
instruments.
Voyager 2's observations tested several theories of the
rings' stability, what mechanism is holding the ring
panicles in orbit around the planet. One theory supposes
that the ring particles are in resonance with one of the larger
satellites, and some of the larger gaps in the rings do occur
at distances corresponding to orbital resonances with Mimas
(in a 2:1 resonance, the particles make two orbits for every
one orbit by Mimas; Mimas also exerts a gravitational pull).
A second theory proposes that small moonlets herd each
ringlet; the imaging cameras searched the rings for evidence
of new moonlets, but none were found beyond those already
known in the F Ring. A third theory proposes density waves
100 200 300
Saturn's northern hemisphere in a photograph taken on Aug. 21 from a distance of 5.4 million km shows weather patterns at all latitudes. A stream of
clouds attached to a large spot about 3000 km in diameter is moving westward at about IS meters per second; the spot moves eastward at about 10 meters
per second and shows counterclockwise rotation. The ribbonlike feature in the latitude band centered at 47°N marks a high-speed jet of about 150 meters
per second. Further small scale clouds are evident toward the polar region.
in the ring particles and some evidence of such waves is
seen in Voyager data. A fourth theory involves collisions
between the ring particles themselves, though a narrow ring
says that something is preventing collisions.
Photopolarimeter experiment A spectacular and ambi-
tious experiment used a device called a photopolarimeter.
During approach it locked on a single star, Delta Scorpii,
and measured the star's light as it filtered through the rings
to gather information about the rings' composition and
structure. The results were highly successful, providing a
tremendous amount of detailed data. Analysis of the data
will yield a map of an area the size of the U.S. with the
resolution of a city block.
The main ring system extends from near the planet out to
about 75,000 km above the cloudtops, a vast sheet of icy
debris varying in thickness, composition, and orbital
characteristics. With resolution down to a city block—about
150 meters—the photopolarimeter's data present new
questions: where does one ring end and another begin?
what is the shoulder of one ring or the body of another? The
photopolarimeter found evidence of pressure waves which
are responsible for changes in the thickness of the ringlets
For several days in late August, a large vortex in Saturn's northern mid-latitudes unfolded and Voyager 2 recorded its progress. Initially
corkscrew-shaped, over a period of seven rotations it became more like a "6" and eventually formed a closed loop. Such studies give clues to the planet's
atmospheric dynamics.
(thus, they have so-called "shoulders"). Many of the
ringlets are non-circular, indicating that structure changes
rapidly, perhaps continuously, in the rings.
B Ring The mysterious finger-like structures Voyager 1
found in the B Ring received a great deal of attention from
Voyager 2, including some special ring plane crossing
photographs and a series of time-lapse movies to study their
formation and lifespans. The spokes form over very short
time periods (minutes), primarily near the point where the
ring particles emerge from Saturn's shadow. Most dissipate
before completing a single orbit of the planet, but some
remnants do persist and other spokes form on top of them.
The spokes form radially (they extend outward from the
planet like spokes in a wagon wheel) and are seen on both
faces of the rings, north and south (illuminated and
unilluminated, but the features on the unlit side could
possibly be shadows of spokes). One theory proposes that
the spokes are electrostatically-levitated particles of fine
dust lifted above the plane of the rest of the B Ring by
Saturn's magnetic field lines which pass through the B Ring
in the spokes region. Three pictures were taken during ring
plane crossing when the rings could be viewed nearly
edge-on in hopes of seeing this phenomenon, with the most
spectacular picture '/2 degree above the plane. However, no
evidence of particle levitation could be seen from any of
these pictures.
F Ring An analysis of the imagery of the F Ring and its
shepherding satellites revealed no satellite effects on the
ring structure, no ring perturbations due to the presence of
the satellites which could have caused the peculiar braiding
seen by Voyager 1.
Encke Division Voyager 2 discovered a new "kinked"
ring inside the Encke Division that looks similar to the F
Ring. Seen as close as a 15-km resolution, the new ring has
no satellites.

Herding the thin F Ring between them, satellites 1980S27 (inner) and 1980S26 (outer) are about 1800 km apart in this image. Traveling slightly faster, the
inside moon overtook the outer one about two hours later, a lapping that occurs every 25 days.
The Satellites. Saturn's 17 satellites fall into three main
classes: giant Titan, seven intermediate-sized icy satellites,
and eight small moonlets. Phoebe, the outermost satellite,
may represent a fourth class, captured asteroids.
Voyager 2 flew closer and took higher resolution
photographs of Enceladus, Tethys, Hyperion, lapetus, and
Phoebe than did Voyager 1. It also photographed seven of
the planet's newly discovered satellites.
Enceladus The closer look at Enceladus showed a varied
topography—the flat plains seen earlier, but also craters,
ridges, and valleys, which suggest an active geologic past.
One possibility is volcanic activity, which would be water
A high-resolution image of Enceladus made from several images taken by Voyager 2 on Aug. 25 from a range of 119,000 km.
6
volcanoes since the satellite is comprised mostly of ice.
Scientists believe the moon's age ranges from 100 million
years old in some parts to a few billion years old in others.
Tethys Two distinctive features have been found on
Tethys: a chasm several kilometers deep, 100 km wide, and
2000 km long circling nearly three-fourths of its circumfer-
ence, and the largest crater in the Saturnian system. The
crater is about 400 km in diameter, several kilometers deep,
and so large that the satellite Mimas could fit within it.
Hyperion An enigma. Hyperion is one of Saturn's
outermost moons, some 1,440,000 kilometers away from
 I

This series of pictures of Tethys shows its large crater, 400 km in diameter. Three views of Hyperion taken (from top) from 1.2 million km, 700,000
as it rotates toward the termination and limb of the satellite (to the right). km, and 500,000 km, show the changing aspect of the satellite.
the planet. Passing by within 480,000 kilometers, Voyager
2 clearly showed it to have the shape of a squat cylinder.
Roughly 360 x 325 x 200 km, Hyperion was likened to an
unshelled peanut, a hocky puck, and a hamburger as closer
images were transmitted. Its appearance was a complete
surprise to scientists. Voyager 1's images were uninterest-
ing, but now a pock-marked surface with a 96-km-wide
crater is evident. The huge crater could be the result of a
collision with another body that left it not only out of shape
but also disoriented in relation to Saturn. The longest axis of
an irregular shaped body should point to the planet it is
orbiting, but Hyperion travels around Saturn with its long
axis pointing forward.
lapetus and Phoebe lapetus is equally mysterious. It has
a bright and a dark face, the greatest contrast of any object
in the solar system. Its dark side, as black as asphalt, faces
forward in its orbit around Saturn. Two theories compete
for an explanation: the black coat is thick and comes from
lapetus' interior, or it is external in origin and lapetus is
sweeping up debris in its orbit, perhaps a coating of dust
from Phoebe.
On Sept. 4 Voyager made its closest approach to Phoebe,
traveling within 2.2 million kilometers to provide our first
images. If scientists find a surface likeness that parallels
lapetus, this will support the theory that lapetus' dark side
Eight of Saturn's small satellites are shown in this composite of Voyager I and 2 images. Just 50 km separate the orbits of I980S3 and 1980S I. the
co-orbitals.
developed from an accumulation of particles in the
atmosphere.
There is evidence that Phoebe, Saturn's outermost
satellite, is a captured asteriod. Observations show that it is
about 200 kilometers in diameter, is darker than any other
of Saturn's satellites, and has a rotation period of 9 to 10
hours. It is the only Saturn satellite that does not always
show the same face to the planet. Orbiting Saturn every 550
days in the ecliptic plane rather than in the equatorial plane
as do the others, Phoebe's orbit is retrograde, in the
direction opposite to that of the other satellites.
New Satellites Voyager 2 took high-resolution photo-
graphs of seven of Saturn's newly discovered satellites:
1980S26 and 1980S27, the pair that shepherds the F Ring:
1980S6, the satellite that occupies Dione's orbit; 1980S 1
and 1980S3, the two moons that share an orbit; and
1980S25 and 1980S 13, the two satellites recently discov-
ered in Earth observations that orbit Saturn about 60 degrees
behind and ahead of Tethys.
The seven appear to be irregularly-shaped and heavily
cratered by impacts with cosmic debris. They range in size
from 96 to 320 kilometers across. 1980S3 appears to be
irregular and heavily battered. Scientists believe it and
1980S 1 are two halves of a satellite that was split into two.
Magnetosphere. Voyager 2 discovered a doughnut-shaped
plasma torus around Saturn; with temperatures from 600
million to over one billion degrees Fahrenheit, it is the
hottest found in the solar system.
The torus encircles Saturn at an altitude ranging from
273,600 kilometers above the planet's cloudtops to as high
as 724,000 km. Its temperatures are about 300 times hotter
than the solar corona, and twice as hot as the torus Voyager
1 discovered in the magnetosphere of Jupiter.
The Low-Energy Charged Particle instrument that made
the discovery is designed to measure fast ions and electrons
in the magnetospheres of the planets and in the interplanet-
ary medium. The instrument can distinguish several
charged particles and measure both the direction in which
the high-speed particles are moving and their temperature.
Saturn is surrounded by a series of tori. The newly
discovered hot torus is comprised of ionized oxygen and
extends from about the orbit of cnceladus to about halfway
between the orbits of Dione and Rhea. There it meets the
inner edge of the neutral hydrogen torus discovered by
Voyager 1 which extends beyond the orbit of Titan.
The Platform Problem. Voyager 2's mission at Saturn was
marred by one malfunction. Shortly after closest approach
the spacecraft's scan platform stuck while the spacecraft
was in the planet's shadow and out of communication with
Earth. The platform holds the narrow and wide angle
cameras, the infrared radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer,
and photopolarimeter instruments. On Aug. 28 the platform
was successfully moved by ground command; although
initial response was hesitant and slow, its response has
steadily improved. If the response is not dependable at
Uranus, Voyager 2's next destination, the spacecraft itself
can be moved to focus the platform.
Voyager 2's Legacy. Voyager 2's encounter with Saturn
has left over 11,000 images and trillions of bits of data on
the several properties of the planet, its rings, and its
satellites—a wealth of information that scientists will be
studying for years.
For scientists, its success was an exhilarating accom-
plishment. It allowed them once more to look at our
neighborhood in the universe, to explore where we live, and
to learn more about our own small world. It is also a
challenge. The enormous amount.of new information
brought new Saturnian mysteries.
A trajectory correction on Sept. 29 refined the
spacecraft's flight path to Uranus, where it is scheduled to
make the first closeup encounter in January 1986. It will
continue on for the first flyby of Neptune in August 1989.
Educators Conference. As at Voyager 1's encounter with
Saturn, an Educators Conference was hosted by the Office
of Education and Community Relations at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and Ambassador College in Pasadena, August
23-25. Benito Casados, Manager of the Office, guided
over 150 participants through a program that included
presentations on Voyager, spacecraft communications, and
future astronomy programs, briefings during the encoun-
ters, and a discussion of the "Shuttle at Work" by
Astronaut Robert A. R. Parker. A highlight of the
program was a tour of JPL with visits to several of the
laboratories.
New Leadership at NASA
NASA's new Administrator, James M. Beggs, assumed
office on July 10 succeeding Dr. Robert A. Frosch, who
served from 1977 until his resignation in January.
Mr. Beggs came to NASA from General Dynamics
Corp., in St. Louis, where he was Executive Vice
President, Aerospace as well as a director. In 1968-69 he
served NASA as Associate Administrator for Advanced
Research and Technology, and from 1969 to 1973 served as
Under Secretary of Transportation. His next position was as
managing Director, Operations for Summa Corp. until he
joined General Dynamics in January 1974.
A 1947 graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, Mr. Beggs
served with the Navy until 1954. The following year he
received a master's degree from the Harvard Graduate
School of Business Administration. He holds an honorary
LL.D. degree from Washington and Jefferson College (PA)
and an honorary doctor of engineering management degree
from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (FL). Mr.
Beggs also enjoys affiliation with several professional
organizations.
Beggs Mark
Also on July 10 Dr. Hans Mark was sworn in as
NASA's new Deputy Administrator. And Dr. Mark is also
returning to NASA having served for several years as
Director of the Ames Research Center.
Dr. Mark was Secretary of the Air Force from July 1979
to February 1981 after serving as Air Force Under Secretary
from 1977. He received his bachelor's degree in physics
from the University of California at Berkeley in 1951
and his doctorate in physics from MIT in 1954. His
professional career includes positions as research physi-
cist, professor, and administrator at laboratories with both
institutions.
1981 Science Fair Program
ISEF. Among the attendees at the Voyager 2 Encounter
educational conference were the eight NASA award
winners who won the trip with their teachers at the
International Science and Engineering Fair in May. The
students who were awarded Honorable Mention at the ISEF
received a mounted photograph of the Space Shuttle
Columbia signed by the astronaut crew and John F.
Yardley, then Associate Administrator for Transportation
Systems.
State and Regional Fairs. The directors of 214 state and
regional fairs requested NASA's participation in their
programs this year. At each fair up to five winners could be
cited for outstanding achievement in aerospace research. In
addition, several NASA Centers provided special programs.
Three Centers scheduled one-day visits for the NASA
award-winners in their respective geographic areas. At their
own expense, the students, accompanied by families or
teachers, visited the Centers for onsite introductions to
NASA projects and activities.
For the 14th year the Goddard Space Flight Center,
Greenbelt, MD, welcomed their winners. On June 26, 21
students and their families from nearby states and the
District of Columbia, were introduced to GSFC and its
programs. A highlight was a lecture on "The Fun of Space
Science."
The Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, OH, honored
its science fair winners on July 13. Students and their
parents from four states, including distant Minnesota,
Science fair winners and their parents are briefed about the operation of test
cells 3 and 4 in the Lewis Research Center's Propulsion Systems
Laboratory.
10
enjoyed an introduction to LeRC's activities that included
visits to the 10 x 10 Supersonic Wind Tunnel, Solar Test
Field, and the Electronic Propulsion Lab.
High school students representing five of the Center's
seven-state service area, attended the Marshall Space Flight
Center's third annual Science Fair Winners' Conference on
June 26. Students, parents, and teachers were briefed on
current research and development projects and visited
MSFC laboratories where they talked with scientists and
engineers. One student, who was recognized for her
construction of a wind tunnel, was ready to work there
"right now."
Second Space Shuttle Student
Involvement Project
The second Space Shuttle Student Involvement Project
(SSIP) in which experiments from high school students
across the nation are chosen for possible use on future Space
Shuttle missions, has been announced. The project is a joint
venture of NASA and the National Science Teachers
Association (NSTA). Any student is eligible to enter the
competition who is regularly enrolled in grades 9 through
12 in U.S. public, private, parochial, and overseas schools,
including U.S. civil and military overseas establishments,
Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and outlying U.S.
territories.
Students first will submit'proposals to their science
teachers to review for adherence to the rules of the
competition. Then eligible projects will be submitted to the
NSTA Regional Directors by the Feb. 1, 1982 deadline.
Interdisciplinary teams of teachers, scientists, and
engineers, selected by NSTA will review the proposals at
ten regional centers. Up to 20 students from each of the
regions will be selected as semifinalists. These semifinalists
and their teachers will attend regional Space Shuttle
conferences at NASA research centers where they will
present their proposed experiments before NASA and
industry scientists, and attend an awards ceremony.
From the 200 semifinalists, as many as 20 proposals will
be selected on the basis of scientific or engineering merit for
potential flight aboard the Space Shuttle. These national
winners and their teachers will attend a national symposium
at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in late summer of 1982.
Winning students, their teachers, and their schools will
receive commemorative medallions.
The ten national winners of the first SSIP competition
were announced in May (see Vol. 9, No. 2). With the
assistance of NASA consultants and their corporate
sponsors, these students are currently reviewing their
experiments for actual Space Shuttle missions or other
accommodations as appropriate.
Teachers should write to the NSTA for an official entry
form, rules booklet, and supplementary material: Space
Shuttle Involvement Project, National Science Teachers
Association, 1742 Connecticut Avenue, NW., Washington,
DC 20009.
The Solar Terrestrial Environment Slide
Program
A 40-color slide/15-minute audiocassette presentation titled
The Solar Terrestrial Environment has been produced by
the Alabama Space and Rocket Center, Huntsvilie. The
program includes a script and user's guide and is
appropriate for astronomy, Earth science, general science,
and space physics classes from the 6th grade to adult levels.
Through photographs and diagrams, the program ex-
amines the structure and dynamics of the solar terrestrial
environment, looking at in detail, the Sun and solar
phenomena, the solar wind, the magnetosphere, iono-
sphere, and atmosphere. The program introduces the
interactive processes that couple these components, pre-
sents auroras and other effects of magnetic storms, and
surveys the recent history of explorations in the solar
terrestrial environment, including some of the unsolved
puzzles in current research.
The Solar Terrestrial Environment may be purchased
from the Alabama Space and Rocket Center, Tranquility
Base, Huntsville, AL 35807; the cost is $12.95 plus $1.00
for postage and handling.
To Worlds Unknown, New Planetarium
Program
The Hansen Planetarium, Salt Lake City, has designed and
produced a new program, To Worlds Unknown, in
cooperation with NASA's Education Services.
Written, directed, and produced by Mark Littman, To
Worlds Unknown is a voyage aboard the Space Shuttle that
follows the paths of NASA spacecraft to the planets and
their moons whose features have just recently been
unveiled.
The program is available to all U.S. plane tar i urns free of
cost. For information, contact the Hansen Planetarium, 15
South State Street, Salt Lake City, UT 84111.
Frederick B. Turtle
The NASA staff and professional colleagues in the
educational community were saddened by the death of Dr.
Frederick B. Tuttle in May. At the time of his death Dr.
Tuttle was special assistant for education in NASA's
Academic Affairs Division.
Dr. Tuttle joined NASA in 1963 to continue a career in
aerospace education that began in 1946 when he helped
develop the Civil Aeronautics Administration's education
program. At NASA he served for eight years as Director of
Educational Programs during which time, in addition to
supervising the national program in education, he was
responsible for the development of many of the agency's
curriculum resource materials. In October, NASA's
Exceptional Service Medal was awarded posthumously to
Dr. Tuttle in recognition of "his unswerving devotion to the
principles of the education process and his absolute
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-361-166:125
dedication and outstanding accomplishments in guiding
NASA's efforts to disseminate information related to
NASA's activities and the results thereof to the education
community."
A native of New Haven, Connecticut, and graduate of
Yale university where he received both bachelor's and
doctoral degrees, Dr. Tuttle's career included positions as
public school teacher, principal, and superintendent as well
as dean and director of graduate studies, summer sessions,
and extension division of the State University of New York
at Plattsburgh.
In 1973 he received the Frank G. Brewer trophy for
outstanding service to aerospace education and in 1979, the
Crown Circle award for aerospace education leadership.
Recent NASA Publications
NASA's Aircraft Energy Efficiency research and technolo-
gy development program is the subject of a series of NASA
Facts pamphlets: Laminar Flow Control Technology,
NF-86, 8 pp.; Propulsion, NF-93, 12 pp.; Aerodynamics,
NF-94, 8 pp.; Guidance and Control, NF-95, 8pp.; and
Materials and Structures, NF-117, 8 pp. $1.75 each.
Viking Site Selection and Certification, SP-429, reviews the
landing site selection and certification process tor the
Viking mission to Mars. It evaluates the utility and
limitations of the orbital television and infrared data and
ground-based radar observations of candidate and actual
landing sites. Paperbound, 40 pp. $5.50.
Wind Tunnels of NASA, SP-440, is a description of the
contribution of these important tools of aeronautical
research, which are among the least understood facilities.
Both factual and readable, this book goes a long way to
bridging the gap between engineers and laity. Hardcover,
154pp. $13.25.
Materials Processing in Space: Early Experiments, SP-443,
reviews early U.S. efforts to study the behavior—under
conditions of weightlessness—of materials undergoing
alteration (melting and resolidification, combining two or
more materials, growing crystals from aqueous solutions) in
order to produce new or more useful products. It includes
experiments that took place on the orbiting Skylab and
during the Apollo program, and experiments from drop
towers. Paperbound, 123 pp. $11.00.
Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/
Saturn Launch Vehicles, SP-4206, is a history of the launch
vehicles that made the Moon landing possible. The
narrative is largely predicated on the questions that may be
asked by future generations: How were the Saturns made?
How did they work? The bulk of the book deals with the
technological program. Paperbound, 535 pp. $10.50.
The above publications are available from the Superinten-
dent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.
II
 Where to Write for Services
NASA publications should be ordered from the Superintendent NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington. DC Houston, Texas 77058
20402. Publication lists, film lists, and information about other Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, N. Dakota. Okla-
services are available from the Educational Office at the NASA homa, S. Dakota, Texas
center serving your state. See the list below. There are special
resource centers for educators at the Kennedy Space Center, NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center
Lewis Research Center, and Alabama Space and Rocket Center. Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899
Huntsville, AL. Florida, Georgia, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
NASA Langley Research Center
NASA Ames Research Center Hampton, Virginia 23665
Moffet Field, California 94035 Kentucky, N. Carolina, S. Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia
Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming NASA Lewis Research Center
21000 Brook park Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44135
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771 NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maine, Mary- Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812
land, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri.
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont Tennessee

The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration has determined that the publication of this periodical is
necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of
this Agency. Use of funds for printing this periodical has been
approved by the Director of the Office of Management and Budget
through December 31. 1981.
NASA REPORT TO EDUCA TORS is published four times per year
for the community of educators. Recommendations are solicited from
readers, and should be addressed to the Education Services Branch,
Academic Affairs Division (LCG-9), National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Washington, DC 20546. Photocopying for school use
is approved.
Muriel M. Thome. Editor

NASA Report to Educators

Vol. 9, No. 3 Fall 1981

National Aeronautics and THIRD-CLASS MAIL

Space Administration POSTAGE & FEES PAID
NASA
Washington, D.C. 20546 WASHINGTON, D.C.
PERMIT No. G 27
official business
penalty for private use $300

THIRD CLASS MAIL

BULK RATE

NASA