MITOSIS (APPARENT/EQUATIONAL DIVISION)

✓ is the process by which the nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei.
✓ results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which
they came.
✓ Purposes: GROWTH & TISSUE REPAIR

1. Prophase
• Chromosomes condense and become visible
• Spindle fibers emerge from the centromeres
• Nuclear envelope breaks down
• Nucleolus disappears
2. Prometaphase
• Chromosomes continue to condense
• Kinetochores appear at the centromeres
• Mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores
• Centrosomes move toward opposite poles
3. Metaphase
• Mitotic spindle is fully developed, centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell
• Chromosomes are line up at the metaphase plate
• Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles
4. Anaphase
• Cohesin proteins binding the sister chromatids together break down
• Sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles
• Non-kinetochore spindle fibers lengthen elongating the cell
5. Telophase
• Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense
• Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes
• The mitotic spindle breaks down
6. Cytokinesis – separation of cytoplasm
• Animal cells: a cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells
• Plant cells: a cell plate separates the daughter cells
MEIOSIS (REDUCTION DIVISION)

✓ reduces the amount of genetic information.

✓ produces four daughter haploid gametes with
only one set of chromosomes.
✓ involves two successive divisions of a diploid
nucleus (Meiosis I and Meiosis II)
✓ After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions
follow
✓ Meiosis I (reductional division):
homologs pair up and separate,
resulting in two haploid daughter cells
with replicated chromosomes
✓ Meiosis II (equational division) sister
chromatids separate
✓ The result is four haploid daughter cells with
unreplicated chromosomes

1. Prophase I—has been subdivided into five substages:

1.1 Leptonema (Leptotene)
• Replicated DNAs have coiled and are already visible
• The number of chromosomes present is the same as
the number in the diploid cell.

1.2 Zygonema (Zygotene)

• Homologous chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each
other in a highly specific manner.
• The PAIRING is called SYNAPSIS.
• And because the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as
BIVALENT TETRAD.

1.3 Pachynema (Pachytene)

• Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker.
• A form of physical exchange between homologs takes place at
specific regions.
• The process of physical exchange of a chromosome region is called
CROSSING-OVER.
• Through the mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the homologous
chromosomes are recombined (GENETIC RECOMBINATION).
 1.4 Diplonema (Diplotene)
• The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other.
• It is at this point where crossing-over is shown to have
taken place.
• The area of contact between two non-sister chromatids,
called CHIASMA, become evident.

1.5 Diakinesis.
• The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more
condensed and the chiasma often terminalize or move
down the chromatids to the ends.
• This delays the separation of homologous chromosomes.

2. Prometaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes are attached to
spindle microtubules at the fused kinetochore
shared by the sister chromatids
• Chromosomes continue to condense and the
nuclear envelope completely disappears
3. Metaphase I
• In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase
plate, with one chromosome facing each pole
• Microtubules from one pole are attached to the
kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad
• Microtubules from the other pole are attached to
the kinetochore of the other chromosome
4. Anaphase I
• In anaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes
separate
• One chromosome moves toward each pole, guided
by the spindle apparatus
• Sister chromatids remain attached at the
centromere and move as one u nit toward the pole
5. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell
has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, forming
two haploid daughter cells
• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant
cells, a cell plate forms

❖ No chromosome replication occurs between the end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II because the
chromosomes are already replicated. MEIOSIS II is very similar to MITOSIS

6. Prophase II
• In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
• The nuclear envelope starts to fragment
7. Prometaphase II
• The nuclear envelope disappears
• Spindle fibers engage the individual kinetochores on
the sister chromatids
8. Metaphase II
• In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at
the metaphase plate
• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
genetically identical
• The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to
microtubules extending from opposite poles
9. Anaphase II
• In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate
• The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as
two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles
10. Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin
decondensing
• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm
• At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells,
each with a haploid set of unreplicated
chromosomes
• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the
others and from the parent cell
MITOSIS vs. MEIOSIS
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cell
• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that
differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell
• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis l
1. SYNAPSIS and CROSSING OVER in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange
genetic information
2. At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual
replicated chromosomes
3. At Anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, instead of sister chromatids, that separate
• Sister chromatid cohesion allows sister chromatids of a single chromosome to stay together through meiosis I
• Protein complexes called COHESINS are responsible for this cohesion
• In mitosis, COHESINS are cleaved at the end of metaphase
• In meiosis, COHESINS are
cleaved along the
chromosome arms in
anaphase I (separation of
homologs) and at the
centromeres in anaphase II
(separation of sister
chromatids)

PROPERTY MITOSIS MEIOSIS

DNA replication Occurs during Interphase at S phase Occurs during Interphase at S phase before
before Mitosis begins Meiosis begins
Number of Divisions One (1) Two (2)
Phases Prophase Prophase I
Prometaphase Prometaphase I
Metaphase Metaphase I
Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Telophase I
Prophase II
Prometaphase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Synapsis Does not occur Occurs during Zygonema of Prophase I
Crossing-over Does not occur Occurs during Zygonema of Prophase I
Number of daughter Two identical diploid(2n) cells Four different haploid daughter cells
cells
Role in the animal body Growth and repair Reproduction/ creation of gametes and Genetic
variability