Foundation Engin A - B47AC - Student Guide

B47 AC
Foundation Engineering A
Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
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Foundation Engineering A
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the members of Heriot-Watt, School of Engineering and Physical
Science who planned and generated this material.
We would like to acknowledge the assistance and contributions from colleagues

across the University and students in preparing this and support material.
CONTENTS i
Contents
1 Vectors and Scalars 1

1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...2
1.2 Vector & Scalar Quantities……………………………………………………………….3
1.3 Resultant of Two Vectors………………………………………………………………...5
1.4 Resultant of Several Vectors…………………………………………………………… 8
1.5 Three Forces in Static Equilibrium…………………………………………………….. 9
1.6 Resolving a Vector into Components………………………………………………… 10
1.7 Tutorial Topic 1…………………………………………………………………………..13
1.8 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………17
2 Kinematic Relationships 19
2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 21
2.2 Velocity, Speed and Acceleration…………………………………………………….. 22
2.3 Derivation of Kinematic Relationship………………………………………………….25
2.4 Horizontal Motion………………………………………………………………………. 27
2.5 Vertical Motion………………………………………………………………………….. 30
2.6 Motion in Two Dimension……………………………………………………………… 35
2.7 Tutorial Topic 2…………………………………………………………………………..41
2.8 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………...42
3 Mass, Force and Momentum 43

3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 45
3.2 Force and Acceleration………………………………………………………………....46
3.3 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion………………………………………………………. 50
3.4 Weight, Reaction and Apparent Weight……………………………………………… 53
3.5 Resolving Forces and Acceleration…………………………………………………... 56
3.6 Normal Force to a Horizontal Surface……………………………………………….. 59
3.7 Tension in a Cable or Rope…………………………………………………………… 60
3.8 Friction…………………………………………………………………………………… 62
3.9 Momentum and Momentum Conservation………………………………………… 65
3.10 Impulse……………………………………………………………………………….. 67
3.11 Tutorial Topic 3………………………………………………………………………… 68
3.12 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….. 69
4 Circular Motion 71
4.1 Introduction and Angular Displacement……………………………………………… 72
4.2 Angular Velocity, Acceleration and Periodic Time………………………………….. 74
4.3 Angular Motion and Kinematic Relations……………………………………………..78
4.4 Angular Velocity and Tangential Speed……………………………………………… 81
©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

CONTENTS ii
4.5 Tutorial Topic 4………………………………………………………………………… 83

4.6 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….. 84
5 Rotational Dynamics 85
5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………… 87
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration……………………………………………………………….. 88
5.3 Centripetal Force……………………………………………………………………….. 92
5.4 Dynamic Force on a Cornering Vehicle……………………………………………… 94
5.5 Moments, Levers, Couples and Torque……………………………………………… 96
5.6 Moments of Inertia……………………………………………………………………… 99
5.7 Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy……………………………………………. 102
5.8 Tutorial Topic 5…………………………………………………………………………106
5.9 Appendix A…………………………………………………………………………….. 107
6 Simple Harmonic Motion 109

6.1 Introduction and definition of SHM………………………………………………….. 110
6.2 Origin of General SHM Relation…………………………………………………….. 112
6.3 Mass on a Vertical Spring……………………………………………………………. 118
6.4 A Simple Pendulum……………………………………………………………………120
6.5 A Conical Pendulum………………………………………………………………….. 121
6.6 Damped Oscillations………………………………………………………………….. 123
6.7 Tutorial Topic 6…………………………………………………………………………126
7 Work, Heat, Energy and Power 129

7.1 Work, Kinetic and Potential Energy…………………………………………………. 131
7.2 Heat and Internal Energy…………………………………………………………….. 133
7.3 Energy Conservation Principal………………………………………………………. 135
7.4 Renewable Energy……………………………………………………………………. 138
7.5 Power……………………………………………………………………………………139
7.6 Tutorial Topic 7…………………………………………………………………………144
7.7 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….145
8 Significant Figures, Errors and Error Propagation 147

8.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..149
8.2 Significant Figures and Rounding…………………………………………………… 150
8.3 Significant Arithmetic…………………………………………………………………. 154
8.4 Experimental Errors…………………………………………………………………... 157
8.5 Propagation of Experimental Error………………………………………………….. 159
8.6 Tutorial Topic 8…………………………………………………………………………164
8.7 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….165
Glossary……………………………………………………………………………............166

Topic 1
Vectors and Scalars
Contents
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.2 Vector & Scalar Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3 Resultant of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.4 Resultant of Several Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
1.5 Three Forces in Static Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.6 Resolving a Vector into Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..10
1.6.1 Resolving Vectors and Inclined Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..11
1.7 Tutorial Topic 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13
1.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..17
Prerequisite knowledge
• Fundamental ability to manipulate algebraic expressions.

• Fundamental understanding of trigonometry.
• Some background in elementary Physics.
• Some familiarity with SI system of units.
Learning objectives
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
• Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities.

• Identify fundamental SI Units.
• Use Parallelogram Law & Triangle Law to find resultant of two vectors.
• Find the Resultant of several vectors.
• Resolve vectors horizontally and vertically.
• Solve elementary practical problems posed in terms of vector quantities.
• Solve increasingly difficult problems posed in terms of vector quantities.
TOPIC 1. Vectors and Scalars 2
1.1 Introduction
We should start by distinguishing between "vector" and "scalar" quantities: a scalar

3
3
quantity has "magnitude" (size), but does not have direction; 1 m water added to 5 m
3
water gives 6 m water; thus, volume can be quantified but has no direction.
1 m3 5 m3 = 6 m3
Vectors, on the other hand, have both magnitude and direction. If an aircraft carrier is
-1
sailing through the Suez Canal with velocity v 1 = 5 m s and an aircraft is moving
-1
diagonally across the deck with velocity v2 = 2 m s :
Whenever the overall velocity of the aircraft is needed it is clear that velocities v1 and v2
-1
cannot simply be added - that is 7 m s is not the correct answer:
• The vectors to the left are

v2 = 2 m s-1 represented by arrows.
• The length of the arrow is the

magnitude.
v1 = 5 m s-1
• The angle it makes to the
horizontal is the direction.
The direction of both the carrier and the aircraft are just as important as the velocities
themselves.
Because vectors (such as velocity) have both magnitude and direction they cannot be
added and subtracted in the same way as scalar quantities (such as volume).

1.2 Vector & Scalar Quantities

All the fundamental SI units are scalar quantities - they possess magnitude but no
direction. These scalar quantities, their dimensions and associated SI units are listed
below:
Quantity Dimension SI Unit

mass [M] kg (kilogram)
length [L] m (metre)
time [T] s (second)
temperature [θ] K (kelvin)
amount of substance [N] mol (mole)
electric current [I] A (ampere)
luminous intensity [J] cd (candela)
Other scalar quantities have derived units and sometimes have special names. These
scalar quantities, their names (if any), symbols and SI units are given below:
More Scalar Quantities Fundamental SI units

SI Name SI Symbol
2
area - - m
3
volume - - m
-3
density - - kg m
-2 -1 -2
pressure pascal Pa (N m ) kg m s
2 -2
energy/work/heat joule J (N m) kg m s
-1 2 -3
power watt W (J s ) kg m s
-1
frequency hertz Hz s
angle radian rad -
All the above quantities have only magnitude and cannot be directed in space.
The quantities listed below are all vector quantities - they have both magnitude and
direction. Force, for instance, has magnitude (size) but must always act in a specific
direction - think of friction which always opposes the applied force:
Vector Quantities Fundamental SI Units

displacement m
-1
velocity ms
-2
acceleration ms
-2
force kg m s
-1
momentum kg m s

Let us try to differentiate between "displacement" and "length". For example, a ruler is 1 m
in length and putting three rulers together gives a total length of 3 m - thus, length has
magnitude only and is a scalar quantity.
However, if a horse gallops 4 km west then 4 km south, what is the overall “displacement”
of the horse relative to the starting point? The answer is of course √32 km south-west –
however, the “distance” travelled is only 8 km.
Thus, distance or length is a scalar quantity and distances can be added in a

straightforward manner. Displacement has both magnitude and direction and is a vector
quantity; the overall displacement (resultant) cannot be found by simple arithmetic.
Velocity, acceleration, momentum and force are all directed quantities and are vectors.
Mathematically there are strict rules governing vector notation and operations - this will be
tackled later, in a rigorous manner, by mathematicians.
In order to assist students at this stage a simplified notation will be used - the
simplification comes in the way the directed aspect of a vector is handled.
For more details and additional worked examples consult standard physics textbooks
[Cutnell and Johnson 2008]

1.3 Resultant of Two Vectors

-1
Remember the aircraft carrier with velocity v1 = 5 m s sailing through the Suez Canal
-1
and an aircraft, on deck, moving diagonally with velocity v 2 = 2 m s - find the resultant
(overall velocity) of these two vectors.
-1 -1
If the two velocity vectors, v1 = 5 m s and v2 = 2 m s , are drawn head-to-tail as shown
below (thin lines) then the resultant (the vector sum) is given by the bold arrow (thick
line) - this is called the Triangle Law of vector summation:
v2 = 2 m s-1
v1 = 5 m s-1
Taking another example, if the force vectors, f1 = 6 N and f 2 = 3 N, are drawn tail-to-tail
as shown below (thin lines), first construct a parallelogram (thin lines); the resultant is the
bold diagonal arrow (thick line) - this is called the Parallelogram Law of vector summation:
f2 = 3 N
f1 = 6 N
Either method may be used to find the resultant (vector sum).
Notice unlike scalar quantities, the resultant force or velocity cannot be found using
simple arithmetic - they must be added graphically; however, with a more rigorous
notation (see later Mathematics course) they may be added algebraically.

Example : 1.3.1
Problem:
-1
In an airport a moving walkway operates at 1.2 m s calculate the resultant velocity of a
person who steps onto the walkway and does the following:
a) Walks in same direction as the walkway at 1.6 m s-1.
b) Runs in the same direction as the walkway at 3.0 m s-1.
c) Walks in the opposite direction as the walkway at 1.6 m s-1.
d) Runs in the opposite direction as the walkway at 3.0 m s-1.
Solution:
It is easy to add vectors when they are in the same, or opposing directions (colinear) - v 1 is
vector representing walkway, v2 the vector representing person, while r is the resultant
vector (the vector sum):
(a) v1 = 1.2 m s-1 v2 = 1.6 m s-1
r = 2.8 m s-1
(b) v1 = 1.2 m s-1 v2 = 3.0 m s-1
r = 4.2 m s-1
(c) v2 = 1.6 m s-1
r = 0.4 m s-1 v1 = 1.2 m s-1
v2 = 3.0 m s-1
(d)
r = 1.8 m s-1 v1 = 1.2 m s-1
Vectors are usually represented by bold lowercase symbols. In the above, the tail of v 2 is
joined to the head of v 1 - the resultant r joins the tail of v1 to the head of v2 . The
resultant (vector sum) is being found using the Triangle Law.
Sometimes it is more convenient to join vectors tail-to-tail, i.e. forces on a body and then the
resultant (vector sum) must be found using the Parallelogram Law.
..........................................

Example : 1.3.2
Problem:
A cross country runner runs 3 km east and then jogs 4 km north determine the following:
a) Plot the resultant displacement (the vector sum) on a vector diagram.
b) Find the magnitude of the resultant displacement
c) Find the angle of the resultant displacement with respect to the horizontal axis.
Solution:
Take S1 to be the first displacement and S2 to be the second - the resultant displacement
Sr on a vector diagram is shown below:
(a)
sr
s2 =4 km
θ
s1 = 3 km
(b) The magnitude of the resultant “Sr” can be found from Pythagoras’ Theorem:
s r = 3 2 + 4 2 = 5 km
(c) The direction of the resultant can be found by applying basic trigonometry to the
vector diagram:
∠ S r = θ = tan −1 4 / 3 = 53.1o
o
Hence the displacement of the runner, from the original start point, is (5 km, east 53.10
North) - notice that the actual distance run is 7 km.
To re-iterate (repeat), distance run is a clearly a scalar quantity, and has magnitude only,
while displacement must be a vector quantity, since it possesses (has) both magnitude
and direction.
..........................................

1.4 Resultant of Several Vectors

Example : 1.4
Problem:
Three forces f1, f2 and f3 act on a body as shown below. Find the resultant of the three
forces (forces tend to act on a point or a body, so it more convenient to join all the force
vectors tail-to-tail as shown below).
Solution:
When two forces are at right angles, the first step should be to find the resultant of these
two vectors. So taking f1 and f2 and, noting they are joined tail-to-tail, find the resultant fr1
using the Parallelogram Law - see below:
a)
f2 = 5 N f2 = 5 N fr1 = 7.1
0 0 0
90 225 45
0
225
f1 = 5 N f1 = 5 N
f3 = 10 N
f3 = 10 N
(b) The magnitude and direction of fr1 can be found from Pythagoras’ Theorem:
f r1 = 5 2 + 5 2 = 7.1 N
∠ f r1 = tan −1 5 / 5 = 45 0
(c) Now fr1 and f3 both lie on same straight line, so overall resultant fr2 is found as
0
before. The magnitude of fr2 is 2.9 N the angle is 225 (in the direction of f3):
0
225 fr1 = 7.1 N
f3 = 10 N fr2 = 2.9 N
..........................................

1.5 Three Forces in Static Equilibrium
Example : 1.5
Problem:
Three forces f1 , f2 and f3 act on a body as shown below. The body is in static
equilibrium. Find the resultant of these three forces.
Solution:
In the previous example, the overall resultant f r2 was shown (thick line) to have
o
magnitude 2.9 N with an angle to the horizontal of 225 (that is in the same direction as f3 )
- notice that in this case the overall resultant force is not zero.
Such a resultant force would cause this body to accelerate in the direction of f 3 - the
applied force causing this acceleration is 2.9 N.
Now consider the point "P" acted on by three forces. However, point "P" is assumed to be
in static equilibrium (simply meaning that point "P" is stationary):
f2
f1
f3
Static equilibrium implies (indicates) no unbalanced force then, in this situation, the
overall resultant vector must be zero. Hence, the resultant of f1 and f2 - say fr1 (not show) -
must be equal in magnitude to f3 and opposite in direction.
Therefore, the overall resultant of all three forces fr2 must be zero. The point "P" (or body)
cannot be acted on by any unbalanced force.
This is true for any three forces acting on a body in static equilibrium.
..........................................

1.6 Resolving a Vector into Components
Resolving a vector into components is the opposite of finding the resultant of two
vectors. For instance, it is now easy to understand that r is the resultant of vectors v1
and v2 :
v2 r
v1
But equally, working in the opposite sense, v 1 and v2 can be thought of as being
components of r. There are in fact many possible components-pairs of r. However, in
reality, vectors are usually resolved into horizontal and vertical components.
Example:1.6.1
Problem:
A mail delivery lady pulls her mail trolley at a constant velocity with a force of 250 N, while
o
the handle of the tow bar makes an angle of 30 to the horizontal. Calculate the following:
a) The mass needed to keep the trolley from lifting off the ground.
b) The frictional force within the wheels which would prevent any forward motion.
Solution:
The first step is to resolve this vector horizontally and vertically as follows:
Using trigonometric relations:

f
fy fx = f cosθ……………………..(A)
fy = f sinθ……………………...(B)
θ fx = 250 cos30 = 216.5 N
fy = 250 sin30 = 125N
fx
a) The force acting up is 125 N. The mass needed to keep the trolley from lifting off
the ground = 125/9.81 = 12.7 kg (mail plus trolley).
b) Opposing frictional force which prevents any forward motion = 216.5 N.
These solutions assume that you know a little about Newton’s second and third laws. If
you don’t know these laws, work your way through these materials until the end of Topic
4, then revisit this question.
..........................................

1.6.1 Resolving Vectors and Inclined Planes

Often vectors are resolved horizontal and vertical to some plane along which the vector is
acting. Say a mass "m" is stationary on an inclined plane then the weight of the body f (N)
is acting vertically while the plane is inclined at an angle "θ":
Inclined Plane
fN
Clearly f may be resolved parallel and perpendicular to the plane (thin lines with arrows).
Notice that all the lines with arrows - the original vector (thick line) and the resolved
vectors (thin lines) - all join tail-to-tail.
To double-check these are indeed components, sketch in a parallelogram as discussed

previously under "Parallelogram Law":
• The thin lines without arrows are the parallelogram construction lines.
• It is obvious from this construction that the resultant of these two component
vectors - using Parallelogram Law - returns the original force vector f.
It should be quite clear that resolving a vector into two components is the exact opposite of
finding the resultant of two vectors.[Cackett Lowrie and Steven 1999]

Example : 1.6.2
Problem:
A body weighs 40 N in the earth’s gravitational field, but rests on a plane inclined at an
angle θ (20 ) to the horizontal. If the body is stationary, that is in "static equilibrium”,
0
determine the following:
a) Resolve the weight f vector (weight is a force different from mass) into a
perpendicular vector component "fv" and a parallel vector component "fh" (that is
perpendicular and parallel to the plane).
b) Using data above calculate numerical values for these two component vectors.
c) Calculate the reaction exerted by the plane "frxn" on the mass and the frictional
force ff exerted on the block by the rough surface of the plane.
Solution:
a) As before draw f, the weight vector of the body acting vertically in the earth’s
gravitational field (thick line with arrow) and then resolve this perpendicular (at
right angles) and parallel to the plane - see thin lines with arrows - as follows:
frxn
• To solve this problem it should be
ff recognised that the second angle
beside f is also θ.
• Use trigonometry to find fv and fh
fh Inclined
Plane fv = f cosθ……………………..(A)
fv fh = f sinθ…………………… ..(B)
f
The Parallelogram construction lines (thin lines without arrows) show that f is the resultant
of fv and fh. To keep the body stationary ff (friction) must be equal & opposite to fh while
frxn (reaction) must be equal & opposite to fv:
b) fv = f cos θ
fv = 40 cos 20 = 37.6 N
fh = f sin θ
fh = 40 sin 20 = 13.7 N
c) frxn = 37.6 N (opposite to fv)

ff = 13.7 N (opposite to fh)
..........................................

1.7 Tutorial topic 1
1. One displacement vector sa has a magnitude 3.56 km and points due North. A
second displacement vector sb has a magnitude 5.67 km and points due North:
a) Find the magnitude and direction of sa + sb.

b) Find the magnitude and direction of sa - sb.
c) Find the magnitude and direction of sb - sa.
-
2. At the moment of take-off, a Boeing 747 would typically have a velocity of 80 ms
1 o
with an angle of 10 to the horizontal runway:
a) Calculate the vertical component of the aircraft’s velocity at the moment of

take-off.
b) Calculate the horizontal component of the aircraft’s velocity at the moment of
take-off.
3. A van is being pulled by two forces that are applied by the two ropes shown in
the diagram. Each force has a magnitude of 4000 N and each is directed at an
o
angle of 30 to the horizontal. Use the Parallelogram Law to calculate:
a) The force required by a single rope that would produce the same overall effect
as the two forces below.
b) The direction in which this single force should act.
Two ropes each

o
Van 60 pulling with a
force of 4,000 N

4. This is a pure Trigonometry question. The diagram shows sodium and chlorine
-10
atoms in a cubic crystalline lattice. Each edge of the cube is 2.8 x 10 m in
length.
a) Determine the diagonal distance from one bottom corner of the cube to the far
top corner of the cube - see below.
b) Determine the angle θ that this diagonal makes with the base of the cube.
5. Alex and Jane meet at a street corner and have a little chat. They then go their
separate ways. Alex walks due East along a level street, while Jane goes due
North up a steep hill.
When Alex has reached his next street corner, 200 m from the first, Jane has
also reached her next street corner, which is up the hill (Jane’s corner is 150 m
as measured along the street and 30 m vertically higher than the original street
corner.
Given the above calculate the total displacement between Alex and Jane.
6. A semi-submersible rig is being manoeuvred by three tug boats and is moving

at a constant velocity. Tugs A and B exert a pull of 30 kN each as shown in the
diagram. Tug C is at the stern of the rig and acts in opposition to the pull from A
and B. Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by C.
C
20o
Semi-submersible
20o
B

7. Consider the following "three force problems". Three forces act on a single point.
Determine whether the forces are in equilibrium or not:
3N
90o
4N
127o 143o
5N
8. A car weighs 13,500 N is moving up an incline at constant velocity. The incline

o
makes an angle of 25 with the horizontal. Determine the reaction force (frxn)
acting on the car.
9. A wire is stretched between the tops of two identical buildings. When a tightrope
walker is at the centre of the wire, the tension in the wire is 2500 N. Each section
o
of the tight rope makes an angle of 6 with respect to the horizontal. Determine
the weight (N) of the walker.
o
6
“X” N

10. Two forces act on a body. They act at right angles to one another. One of the
forces has a magnitude of 200 N. The resultant force is of magnitude 300 N:
a) Determine the magnitude of the other force.

b) Calculate the angle between the resultant and the 200 N force.
-1
11. An aircraft has a steady speed of 150 km hr and is travelling due North. A
-1
strong wind blows from the North-West with a speed of 60 km hr . What is the
velocity (magnitude and direction) of the aircraft with respect to the ground?
12. [This question will require more work and insight] Three ropes are tied together at
a single point. Their tensions are 50 N, 100 N and 125 N. If the system does not
move calculate all the angles between the ropes.

1.8 Bibliography
1. Cutnell, John D. and Johnson, Kenneth W. 2012. Introduction to Physics. 9th ed.
Singapore; Wiley.
2. Cackett, Geoff, Lowrie, Jim and Steven, Alistair. 1999. Higher Still Physics.
Oxford:OUP


Topic 2
Kinematic Relationships
Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Velocity, Speed and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Derivation of Kinematic Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Horizontal Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.1 Velocity-Time and Distance-Time Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Vertical Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1 Vertical Motion in One Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.2 Vertical Motion in Two Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Motion in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.1 Dropping an Object Vertically While Moving Horizontally . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.2 Firing an Object at an Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Tutorial Topic 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
TOPIC 2. KINEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS 20


Learning Objectives
• Derive kinematic relationships.
• Identify fundamental SI Units.
• Apply kinematic relationships to motion in one direction.
• Apply kinematic relationships to horizontal motion, interpret and sketch diagrams.
• Apply kinematic relationships to vertical motion, interpret and sketch diagrams.
• Apply kinematic relationships to motion in two dimensions, interpret and sketch

diagrams.
• Solve elementary kinematic problems.
• Solve increasingly difficult kinematic problems.

2.1 Introduction
Time is a fundamental SI unit - it is a scalar quantity with dimension [T]; in equations it
takes the symbol t and in SI its units are seconds (s).
Displacement is a vector quantity with dimension [L]; in equations it takes the symbol s
and in SI units its units are metres (m):
• Distance (or length) is a scalar quantity with dimension [L]; in equations it may
take the symbol d and in SI its units are metres (m). Distance has only magnitude
but no direction.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with respect to time, it has
-1
dimensions of [L][T] ; velocity is a vector and in equations takes the symbol v, for final
-1
velocity or u, for initial velocity - in SI units both are measured in (m s ).
•
-1
Speed is a scalar also with dimensions [L][T] - it is the distance travelled per unit
-1
time and in SI its units are (m s ).
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, it has
-2
dimension [L][T] and is a vector quantity; in equations it is given the symbol a and in SI
-2
its units are (m s ).
The difference between distance, a scalar quantity and displacement, a vector quantity,
has already been stressed - distance has only magnitude and no direction, whereas
displacement has both magnitude and direction.
Please note the difference between speed, a scalar quantity, and velocity, a vector
quantity. Velocity has additional information about direction and may differ numerically
from speed.

2.2 Velocity, Speed and Acceleration

Average velocity is a vector - defined as the displacement in a given direction divided by
elapsed time taken to travel this displacement - it takes the symbol v or u as discussed
previously.
Displacement
Average Velocity = (2.1)
ElapsedTime
Average speed is a scalar - defined as the distance travelled, without any reference to
direction, divided by elapsed time.
Dis tan ce travelled

Average Speed = (2.2)
ElapsedTime
Consider the case of a cyclist who takes 120 s to travel from "X" to "Y" along the S-
shaped path which has a total distance 720 m, If the displacement, shown by the thick
o
straight line with an arrow, is 480 m North East (45 to horizontal) then find:
a) The average speed
b) The average velocity
Y
The average speed is given by equation
(2.2) and average velocity by (2.1):
-1
a) Average speed = 720/120 = 6 m s
-1
b) Average velocity = 480/120 = 4 m s
X o
North East (45 to horizontal)
The two quantities have completely different numerical values.

Example : 2.2
Problem:
If an object is moving in a straight line with a constant speed then a distance-time
diagram may be drawn to represent its progress from some fixed starting point "P".
Given the above determine the following:
a) Sketch a distance-time diagram representing the motion of the body.
b) Relate the slope or gradient of this line to the average velocity.
c) Sketch two cars: Car A which starts at "P" when t = 0 and is going fast; Car B
which starts further ahead on same straight road at same time, but is slower -
indicate how far from Point "P" and the time that must elapse before Car A is at
the same place as Car B.
Solution:
a) See distance-time sketch below - d1 and d2 represent any two points on the graph
corresponding to elapsed time t1 and t2 respectively:
d2 • Notice Origin is Point “P” and it also

(m) corresponds to d = 0 and t = 0.
Distance
from “P” d1 • The slope of this line corresponds to
(m) definition (2.2) – thus, slope of a
distance versus time diagram must
represent speed.
t1 t2
d 2 − d1
0 Slope = = Speed
Time (s) t2 − t1
b) Whenever the velocity is constant the distance -time diagram will plot as a
straight line with constant slope - this slope will be equal to the speed.
For the special case of a body moving with a constant velocity in one direction
the velocity and speed are the same - and, in this case, the rule for vector
addition corresponds to normal arithmetic addition.
Later it will be seen that when an object is moving in circular motion, with
constant speed, its velocity will be constantly changing - consequently it must be
accelerating.
c) When two cars are present then two lines are needed - one for Car A and one for
Car B. The slopes of the lines will be different because they are travelling at
different speeds.

• Car A starts at Origin, t = 0, with larger

Car A speed see larger slope of line.
Distance
• Car B starts at same t = 0 but further
from “P”
dm ahead - see y-axis intercept.
(m) Car B
• The speed of Car B is less than Car A
see lesser slope of this line.
• The two cars meet where the

lines intersect.
0 tm
0 Time (s)
Note that the meeting point is distance "d m " and elapsed time "tm " from point "P”.
..........................................
2.2.1 Acceleration
Acceleration, like displacement and velocity, is a vector quantity. It is defined as rate of

change of velocity - take note that whenever a train is going round a corner, at constant
speed, it must be accelerating because its direction is changing.
Throughout this topic acceleration will be taken as constant - thus, on a velocity versus
time graph, the slope of the line, which represents acceleration, will be constant and the
line must be straight:
Change in velocity
a =
ElapsedTime
-2
Acceleration is given the symbol a and its SI units are (m s ) – a constant acceleration
-1
means the velocity (m s ) changes by the same amount every second.

2.3 Derivation of Kinematic Relationship

The exact definition of instantaneous acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity v. On
a velocity-time diagram acceleration is the instantaneous slope, which mathematically is
written as follows:
dv
a = ……..….………………(A)
dt
However, if acceleration a is constant then the velocity-time diagram will plot as a straight
line - the constant slope of this line represents the constant acceleration. In this case, the
derivative in (A) reduces to the term on RHS of equation (2.3):
Change in velocity
a = ………………… (2.3)
ElapsedTime
-1 -1
If u is initial velocity (m s ) and v is final velocity (m s ) and if the time taken for the
-2
velocity to change by this amount is t (s), then the constant acceleration a (m s ) is given
by equation (2.3) which may be written as
v-u
a =
t
⇒ v = u + at ………………..(2.4)
Earlier it was stated that average velocity v̄ is the displacement of a body s divided by the
elapsed time t which can also be expressed mathematically as
Displacement
Average Velocity =
ElapsedTime
s
⇒v =
t
However average velocity can also be written in terms of v and u as follows:
v+u
v =
2

Eliminate average velocity between last two equations leads to
v+u 
s=  t
 2 
Substitute equation (2.4) into the above gives
 u + at + u 
s=  t
 2 
1 2
⇒ s = ut + at …………………(2.5)
2
Squaring both sides of equation (2.4) leads to
v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2
 1 
⇒ v 2 = u 2 + 2a ut + at 2 
 2 
Substitute equation (2.5) into the above yields the required result
v 2 = u 2 + 2as ……..….………(2.6)
Equations (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6) are the three kinematic relationships - notice all the
quantities v, u, a and s are all vectors, only t is a scalar quantity.

2.4 Horizontal Motion

Example : 2.4.1
Problem:
-2
A tram, which is initially at rest has an acceleration of 4.0 m s calculate the following:
a) The final velocity after 3 s has elapsed.
b) The distance travelled in 3 s.

c) Time to reach a velocity of 50 km/hr = (50×1000)/3600 = 13.89 m s - 1 .
Solution:
a) All of these problems are solved using a combination of the equations shown
below, for this question, we can use equation (2.4):
s
v= …………………...(2.1)
t
v = u + at …..………………(2.4)
1 2
s = ut + at ……………… ….(2.5)
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as ……………………..(2.6)
Thus applying equation (2.4) leads to
v = 0 + (4 × 3) = 12 m s −1
b) Equation (2.5) gives distance travelled versus time
1 
s = 0 +  × 4.0 × 3 2  = 18 m
 2 
-1
c) Use (2.4) to find time t - time to achieve v = 13.89 m s .
13.89 − 0
t= = 3.5 s
4.0
..........................................

Example : 2.4.2
Problem:
-1
A cyclist passes a traffic light with a velocity of 30 km/hr (8.3 m s ). However, just at the
-2
traffic light, the cyclist starts to accelerate uniformly at a rate of 1 m s . Determine the
following:
a) How far from the cyclist is the traffic light when her speed just touches 50 km/hr
-1
b) The time taken to reach a final velocity of 50 km/hr = (50×1000)/3600 =13.9 m s
Solution:
a) In the first part u, v and a are known and problem requires s to be calculated,
therefore, the appropriate relationship is equation (2.6)
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
v2 − u 2 13.9 2 − 8.32
⇒s= =
2a 2 ×1
⇒ s = 62.2 m
b) In the second part u, v and a are known and problem requires t to be calculated,
therefore, the appropriate relationship is equation (2.4)
v = u + at
v − u 13.9 − 8.3
⇒t= =
a 1
⇒ t = 5.6 s
The key to solving kinematic problems is to summarise the information that is given,
identify what is asked for in the question and then choose the correct equation that links
all these variables together.
It should be stressed that all these equations apply to uniform or constant acceleration
and so far only the case of motion in a straight line, in one single direction, has been
considered.
..........................................

2.4.1 Velocity-Time and Distance-Time Graphs

A velocity-time graph is shown below - v1 and v2 represent the velocity any two points on
the graph, these correspond to elapsed time t1 and t2 respectively:
v2
Velocity
-1
(m s ) • Initially body is at rest u = 0 m s-1 then
moves off with constant acceleration.
v2 − v1
v1 Slope = = Acceleration
t2 − t1
• Notice slope corresponds to definition

equation (2.3), thus – on this type of
0 t1 t2 graph – slope represents acceleration.
Time (s)
A distance-time sketch for the above case is shown below. The acceleration is constant
so that the velocity must be a linear function of time but, since the velocity is changing,
the distance-time graph must be non-linear:
Distance • Instantaneous slope at any point on the

from “P” curve corresponds to instantaneous
(m) d2 velocity at that point.
• For constant acceleration, it is expected

that instantaneous velocity will
increase.
d1
• Thus the slope of the distance-time
curve must increase with time.
0 t1 t2 Time (s)
The next section considers vertical motion - first in one direction only, then in two
opposite directions.
General physics textbooks are an excellent source of good worked examples. [Cutnell
and Johnson 2008], [Cackett Lowrie and Steven 1992]

2.5 Vertical Motion

Consider vertical motion - often, but not always, the acceleration is the acceleration due
to gravity - thus, α = 9.81 m s .
-2
2.5.1 Vertical Motion to One Direction

"Free-fall" is when a body is falling under the action of the force gravity alone:
• If any other force, or force component, acts vertically then the term free-fall cannot
be used
• Under these circumstances a new value of acceleration is needed that depends on

the net unbalanced force acting on the body.
Example : 2.5.1
Problem:
An experiment is being undertaken by students in a Physics laboratory. An object is
dropped 20 m vertically above a measuring station - they are required to calculate the
following:
a) The time it takes for the object to hit the measuring station.
b) The velocity with which the object hits the ground.
Solution:
a) In this case s, u and a are given and t is unknown - thus equation (2.5) is the
-1
appropriate relationship - in this case u =0 m s :
1 2
s= at
2
2s 2 × 20
t= =
a 9.81
⇒ t = 2.02 s

b) Here s, u and a are given and v is unknown - thus equation (2.6) is the
appropriate kinematic relationship.
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
⇒v = 2as = 2 × 9.81 × 20
⇒ v = 19.8 m s −1
Force, velocity, displacement, acceleration and momentum are all vector quantities. In the
previous examples - uniform motion in one direction only - all the vectors were pointing in
the same direction:
• For these very restricted cases, the terms velocity/speed and displacement/
distance can be used interchangeably, because the rule for vector addition then
simplifies back to the same rule for arithmetic addition.
However, in the case of vertical motion take care with signs – in the specific example,
which involves free-fall, we can choose to label downward motion as a positive effect. So,
a, v, and s all have positive values in this example. This is not always true: in other
examples, some effects may be given negative values.
...............................................
2.5.2 Vertical Motion in Two Directions

When an object is thrown vertically upwards. First it will travel up, then it will stop at its
maximum elevation and then it will travel down. Whenever this type of problem is
encountered use the sign convention given below:
• Take the velocity and displacement vectors as positive in the upward direction.
• Take the velocity and displacement vectors as negative in the downward direction.
• The acceleration vector is negative throughout, since it always acts down.

Example : 2.5.2
Problem:
A machine for serving tennis balls is aimed and fires a ball, from court level "C", vertically
-1
upwards, with an initial velocity u m s . After 6 s the ball is at point "D" travelling
-1
downwards (note, downwards) with a velocity of 5 m s . Given the above, calculate the
following:
-1
a) The initial muzzle velocity, u m s , as the ball leaves the machine.
b) The height of point "D" which is the maximum elevation above the court.
Solution:
a) In this part of the question v, a and t are given and u is unknown. The appropriate
relation is equation (2.4):
v = u + at
⇒ u = v − at = −5 − (−9.81) × 6
⇒ u = 53.9 m s −1
b) In this part of the question u, v, a and t are given and s is unknown; use equation
(2.6) or (2.5) as follows:
v2 − u 2 25 − 2905.2
s= =
2a 2 (−9.81)
s = 146.8 m

Taking this vertical motion problem and programming it into a Mathcad worksheet
produces the following velocity-time graph:
60
• The muzzle velocity "u" at t = 0 is

-1
40 clearly +53.9 m s .
• The velocity is zero at around

20
5.5 s (highest point).
v(t) 0 • Notice, at this point the

-2
acceleration is still -9.81 m s .
-20 • After 6 s the ball has a negative

velocity and is falling back.
-40
• The ball hits the ground when "v"
-1
is -53.9 m s at around 11 s.
-60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
For the corresponding displacement-time graph for the same problem see below:
150
140
130 • The vertical displacement is zero
120 at t= 0 and at 11 s.
110
100 • The largest vertical displacement
90 is just short of 150 m.
s(t) 80
70 • At 5.5 s the ball is clearly at
60 around 147 m vertical
50 displacement – the highest point.
40
30 • The ball hits the ground when “s”
20 is again zero at around 11 s.
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
t
The two equations used to program this worksheet are given below - equation (2.4) was
first solved for v and then (2.6) was solved for s - both at same values of t:
v = u + at …...…..……(2.4)
v 2 = u 2 + 2as …………(2.6)

To show how the equations work manually, find the time when v is zero - that is the ball is
at its highest point:
60
• The muzzle velocity "u" at t = 0 is

-1
40 clearly +53.9 m s .
• The velocity is zero at around

20 5.5 s (highest point).
v(t) 0 • Notice, at this point the

-2
acceleration is still -9.81 m s .
-20 • After 6 s the ball has a negative

velocity and is falling back.
-40
• The ball hits the ground when "v"
-1
is -53.9 m s at around 11 s.
-60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-1
Now to confirm the maximum displacement use equation (2.6) and set v = 0 m s , with u =
-1 -2
+53.9 m s and a = - 9.81 m s .
150
140
130 • The vertical displacement is zero
120 at t= 0 and at 11 s.
110
100 • The largest vertical displacement
90 is just short of 150 m.
s(t) 80
70 • At 5.5 s the ball is clearly at
60 around 147 m vertical
50 displacement – the highest point.
40
30 • The ball hits the ground when “s”
20 is again zero at around 11 s.
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
t
The student should check all the above values - but beware, the correct answers will only
be obtained if the signs are correct. The overall displacement, which is zero in this case,
is now not the same as the distance travelled (296.2 m).
..........................................

2.6 Motion in Two Dimensions

Solving problems involving motion in two directions is similar to the above problem but
now imagine that the ball is shot at an angle to the horizontal (instead of being fired
vertically).
The sign convention is the same as before with velocities v and u both positive up and
both negative down - again, acceleration is always negative down.
Usually the problems involve projectiles and the key to solving these problems is to
resolve the velocity vector into two separate components - one in a horizontal direction x
and the other in a vertical direction y.
2.6.1 Dropping an Object Vertically While Moving Horizontally
Example : 2.6.1
Problem:
Take the simpler case where a ball is dropped from a train at a height 3.5 m above the
-1
track. However, the train is moving forward at 80 km/hr (22.22 m s ) and the ball must
pass through a stationary hoop fixed beside the track. Neglecting air friction and given that
the ball is dropped (not thrown) determine the following:
a) The time taken for the ball to strike the track.
b) The horizontal displacement of the ball over this period of time and thus
determine how far, before the hoop, the ball must be dropped to ensure that it
actually passes through the hoop.
Solution:
a) The ball is not subject to any horizontal force (neglecting air friction) and therefore
is not accelerated horizontally - the horizontal velocity vector of the ball is same
as that of the train.
However, in the vertical direction the ball is accelerated by the force of gravity -
-2
thus g = 9.81 m s and, since movement is only downward, the sign convention is
that all vectors have a positive sign.
Apply equation (2.5) to the y-direction, uy , sy and a are known and t is unknown -
-1
notice uy =0 m s - thus, the time to strike the track is
1
s y = u yt + a yt 2
2
3.5 − 0
t=
0.5 × 9.81
⇒ t = 0.85 s

b) Apply the same equation to the x-direction, but now ax = 0 m s-2 and equation
(2.5) then reduces to
1
sx = u xt + axt 2
2
 1000 
s x = u x t =  80 ×  × 0.85
 3600 
⇒ s x = 18.9 m
The ball must be dropped 18.9 m before the hoop to pass through it.
..........................................
2.6.2 Firing an Object at an Angle
This is the more usual case of a projectile. The two results that are usually required are
as follows:
• The time of flight of the projectile - usually found by setting the overall vertical
displacement to zero.
• The horizontal displacement or range of the projectile.
Remember to use correct sign convention v and u are both positive up and both
negative down, while a is always negative down.
A projectile is usually fired at an angle to the horizontal and the initial velocity u should be
resolved into horizontal and vertical components as follows:
• Using trigonometric relations:

u
uy ux = u cos θ ……………..(2.7)
uy = u sin θ ……………..(2.8)
ux

Example 2.6.2 : Projectiles and Parabolas

We are going to use this problem to show that Projectile flight is parabolic.
Problem:
A tennis ball serving machine is acquired by a group of Physics students who wish to
check the kinematic laws. They are going to check the time of flight and the range of the
ball by placing a student at the point where the ball should land - they adjust the firing
-1 o
mechanism to give an initial velocity of 30 m s and adjust the angle to 40 (from the
horizontal).
They lay out a measuring tape, starting at the outlet of the firing tube, in a direction that
corresponds to the ball’s expected velocity vector. If they are to succeed in hitting the
student (who is fitted with suitable protective equipment) calculate the following:
a) The exact time of flight as measured by light clocks at either end.
b) The exact horizontal displacement that they should place the student.
c) The final velocity of the ball.
Solution:
a) The first step is to resolve the initial velocity vector u into its horizontal ux and
vertical uy components.
u x = u cos θ = 30 cos 40 = 22.98 m s −1
u y = u sin θ = 30 sin 40 = 19.28 m s −1
The time of flight is obtained by setting vertical displacement vector sy to zero -

knowing uy, a and sy find t.
The appropriate kinematic law in this case is equation (2.5) but remember to write
it for the y direction:
1
s y = u yt + a yt 2
2
0 = 19.28t − 4.905t 2
Factor the above and solve for t, there are two solutions: one, when the ball
leaves the machine sy = 0 when t = 0 (ignore this solution); two, when the ball
strikes the ground at the end of its trajectory where again sy = 0, but now t ≠0.
0 = 19.28t − 4.905t 2
⇒ t = 3.931s
This should be the time of flight recorded by accurate light clocks at either end.

b) Now to find the range, or the horizontal displacement, we are going to work in the
x-direction. So considering the motion in the x-direction , ax = 0, t = 3.931 s and ux
-1
= 22.98 m s are known while the problem specification requires that sx be found.
1
s x = u xt + a xt 2
2
⇒ s x = u xt = 22.98 × 3.931
⇒ s x = 90.33 m
c) The target student should be placed exactly 90.33 m downrange of the machine.
If the answers are correct, the ball should strike the student’s shoe, ignoring
-1
friction, with an overall velocity of 30 m s .
..........................................

Students are requested to fill in all the missing entries in the table below - use the exact
time intervals listed below:
t sy sx
(s) (m) (m)
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.966
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
3.931
Check the values calculated above against the Mathcad drawing below which is a plot of
vertical displacement against horizontal displacement at corresponding times:
20
18
16
14
12
Sy 10
(m)
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sx
(m)

The Mathcad drawing was plotted by solving the two equations given below at
-2
corresponding times - remember, acceleration in the y direction ay = - 9.81 m s and,
-2
ignoring air friction, the acceleration in the x direction is ax =0 m s :
1
s y = u yt + a yt 2
2
1
s x = u xt + a xt 2
2
If the lower equation is re-arranged in terms of t and, if this expression is then substituted
into the upper equation, it is possible to derive a time-independent equation of sy versus sx
- see below:
ay uy
sy = s x2 + sx
2u x2 ux
The combinations of constants on right hand side may be labelled A and B, while the
corresponding variables may be labelled x and y - thus, the above equation takes the form
of
y = Ax 2 + Bx + C ………………….(P)
Where
ay
A=
2u x2
uy
B=
ux
C =0
Equation (P) is the general equation form of a parabola and this proves that the trajectory
of any projectile must be parabolic in nature.

2.7 Tutorial topic 2

1. If it is immediate danger from a predator, a three-toed sloth can move at a speed of
-1
4 metres per minute. Calculate its speed in m s and km/hr.
2. If an electron takes 2 nanoseconds to travel a distance of 5 cm calculate its speed

-1
inm s .
3. An object slides from rest down a regular, sloped surface. Its positions from the
starting point, at intervals of 0.2 s, are given in the table below:
Time (s) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Displacement (m) 0.0 0.03 0.13 0.30 0.53
a) Calculate the acceleration.

b) Determine the displacement of the object after a further 0.2 seconds.
-1
4. The water flowing from the top of Victoria Falls has a horizontal speed of 2.0 m s ;
this is its horizontal value just before it falls over the edge of the cliff. The Falls are
109 m in height. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the water’s velocity just
before it reaches the foot of the cliff; assume the water particles fall freely under
gravity.
o
5. A ball rolls off a sloping surface. The angle of the slope is 60 from vertical and the
-1
ball rolls at a speed of 20 m s , as shown in the diagram. Calculate the vertical
component of the velocity after 1.5 seconds.
-1
o 20 m s
60
-1
6. The velocity of a ball, falling under free-fall conditions, increases from 15 m s to
-1
25m s calculate how far it falls over the same time interval.
7. A tennis ball is hit by the tennis racket such that it initially travels in a horizontal
direction with a velocity of 30 m s-1. If the ball hits the ground 20 m from the
racket calculate the height of the tennis racket when it makes contact with the
ball.
-1
8. A firework is launched into the night sky. It has an initial velocity of 40 m s and is
launched at an angle of 80◦ to the horizontal. It explodes 4.2 s later calculate the
height of the firework when it explodes.
9. A football is kicked above level ground and 5.0 seconds after being kicked, the
-1 o
ball is travelling downwards with a velocity of 50 m s at an angle of 17.9 below
the horizontal. Given all of the above calculate the initial velocity (both magnitude
and direction) of the football.

10. A sold rubber ball, on Earth, is thrown upwards and reaches a height of 10 m
calculate how high it would reach on the Moon [The acceleration due to gravity
on the Moon’s surface is 1/6th that of the Earth’s].
11. An archer is standing inside a large building whose roof is 9 metres above the
floor.
-1
He fires an arrow, at ground-level, with an initial velocity of 50 m s calculate the
angle with which the arrow must be fired to maximise its range inside the building
and then calculate the value of this maximum horizontal range.
-2
12. A car, waiting at a traffic light, moves off with a constant acceleration of 2.0 m s
as soon as the light goes green. There is a lorry, travelling in the same direction
-1
as the car, with a constant velocity of 25 m s - it passes the traffic light two
seconds after the car passed it and, a little while later, overtakes the car.
Sometime later again the car catches and overtakes the lorry - given all of the
above calculate the following:
a) The length of time between the two overtaking events.

b) The distance travelled by the car (or the lorry) between the two
overtaking events.
[Hint: a distance - time diagram will really be of help here]
13. If there is no effect from any winds a Boeing 787 Dreamliner has a cruising speed
of 913 km/hr and can remain in the air for 15 hours. The Dreamliner’s flightplan
calls for it to head Due West and then turn around and head Due East back to its
original position. Throughout this period, there is a steady wind from the Jet
Stream of 160 km/hr; the wind blows from West to East. Calculate the maximum
displacement that the Dreamliner may travel to the West and still be able to
return to the original starting position within the specified time.
2.8 Bibliography
Singapore; Wiley.
2. Cackett, Geoff, Lowrie, Jim and Steven, Alistair. 1999. Higher Still Physics.
Oxford:OUP

Topic 3
Mass, Force and Momentum
Contents
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Force and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Weight, Reaction and Apparent Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 Resolving Forces and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6 Normal Force to a Horizontal Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Tension in a Cable or Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.9 Momentum and Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.9.1 Principle of Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.10 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.11 Tutorial Topic 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.12 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
TOPIC 3. MASS, FORCE AND MOMENTUM 44
Learning Objectives
• Recall and apply Newton’s Three Laws of Motion.
• Define SI Unit of force.
• Distinguish between force, mass, weight and reaction.
• Resolve forces in two directions
• Solve inclined plane problems including friction and cable tension.
• Explain momentum and apply the momentum conservation principle.
• Solve practical problems associated with momentum.
• Solve increasingly difficult and open-ended problems.

3.1 Introduction
Mass is the resistance of a body to acceleration - for a fixed net force, double the mass of
a body and its acceleration will decrease by half. Mass is a scalar quantity it is a
fundamental unit and in the SI system it is measured in kilogram (kg).
On the other hand force, acceleration and momentum are all vector quantities - they not
only have magnitude, but also act in a particular direction.
A net unbalanced force must act on a body whenever its speed is changing, or its
direction is changing, even when its speed is constant. The unit of force in the SI system
is the newton (N). [Remember not to confuse speed with velocity-a tram going round a
corner at constant speed actually experiences a change in velocity.]
Friction is a force that causes the velocity of a moving body to decrease. To maintain a
constant velocity a force must be applied to the body, equal in magnitude to the force of
friction, but opposite in direction.
Friction between two surfaces can be decreased by smoothing the surfaces, lubricating
the surfaces, or by preventing contact between them (hovercraft or maglev train) - friction
may be increased/decreased but never eliminated.
When an unbalanced force acts on a body it causes it to accelerate - acceleration has

-2
units of (m s ). For a body of fixed mass m the acceleration a is directly proportional to
the unbalance force F
F ∝ a .................(3.1)
[Returning to our transport analogy, the tram going round a corner at constant speed has
a changing velocity, is accelerating and is acted on by an unbalanced force.]

3.2 Force and Acceleration
The net unbalanced force F acting on a body is directly proportional to acceleration a

-2
(m s ) and directly proportional to mass m (kg) of the body. However, there is also a
constant k which depends on system of units used.
F = kma .................(3.1)
The unit of force in the SI system is the newton (N) - SI is known as a coherent system
because the unit of force is defined exactly in terms of fundamental units without any
proportionality constants:
-2
1 newton (N) = 1 kg ×1m s
Substituting this definition of the newton into equation (3.1) leads to the value of k that
applies whenever SI units are used
1 N
⇒k = ….…………....(3.2)
1 kg m s −2
Thus, with SI units k is numerically equal to one because the derived unit, the newton, is
defined exactly in terms of fundamental quantities "kg-m-s" - equation (3.1) then simplifies
to
F = ma ................... (3.3)
The SI system is coherent because there is no constant in equation (3.3).
On the other hand, with the US system of units, the Pound Force (lbf) is defined as that
force acting on a mass of 1 lbm when it is accelerated under standard gravity, which
2 o
corresponds to 32.174 ft/s (sea level, 45 latitude). Hence by definition
-2
1 lbf =1 lbm × 32.174 ft s
Substituting this definition into (3.1) leads to k for US system
1 Ib f
k= ….………(3.4)
32.174 Ib m ft s −2
Notice that k simply converts the derived unit of force, here the lbf, into fundamental units.

This conversion is usually inverted and called gc as follows:
1  32.174 Ib m ft s -2 
 ………………..(3.5)
⇒ gc = =
k  1 Ib f 

Example : 3.2.1
Problem:
Calculate the force exerted on a mass of 1 kg in the Earth’s gravitational field where the
-2
local acceleration due to gravity is 9.815 m s
Solution:
Using equation (3.3) for SI units
−2
F = ma = 1 × 9.815 kg m s
Since k is numerically equal to one in SI units this simply becomes
F = 9.815 N
...........................................
Example : 3.2.2
Problem:
Calculate the force exerted on a mass of 1 lbm in the Earth’s gravitational field where the
-2
local acceleration due to gravity is 32.2 ft s
Solution:
Applying equation (3.3) as before but now using US units
−2
F = ma = 1 × 32.2 lbm ft s
In order to convert these fundamental units into the US derived unit of force lbf the above
result must be divided by the factor gc as follows:
( )  1
F = 32.2 Ib m ft s −2 
Ib f
 32.174 Ib ft s −2



 m 
F = 1.00081 Ib f

With very little error, the gravitational force associated with 1 (lbm) is very nearly equal to 1
(lbf), which is why the pound force is defined in this way. However, it does mean that,
when fundamental "ft-lb m-s" units are to be converted to derived lbf units, then the factor
gc will be needed.
...........................................
Example : 3.2.3
Problem:
Calculate the force that must be exerted on a mass of 1 kg when its acceleration is known
-2
to be 6 m s
Solution:
For SI units
−2
F = ma = 1 × 6 kg m s
Thus for SI units, with its coherent definition of the newton, the above is simply
F=6N
..........................................
Example : 3.2.4
Problem:
Calculate the force that must be exerted on a mass of 1 lbm when its acceleration is
-2
known to be 6 ft s
Solution:
For US units the same starting point may be used, i.e. equation (3.3)
−2
F = ma = 1 × 6 lbm ft s
But, equation (3.5) is needed to convert fundamental units into derived force units
( ) 1
F = 6 Ib m ft s −2 
Ib f
 32.174 Ib ft s −2



 m 
⇒ F = 0.19 Ib f

While we are on the topic of US units of measurements, let us make a general comment.
Great care is needed when using US units whenever formulae are presented that have
derived force units (lbf) then the constant gc may need to be inserted to make the units
meaningful.
For instance consider the very widely used formula for finding the pressure drop on a pipe
due to friction - in SI units this is simply
L ρ u2
ΔP = 4 f ……………………..(A)
d 2
The terms on the RHS are dimensionless except ρ u2 which has units of (kg m s ) which
-1 -2
-2
is the same as (N m ) - these are SI pressure units and no conversion is needed.
In US units ρ u2 has units (lbm ft s ) which cannot be converted into (lbf ft ) without
-1 -2 -2
dividing equation (A) by gc - thus this constant appears in the denominator of equation
(A), whenever US units are used, it is not needed for SI units.
..........................................

3.3 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

Many aspects of Newton’s laws have already been discussed - they were summarised by
Isaac Newton in 1687 as follows:
• Newton’s First Law:
"A body will remain at rest, or will continue to move at constant velocity, unless
acted on by an unbalanced force".
• Newton’s Second Law:
"The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net unbalanced force

acting on that body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body - the
acceleration and the unbalanced force must act in the same direction".
Thus given a coherent system of units, such as SI, this equates to equation (3.3)
below, where the unit of force is the newton:
F = ma .................(3.3)
• Newton’s Third Law:
"When body A exerts a force on body B, then body B must exert an equal and
opposite force (called the reaction) on body A".
Interestingly one can see how the First Law is consistent with kinematic relation equation
(2.4)
v = u + at .................(2.4)
If there is no acceleration, there can be no unbalanced force acting on the body, in which
case the last term above is zero and velocity must either be constant, implying straight
line motion, or zero - implying that the body is stationary.
Newton’s Second Law has been discussed extensively in section 3.2. However it is
interesting to substitute equation (3.3) into equation (2.4) to get
F
v = u+ t
m
m(v − u )
F= ……………(3.6)
t
As will be shown later in this section, the product of the mass of a body times its velocity is
the momentum of the body. Momentum is a vector, acting in the same direction as the
-1
velocity, and has SI units (kg m s ).

Newton’s Second Law - an alternative based on equation (3.6):
"Any net unbalanced force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change of
momentum of that body - the net unbalanced force and the rate of change of
momentum must act in the same direction".
Newton’s Third Law is also easy to understand. If a 100 kg mass is resting on thick
cushioned gym floor, then there must be a force acting down of 981 N.
However, the cushioned gym floor must supply an equal and opposite reaction acting up
of 981 N - thus, there is no unbalanced force to upset the static equilibrium of the mass,
i.e., the mass is stationary.
Now look closely at the thick cushioned floor around the 100 kg mass. The flooring
material is compressed - this compression of the cushioned flooring supplies the
"reaction" of the floor acting upwards on the mass.
In order to apply Newton’s Second and Third Law it is better to use "free-body diagrams"
to sum all the forces and find the net unbalanced force acting on a body.

Example : 3.3
Problem:
Two people are trying to "jump-start" a light van by pushing, with forces of f1= 400 N and
f2=500 N in the forward "x" direction. If the van has mass 2,000 kg and if the opposing
frictional force (acting on the van tyres against the tarmac surface) is ff = 700 N then
a) Draw a "free-body" diagram.
b) Calculate the acceleration of the van.
Solution:
a) The free-body diagram is shown below - it identifies the body and all the
external forces, together with their directions, which act on the body:
+y
ff = 700 N f2 = 500 N
-x f1 = 400 N +x
-y
Notice, all these forces must be external forces acting on the body. In this case all
these force vectors act along the "x-axis" and can be added as "co-linear" vectors,
taking due account of signs as specified above.
b) Newton’s Second Law states mathematically that the net unbalanced force
∑ f (N) must be equal to the mass times the acceleration
x
∑f x = ma x
⇒ ∑f x = +500 + 400 − 700 = +200 N
⇒ +200 = 2000a x
⇒ a x = +0.1 m s −2
Notice how the net unbalanced force on the body is summed vectorially. The plus sign
means that the acceleration vector acts in same direction as ∑f x
vector.
..........................................

3.4 Weight, Reaction and Apparent Weight

Example : 3.4.1
Problem:
An object, mass of 1 kg experiences an acceleration due to the local "pull" of gravity of
-2
9.81 m s . If the object hangs from a spring balance calculate the weight of the object.
Solution:
Applying Newton’s Second Law, a = g and the weight of an object acting down
−2
F = mg = 1 × 9.81 kgm s
⇒ Weight = 9.81 N
According to Newton’s Third Law the reaction, supplied by the spring, must be equal and
opposite. The reaction force acts up and is generated by the extension or compression of
the spring, in accordance with Hooke’s Law:
• Hooke’s Law states that the "Spring Force" is proportional to "Spring Extension or
compression" and that the constant of proportionality is the "Spring Constant".
⇒ Reaction = 9.81 N
• Thus, the reaction is acting up. The weight down and reaction up cancel so that
the net unbalanced force on the body is zero; the body is in static equilibrium and
is stationary.
The weight of an object on a floor is the force acting down from the object on the floor.
However, by Newton’s Third Law the floor also acts on the object with an equal and
opposite force - this is the reaction from the floor on the object.
..........................................

Example : 3.4.2
Problem:
Consider the case where a person is measuring their weight by standing on scales -
except the scales are located inside a lift. Given the above determine the following:
a) Calculate the true weight of the person, with mass 65 kg, if the lift is stationary or
is moving up or down with a constant velocity.
b) Calculate the apparent weight of the person when the lift accelerates up with an
-2
acceleration of 9.81 m s .
c) Calculate the apparent weight of the person when the lift accelerates down with
-2
an acceleration of 9.81 m s .
Solution:
Before starting this problem inspect the free-body diagram as shown below - it depicts the
body and all the external forces, together with their directions, acting on the body. Two
forces act in opposite directions but do not have the same magnitude:
+y fN (N)
-x +x
fW = mg (N)
-y
There are only two forces acting on the body the weight fW (N) of the person acting down
and the normal force fN (N) exerted by the scales on the person, acting up.
Thus, Newton’s Second Law states mathematically that the net unbalanced force ∑f y
(N) must be equal to the mass times the acceleration as follows:
∑f y = f N − fW = ma
⇒ f N = mg + ma
Where
fN = Apparent Weight
mg = True Weight
ma = Force of Acceleration

a) If the lift is stationary or moving up or down with constant velocity, then Newton’s
First Law states that the net force acting on the person is zero and a = 0:
⇒ fN = mg = 65 × 9.81 = 637.7 N
In this case the apparent weight, normal force acting up, must be equal and opposite
to the true weight, acting down, both have same magnitude 637.7 N.
-2
b) Now, when the person accelerates upwards with an acceleration of a = 9.81 m s
⇒ fN = mg + ma
⇒ fN = (65 × 9.81) + (65 × 9.81) = 1, 275.4 N
The person experiences a force of "2g", due to the additional vertical acceleration;
during this period the person weighs twice their normal weight.
-2
c) When the lift accelerates downwards with an acceleration of a = 9.81 m s
⇒ fN = mg − ma = (65 × 9.81) − (65 × 9.81) = 0
During this period the person is weightless.
..........................................

3.5 Resolving Forces and Acceleration

Thus far the force vectors have been co-linear that is acting in the same or opposite
directions - in these cases vector addition is straightforward; it is just a matter of applying
the correct free-body sign convention.
In this section force vectors will be resolved in two directions. Newton’s Second Law may
then be applied to find the accelerations in each direction - the results can then be
combined with kinematic relations written in each direction.
Example : 3.5
Problem:
A small wooden boat, 150 kg, is drifting freely out at sea. If the tide exerts a force vector
on the boat of fT =10 N due East. At t = 0 the wind starts to blow and then simultaneously
o
exerts a force vector of fW=20 N, but in a direction 45 North of East. Given the above
information determine the following:
a) Draw a free-body diagram of the force vectors acting on the boat after t = 0.
b) Resolve these forces in the "x" and "y" directions after t = 0.
c) Calculate the acceleration vectors of the boat in both the "x" and "y" directions
and then find the resultant acceleration after t = 0.
d) Calculate the displacement of the boat in each direction and the resultant
displacement 30 s after the wind starts to blow. Before t = 0 the boat was drifting,
-1
due to the tide only, with an initial velocity of 2.0 m s due East. At t = 0 the wind
starts to act on the boat.
Solution:
a) The first step is to visualise what is happening - draw a free-body diagram:
+y
fW = 20 N
o
45
-x +x
fT = 10N
-y
This applies just at t = 0 when the wind force vector just starts acting on the boat.

b) The force vectors are now no longer co-linear. The correct approach here is to
resolve each into the "x" and "y" directions and then sum them up - see below:
x-direction (or East) y-direction (or North)

Force Vector (N) (N)
fT +10 0
fW +20 cos 45 = +14.1 +20 sin 45 = +14.1
∑f ∑fx = +24.1 ∑fy = +14.1
c) Newton’s Second Law may now be applied in each direction to find the
acceleration in that direction:
∑f x
= ma x
+24.1
ax = = +0.16 m s −2
150
∑f y
= ma y
+14.1
ay = = +0.094 m s − 2
150
The resultant of these two acceleration vectors may be found using the
parallelogram law in the normal way:
ay • Using geometry & trigonometry:

a
ax
The resultant acceleration vector, including both tide and wind, is constant and
-2 o
has magnitude + 0.019 m s in the direction East 30.4 North.

d) The displacements in x and y directions can be found by applying equation (2.5)
1
s x = u xt + axt 2
2
1
s x = 2.0 × 30 + × 0.16 × 30 2 = +132 m
2
1
s y = u yt + a yt 2
2
1
sy = 0 + × 0.094 × 30 2 = +42.3 m
2
At t = 0 the velocity uy = 0. The resultant of these two displacement vectors may

be found as before - the result is only valid 30 s after t = 0:
• From geometry & trigonometry:

sy
s
sx
This vector diagram only gives the relative sizes of the two directional vectors. In no
sense, is this a diagram of the path of the boat over the 30 s period. The overall resultant
displacement vector, including both tide and wind 30 seconds after
o
t = 0, has magnitude + 138.6 m in the direction East 17.8 North.
When a body is stationary or moving with constant velocity:
∑f x
=0
∑f y
= 0 ……………(3.7)
When the velocity of a body is changing the net force will cause it to accelerate:
∑f x
= ma x
∑f y
= ma y …………...(3.8)
..........................................
Cutnell and Johnson is an excellent general textbook full of very good worked examples.
[Cutnell and Johnson 2008]

3.6 Normal Force to a Horizontal Surface

Consider the free-body diagram of a stationary body, mass "m" resting on a table and
subject to the force of Earth’s gravity "g":
+y
fN (N)
• No other forces are acting on
the body.
-x +x • The weight is fw = - mg (N)
• The normal force exerted by

the table is fN = + mg (N)
fW = mg (N) • The two forces are the same.

-y
Consider an added force acting down on the object as shown:
+y
fN (N) • In addition -f1 (N) acts
down in the same direction
as the weight force vector
fW = - mg (N)
-x +x • The normal force must

increase so that
f1 (N)
∑fy = fN –f1 –fW = 0
fW = mg (N)
• The normal force is now
larger than the weight.
-y
Consider an added force (less than the weight) acting up on the object as shown:
+y
• In addition +f1 (N) acts up
in the opposite direction to
f1 (N) the weight fW = - mg (N)
fN (N)
-x +x • The normal force must
decrease so that
∑fy = fN +f1 –fW = 0

fW = mg (N) • If fN becomes zero, the
-y mass is suspended and
there is no reaction from
table.

3.7 Tension in a Cable or Rope
Example : 3.7
Problem:
A mass of 10 kg is connected via a massless cable and frictionless pulley to a person,
as shown, who in turn is pulling on the other end of the cable with a force f1 = 100 N. The
o
mass is being pulled up a frictionless plane, inclined at an angle of 35 to the horizontal.
Given all of the above determine the following:
a) Resolve the weight force vector fw into component forces fv and fh that act
perpendicular and parallel to the plane respectively.
b) Calculate the acceleration of mass m.
c) Calculate the tension in the cord.
Solution:
a) fw = 10×9.81 = 98.1 (N) is the weight vector of the body, mass 10 kg, acting
vertically in the earth’s gravitational field; see thick line with arrow attached to the
block.
fw can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components fh and fv respectively;
see thin lines with arrows attached to the block. The cable runs over a pulley and
is pulled at the other end with a force f1 = 100 N, see below:
Inclined
Plane +x
fT
• The tension in the cable fT
fT
supports the horizontal
component of the mass fh.
fh f1 = 100 N
• The tension also supports θ
the net force causing θ
acceleration ∑fx = ma
fv
fW
b) Use equation (3.8) noting that the "x" direction is positive up the inclined plane
∑f x
= ma x
⇒ fT − fw sin 35 = max
From the above, the tension in the cable is clearly larger than the weight
component acting down the plane in the opposite direction.

However, considering the other end of the cable the tension is clearly equal to the
applied vertical force f1 (N).
⇒ fT = 100 N
Substituting this tension into the previous equation leads to
f T − f w sin 35 100 − (98.1 × 0.574)

⇒ ax = =
m 10
⇒ a x = +4.37 m s −2
c) The tension in the cable is 100 N, while the weight component acting down the
inclined plane is only - 56.3 N; adding these algebraically results in a positive
acceleration, i.e. in the positive "x" direction.
According to Newton’s Third Law cable tensions must come in equal and
opposite pairs. Before the pulley the cable exerts a tension of 100 N on the mass
which supplies both the weight component and the acceleration of the mass.
On the other hand, the mass pulls back on the cable with an equal and opposite
force - thus, before the pulley the tension force should really be shown acting in
both directions. The same applies after the pulley.
..............................................

3.8 Friction
The force of friction always acts in the opposite direction to the net unbalanced force; it
acts to slow the object down and will, eventually, bring it to rest.
There is an empirical relation which defines the relationship between the frictional force
ff and the normal force fN as follows
⇒ ff = μ fN .................(3.9)
Where, μ is the coefficient of friction - μ is defined simply as the magnitude of ff divided

by the magnitude of fN . Equation (3.9) only provides an empirical estimate for the vector
ff - the coefficient is just a number without any units.
+y
fN (N)
• The weight of mass is fW = - mg (N)
ff (N) • The normal force fN = + mg (N)

f1 (N)
-x +x
• The applied force is +f1 (N), while the
opposing frictional force is –ff (N).
fw = mg (N) • ff = - μ fN = - µ mg (N)
-y
There are in fact two coefficients: first there is μs , the coefficient of static friction, which
applies to stationary bodies; and then there is µk , the coefficient of kinetic
friction, which applies to moving bodies.
The coefficient of static friction is always greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction; that
is, it takes a larger force to get an object moving than it takes to keep the object moving.

Example : 3.8
Problem:
A mass of 10 kg is connected through via a massless cable and frictionless pulley to a
person who in turn is pulling on the other end of the cable with a force f1 = 100 N. The
o
mass is being pulled up a plane, inclined at an angle of 35 to the horizontal. If the
coefficient of static friction, of wood-on-wood, is 0.35 and the coefficient of kinetic friction
is 0.3 then determine the following:
a) Calculate whether or not an applied force f1 = 100 N will be sufficient to start the
wooden block moving.
b) Calculate the acceleration of the wooden block after it has started to move,
assuming it does in fact move; the applied force is f1 = 100 N.
c) Calculate the cable tension.
Solution:
a) Again fw = 10×9.81 = 98.1 (N) is the weight vector acting vertically in the Earth’s
gravitational field; see thick line with arrow attached to the block.
The situation is identical to the previous case except that a frictional force ff will
oppose motion - see below:
Inclined +x
• The frictional force is Plane fT
shown by the thick arrow
ff acting down the plane. fh
fT
ff
• fh = fw sin 35 = mg sin 35 f1 = 100 N
• fh = 98.1 × 0.574 = 56.3 N

fv
fw
Use equation (3.9) to work out the static friction force
f fs = m mg cos 35 = 0.35 × 10 × 9.81 × 0.82 = 28.1 N
∑f x
= f T − f h − f fs = 100 − 56.3 − 28.1 = +15.6 N

Since ∑fx is greater than zero, by Newton’s Second Law the block must move and the
positive sign indicates it will accelerate up the plane. Once the block has started to
move Use equation (3.9) to work out the kinetic friction force
f fk = m mg cos 35 = 0.30 × 10 × 9.81 × 0.82 = 24.1 N
∑f x
= f T − f h − f fk = 100 − 56.3 − 24.1 = +19.6 N
b) By Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration may be found
∑f x
= ma x
⇒ ax =
∑f x
=
+ 19.6
= +1.96 m s −2
m 10
c) The tension in the cable, before and after pulley (assuming it is frictionless), is
again equal to the applied vertical force f1 (N).
⇒ f T = 100 N
-2
Without friction the acceleration of the block from problem 3.7 was +4.37 m s . In
this case, everything is identical except for the additional force caused by friction
-2
the acceleration has now reduced to +1.96 m s .
In both cases the positive sign for the acceleration vector indicates that it acts in
the same direction as the unbalanced force ∑fx - that is, it acts up the inclined
plane.
Once the acceleration has been found from Newton’s Second Law, the kinematic
relationships may be used to calculate displacement, the velocity, or the time,
depending on how the problem is framed.
..............................................

3.9 Momentum and Momentum Conservation

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of the mass times the velocity:
• Momentum, like displacement, velocity, acceleration and force is a vector quantity

- it possesses both magnitude and direction.
• The direction assigned to momentum is the same as the body’s velocity.
• In the SI system momentum has units of (kg m s ).

-1
Like all other vector quantities, the resultant of two momentum vectors, which are not co-
linear, can be found by either using the Parallelogram or Triangle Law.
Co-linear momentum vectors can be added taking due account of positive and negative
signs - follow the free-body sign convention already discussed.
Again the momentum vector, just like other vector quantities, may be resolved into
component vectors - most often used are the horizontal and vertical directions.
There are three powerful transfer processes at work in chemical engineering - these are
mass, energy and momentum transfer. Most items of chemical engineering equipment
involve one or more of these transfer processes.
In many cases it is the rate of mass, energy or momentum transfer that is of interest,
since these rates largely determine equipment size - additionally each of them obeys its
own conservation law:
• Energy is conserved.
• Mass is conserved.
• Momentum is conserved.
3.9.1 Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Take two bodies with no net unbalanced force acting on them. The total momentum,
before and after an interaction between them, is the same.
In Physics an interaction means a collision - one body to the interaction may be stationary
and the other moving, or they both may be moving.
The momentum vectors of each body may be co-linear or not - it depends on the physical
circumstances.

Example : 3.9.1
Problem:
-1
An object, mass 15 kg, is travelling with a constant velocity of 3 m s and collides with
a stationary body mass 15 kg; the two objects combine together to form a single unit,
mass 30 kg, calculate the velocity of the combined unit after the collision.
Solution:
Applying the momentum conservation principle to this two-body interaction:
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m3 v3
m1v1 + m2 v 2 (15 × 3) + 0
v3 = = = 1.5 m s −1
m3 30
The final velocity and momentum vectors are in the same direction as v1.
..........................................
Example : 3.9.2
Problem:
-1
If a hunting rifle, mass 8 kg, fires a bullet, mass 25 g, velocity 700 m s calculate the
velocity with which the gun will recoil.
Solution:
Apply the momentum conservation principle, where "1" is the momentum of gun and
bullet before the gun is fired, while "2" and "3" are the momenta of gun "2" and bullet "3"
separately after the gun is fired
m1 v1 = m2 v2 + m3 v3
Before firing, both the gun and the bullet are stationary and have no momentum.
m1v1 − m3 v3 0 − (0.025 × 700)

v2 = = = −2.3 m s −1
m2 8
The minus sign indicates that the rifle recoils in the opposite direction to the bullet.
..........................................

3.10 Impulse
Newton’s Second Law is given by
F = ma .................(A)
Where, F is the net unbalanced force acting on the body, but from kinematic expression
(2.4), acceleration is given by
a=
(v − u ) ………………(B)
t
Substitute equation (B) into equation (A) leads to the alternate expression for Newton’s
Second Law that was derived previous - see equation (3.6)
m(v − u )
F=
t
This leads to conclusion that the net unbalanced force is also equal to the rate of change
-1
of momentum - momentum being the product of mass times velocity with units (kg m s ).
Re-arrange the above expression
F t = m (v − u) .................(3.10)
The product of the force times duration over which the force acts is called the impulse of
-1
the force - it has SI units (N s) or (kg m s ). When forces act over short periods of time
the force can vary, in this case use the average force - see below:
−
F t = m (v − u ) …………...(3.11)
Where, F is the symbol for the average force over the time of application.

3.11 Tutorial Topic 3

1. This question is a lesson on how to convert between fundamental units and
derived force units and the difference between mass and weight:
-2
a) Convert a force of 30 kg m s into a force in expressed in newtons.
b) An object weighs 30 lbf at sea level calculate the object’s mass. Now
consider whether the objects mass is greater, less, or the same at the
centre of the Earth. Repeat this mental exercise with the objects known
weight at sea level.
2. A volume of water has a mass of 125 lbm calculate the following:

o
a) The weight of this volume of water at sea level and 45 latitude.
b) The weight of this volume of water at a place where the gravitational

2
acceleration is 32.139 ft/s .
3. Find the magnitude and directions of the net forces acting on these objects in the
drawing.
100 N 100 N
θ = 90o
θ = 45o
60 N 60 N
4. A barge of mass 6500 kg is being pulled Due South on a towrope by a powerful

tug. The rope exerts a pull of 3 kN in a Due South direction. The air and sea
maintain a regular frictional force of 1.27 kN which is Due North. Given all of the
above determine the magnitude and direction of the barge’s acceleration.
5. A 70 kg person is taking a trip in a Helium balloon. His weight in the balloon is

measured to be 690 N. The gravitational acceleration, at the balloon’s position, is
-2
known to be 9.80 ms . Determine the magnitude and direction of the vertical
component of the balloon’s acceleration.
6. An international judoka has an apparent weight of 1000 N when accelerating

upwards and 900 N when accelerating downwards. In both situations, the
magnitude of the acceleration is the same. Calculate the judoka’s actual weight
and mass.
7. A container vessel (mass 2.0 x 108 kg) is moving with constant velocity. Its
engines provide a forward force of 1.1 x 106 N. Determine the following:
a) The magnitude of the total friction force arising from both the water and
the atmosphere
b) The magnitude of the buoyant force which acts on the vessel from the
water.

8. A 300 kg girder is being pulled up an inclined slope by means of a chain which is

o
parallel to the slope. The slope has an angle of 25 with respect to the horizontal.
The slope is lubricated and there is no friction between the girder and the slope.
Given this information calculate the tension in the chain.
o
9. The same 300 kg girder is now pulled along another inclined slope, again 25
with respect to the horizontal. On this occasion, there is a coefficient of kinetic
friction of 0.7, recalculate the tension in the chain under these new conditions.
10. A 70 kg person is standing on a 200 kg floating raft which is stationary. The

-1
person runs off the raft horizontally with a velocity of 5 ms . Find the speed of the
raft if there is no friction or resistance from the water.
-1
11. A 10 g bullet is fired with a velocity of + 900 ms at a 1 kg block. The velocity of
-1
the block, immediately after the bullet passes through it, is + 5 ms . Find the
velocity of the bullet as it emerges from the block.
-1
12. A golfer drives a ball from its tee. The speed of the ball is 30 ms . The mass of
the ball is 50 g and the contact time between the ball and the club is 0.01s.
Determine the average force exerted by the club on the ball.
3.12 Bibliography
Singapore; Wiley.

Topic 4
Circular Motion
Contents
4.1 Introduction and Angular Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1.1 Angular Displacement and Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Angular Velocity, Acceleration and Periodic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Angular Motion and Kinematic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4 Angular Velocity and Tangential Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5 Tutorial Topic 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
• Understanding of vectors and scalars.
• Ability to apply kinematic relationships to linear motion.
• Familiarity with SI system of units.
Learning Objectives
• Convert angles from degrees into radians.
• Explain angular displacement.
• Define angular displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• Derive angular kinematic relationships.
• Solve problems for angular displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• Define the relationship between angular velocity and tangential speed.
• Solve increasingly complex problems associated with angular motion.

TOPIC 4. CIRCULAR MOTION 72
4.1 Introduction and Angular Displacement

The material presented in this section is quite similar to the material developed in
Topic 2 where kinematic relations were derived for problems involving linear
motion; similar relations will now be derived for circular or angular motion.
In Topic 5 Newton’s Laws will then be applied to angular motion. However, before
starting it is instructive to check which symbols and units will be used for angular
motion and how these correspond to linear motion:
Linear Linear Angular Angular

Quantity Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic Kinematic
Symbols Units Symbols Units
Displacement s m θ rad
ω or ωo
-1 -1
Velocity v or u ms rad s
Acceleration a ms
-2
α rad s
-2
Angular Displacement θ is the angle subtended by a segment of a circle’s circumference

at its centre. However, this angle is not expressed in degrees but in "radians"; see later for
a full definition and conversion factors.
Angular Velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
time. The final angular velocity in equations is denoted by ω, the initial angular velocity by
ωo and in SI units they are measured in (rad s ).
-1
Angular Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity with respect to
time, in equations this is denoted by α and in SI units it is measured in (rad s ).
-2
4.1.1 Angular Displacement and Radians

The radian is a derived SI unit - the radian is in fact a distance divided by a distance, so
that the radian is just a number with no units at all - it is said to be "dimensionless":
• Velocity and acceleration are often written as (rad s and rad s ).

-1 -2
• However, when "cancelling" units these must be written as (s and s ) respectively.

-1 -2
If this step is ignored then "rad", which is after all dimensionless, will remain
uncancelled in the final check for dimensional consistency.

Take a circle of radius r. The angle θ in radians is defined as that angle which subtends an
arc of length s at the circumference of the circle divided by the radius.
• “s” is the length of the arc

subtended by angle “θ”
s
while “r” is the radius:
θ
• The angle “θ” in radians is
then defined as: r
s
θ= ……………….(4.1)
r
In order to find out how many radians are needed to subtend the entire circumference of a
circle, simply apply the definition in the following way:
s
θ=
r
But for 360◦ the circumference is
s = 2πr
Substitute this value into (4.1) to get
2π r
θ= = 2π (rad)
r
o
Thus 2π radians is equal to 360 which leads to the following conversion:
θ in degrees
θ in radians = × 2π ……………. (4.2)
360
Whenever radians need to be converted into degrees, (4.2) may be rearranged to give
θ in radians
θ in degrees = × 360 ……………. (4.3)
2π

4.2 Angular Velocity, Acceleration and Periodic Time

The angular velocity ω is the rate of angular displacement per unit time - diagram (a) is t =
0; diagram (b) is some later time
(a) t = 0 (b) Some later time
The sign convention is that angular velocity and angular displacement are positive
anticlockwise and negative clockwise. The two definitions of instantaneous linear and
instantaneous angular velocity are given side-by-side below:
Linear Linear Angular Definition Angular

Quantity
Definition Units Units
ds dθ
v= -1 ω= -1
Velocity dt (m s ) dt (rad s )
If the acceleration is constant then the velocity-time graph will plot as a straight line and
the value of the average angular velocity will equal its instantaneous value. The
derivations that follow are based on this assumption.
The angular velocity ω may also be expressed in terms of the periodic time T using the
following relation:
2π
T= …………………(4.4)
ω
Where
ω = angular velocity (rad s )

-1
2π = radians per revolution of a circle (rad)
T = periodic time (s)
In the same way that linear acceleration is defined as rate of change of linear velocity per
unit time, so angular acceleration is defined as rate of change of angular velocity per unit
time - see table that follows:

Quantity Linear Linear Angular Angular

Definition Units Definition Units
dv dω
Acceleration a= -2
(m s ) α= -2
(rad s )
dt dt
The above expression is for instantaneous angular acceleration - if acceleration is

constant then, as said before, the velocity-time graph will plot as a straight line, so that the
average and instantaneous angular acceleration will be the same.
The angular acceleration may be positive or negative, irrespective of whether motion is in

a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction - the sign really depends on whether ω is
increasing or decreasing in the specified direction of rotation.
Example : 4.2.1
Problem:
o o o o
Convert 45 , 90 , 180 and 360 into radians
Solution:
Equation (4.2) provides the necessary conversion
o
Convert 45 to radians:
θ in degrees 45 π
θ in radians = × 2π = × 2π = rad
360 360 4
o
90 π
θ in radians = × 2π = rad
360 2
o
180
θ in radians = × 2π = π rad
360
o
360
θ in radians = × 2π = 2π rad
360
..........................................

Example : 4.2.2
Problem:
Calculate the number of degrees in 1 rad
Solution:
Equation (4.3) provides the necessary conversion:
Convert 1 rad into degrees:
θ in radians 1
θ in degrees = × 360 = × 360 = 57.3 o
2π 2π
..........................................
Example : 4.2.3
Problem:
The crankshaft of a car engine revolves clockwise at 5,000 r.p.m (revolutions per minute)
calculate the periodic time and the angular velocity (hint - each revolution of the
crankshaft sweeps out one complete cycle or 2π radians of angular displacement).
Solution:
First calculate the periodic time by taking the reciprocal of revolutions per minute (r.p.m).
-1
This gives (min revolution ), or just (min) because "revolutions" are dimensionless. Then
convert minutes into seconds. The result is the periodic time (s) as follows:
T=
1
(min ) 60 s  = 0.012 s
5000  1 min 
Equation (4.4) can then be used to convert periodic time into angular velocity - if rotation
is clockwise the sign for angular velocity is taken to be negative:
2π 2π
ω= =− = − 523.6 rad s −1
T 0.012
..........................................

Example : 4.2.4
Problem:
Repeat the above for a device moving anticlockwise at 5000 r.p.m.
Solution:
1  60 s 
T=   = 0.012 s
5000  1 min 
and,
2π 2π
ω= =+ = + 523.6 rad s −1
T 0.012
The angular velocity sign is now positive due to anticlockwise direction of rotation.
..........................................
Standard Physics textbooks provide a wide variety of worked examples based on solving
practical problems. [Cutnell and Johnson]
These problems are often framed around common day-to-day experience which helps
improve understanding and increase interest.

4.3 Angular Motion and Kinematic Relations

The exact definition of angular acceleration α is the rate of change of angular velocity ω
- thus, instantaneous angular acceleration is given by
dω
α= …......................(A)
dt
However, if angular acceleration α is constant then the velocity-time diagram will have a
constant slope and equation (A) reduces to equation (4.4) as follows:
Change in Angular Velocity

a=
Elapsed Time
If ωo is initial angular velocity and ω is final angular velocity and, if the time taken for the
velocity to change is t (s), then the angular acceleration α (rad s ) may be written as
-2
ω - ωo
α=
t
⇒ ω = ω o + α t …………………..(4.5)
Average angular velocity (ω) is the angular displacement of a body θ divided by the
elapsed time t and is given by
Angular Displacement
Average Angular Velocity =
Elapsed Time
This may be expressed mathematically as follows:
θ
⇒ω =
t
Or, in terms of final angular velocity ω and initial angular velocity ωo as
ω + ωo
ω =
2
Eliminating the average velocity ω between last two equations leads to

 ω + ωo 
θ =  t
 2 
Substitute equation (4.5) into the above gives
 ω o + αt + ω o 
θ =  t
 2 
1
⇒ θ = ωot + α t 2 …………….(4.6)
2
Squaring both sides of equation (4.5) yields
ω 2 = ω o 2 + 2ω oα t + α 2 t 2
 1 
⇒ ω 2 = ωo 2 + 2α  ωot + α t 2 
 2 
Now substitute equation (4.6) into the above leads to the final result
ω 2 = ω o 2 + 2αθ ……….…….(4.7)
Equations (4.5), (4.6) and (4.7) are the three angular kinematic relationships - all very
similar to the linear kinematic relationships derived before.
The linear and angular kinematic relations are summarised in tabular form below:
Linear Kinematic Relations Angular Kinematic Relations

s θ
v= ω =
t t
v = u + at ω = ω o + αt
1 1
s = ut + at 2 θ = ωo t + α t 2
2 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as ω 2 = ω o 2 + 2αθ
If the linear relations are memorised, then the angular relations can be written down by
inspection; just substitute ω for v, ωo for u, θ for s and α for a.
The basic assumption underlying the entire derivation is that angular acceleration is
constant - this leads to the angular velocity versus time plot being a straight line with
constant slope. The instantaneous velocity can then be replaced with a simple arithmetic
average velocity.

Example:4.3
Problem:
The crankshaft of a car engine is idling at 1,000 r.p.m (clockwise when viewed from the
front), if it takes 1.5 s for the engine to stop rotating after being switched off calculate the
periodic time, the initial angular velocity and the angular acceleration.
Solution:
The periodic time is the time taken for a single revolution of the crankshaft, but the
crankshaft is revolving at 1,000 r.p.m. Remember revolutions are dimensionless.
1  min   60 s 
T=  ×  = 0.06 s
1000  cycles   1 min 
The angular velocity is linked to the periodic time through equation (4.4) - remember the
sign convention calls for a negative value if rotation is clockwise, so that
2π 2π
ω= =−
T 0.06
⇒ ω = −104.72 rad s −1
Now re-arrange equation (4.5) to find the acceleration of the crankshaft, remember the
final angular velocity must be ω = 0 rad s .
-1
ω − ωo 0 − (−104.72)
a= = = +69.81 rad s −2
t 1.5
It is interesting to try and make sense of this - the above result means that each second
-1
the angular velocity changes by +69.81 rad s .
•
-1
The initial angular velocity was -104.72 rad s .
• However, after 1.5 seconds the angular velocity of the crankshaft must change by
-1
+69.81 x 1.5 = +104.72 rad s .
• Thus, the final angular velocity must be zero.
..........................................

4.4 Angular Velocity and Tangential Speed

The next question is how the angular velocity ω relates to the tangential speed. The
-1
tangential speed v (m s ) is the speed with which the object is moving around in a circle:
-1
v (m s )
•
-1
The angular velocity (rad s ) is
ω (rad s )
-1
the rate with which the angle at
the centre of a circle is being r s
swept out.
θ
• The tangential speed is the
-1
linear velocity (m s ) that an
object has at any distance from
the centre.
If an object is moving around in a circle and the cable were to break then the object would
fly off in a straight line, tangent to the circle, at the tangential speed.
To derive the relation between ω and v start with definition or θ the angular displacement
as follows:
s
θ=
r
Now divide both sides by t, the time take to sweep out an angle θ, to get
θ s
= ……………(A)
t rt
But the average angular velocity (rad s-1) is given by
θ
ω= ……………(B)
t
And, average tangential velocity (m s-1) is
s
v= ……………(C)
t
Substituting (B) and (C) into (A) leads to
v
ω=
r

Re-arrange this expression to get the relationship between the angular velocity ω and the
tangential speed v as follows:
v = rω …..…………..(4.8)
In a similar way the relationship between the angular acceleration α and the tangential
acceleration a is given below:
α = rα ……………….(4.9)
Example:4.4
Problem:
A stone shot is loaded into a sling and the sling is rotated anticlockwise around a
person’s head at a rate of 3 revolutions per second. If the sling is 1.5 m in length calculate
the following:
-1
a) The angular velocity of the stone (rad s ).
-1
b) The tangential speed with which the stone leaves the sling (m s ) and (km/hr).
c) Repeat for a sling of 2.5 m in length.
Solution:
a) The average angular velocity, in an anticlockwise direction, is simply
θ 3 × 2π
ω= = = +18.85 rad s −1
t 1
The tangential speed is given by equation (4.8) as follows:
v = rω = 1.5 × 18.86 = 28.29 m s −1 (101.84 km/hr)
b) Repeat for longer sling - notice, ω is the same but not v, since sling is longer
θ 3 × 2π
ω= = = +18.86 rad s −1
t 1
v = rω = 2.5 × 18.86 = 47.15 m s −1 (169.74 km/hr)
................................................


1. As an exercise in degree-radian conversion determine the following:
o
a) Convert 30 into radians.
o
b) Convert 270 into radians.
c) Convert π/6 radians into degrees.
d) Convert 1.5 π radians into degrees.
2. A car engine is turning at 3,500 r.p.m. in a clockwise direction, when viewed from
the front, determine the following:
a) Calculate the periodic time (s).

-1
b) Calculate the angular velocity (rad s ).
c) Repeat the above for a device operating anticlockwise.
3. A car engine is turning at 2,000 r.p.m. in a clockwise direction. If the engine’s

rotational speed is increased linearly (that is in a uniform manner) to 4,000 r.p.m,
over a 2 second period of time, determine the following:
-2
a) Calculate the angular acceleration (rad s ).
b) Repeat the calculation but now decreasing from 4,000 r.p.m to 2,000 r.p.m.
again over a 2 second period.
4. An agitator paddle is rotating clockwise at a rate of one complete revolution per

second. If the rotational speed were to be uniformly increased to 1.5 revolutions
per second, over a five second period, determine the following:
-1
a) The initial angular velocity (rad s ).
-1
b) The final angular velocity (rad s ).
-2
c) The angular acceleration (rad s ).
5. An agitator paddle, 2 m in diameter, is rotating clockwise at a rate of two

complete revolutions per second. If the rotational speed were to be uniformly
decreased to 1.5 revolutions per second, over a five second period, determine
the following:
-1
a) The initial angular velocity (rad s ).
-1
b) The final angular velocity (rad s ).
-2
c) The angular acceleration (rad s ).
-1
d) The initial and final tangential speed at the agitator tip (m s ).

6. A car is initially at rest waiting for traffic lights to change. Once the green light
-2
comes on is accelerates smoothly at a constant rate of 0.5 m s (linear
acceleration) over a 15 second period of time. If the radius of the wheel and tyre
is 0.35 m and there is no slippage between the tyre and the road determine the
following, over the entire 15 seconds:
-2
a) Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel (rad s ).
b) The total angular displacement of the wheel.
c) The final angular velocity of the wheel.
d) The tangential speed at the tyre.
e) The linear velocity of the car.
-1 -1
7. The angular velocity of a centrifuge rotor increases from 100 rad s to 500 rad s
in 10 seconds, given this information determine the following:
a) Calculate the total angle through which the rotor turns during this period of
time.
b) Calculate the angular acceleration.
8. Consider an edible circular pie, now cut slices from the pie such that the arc
length of each slice is equal to the radius. After all the pieces have been eaten
calculate the apex angle (rad) of the remaining slice.
-3 -2
9. A ship’s propeller starts from rest and accelerates at 2 x 10 rad s for 2,000
seconds. For the next 30,000 seconds it rotates at a constant angular velocity.
-3 -2
Finally it decelerates at 1 x 10 rad s until it slows down to an angular velocity of
-1
1 rad s . Calculate the total angular displacement of the propeller over this period
of time.
4.6 Bibliography
Singapore; Wiley.

Topic 5
Rotational Dynamics
Contents
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2 Centripetal Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 Equations for Centripetal Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Centripetal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.4 Dynamic Forces on a Cornering Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.5 Moments, Levers, Couples and Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5.1 Static Equilibrium - Co-Planar and Parallel Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5.2 Levers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5.3 Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.6 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.7 Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
5.7.1 Angular Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.7.2 Angular Kinetic Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.7.3 Concluding Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.8 Tutorial Topic 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.9 Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.9.1 Derivation of Centripetal Acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
TOPIC 5. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS 86
• Understand radians, angular displacement, velocity and acceleration.

• Ability to apply Newton’s laws and solve linear motion problems.
• Understand and draw free-body diagrams.
• Understand vector addition and subtraction.
• Understand linear momentum conservation principle.
Learning Objectives
• Use centripetal acceleration to solve rotational problems.
• Use centripetal force to solve rotational problems.
• Apply these concepts to solve more practical problems.
• Describe "Turning Effect" and apply to moments, couples and torque.
• Apply Newton's Second Law to angular motion.
• Use "Moment of Inertia" to solve practical problems
• Develop an understanding of the Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum.
• Differentiate between linear and angular kinetic energy.

5.1 Introduction
In the previous section Newton’s Laws of motion were applied to motion in a straight line,
so called linear motion.
This Topic shows how Newton’s Laws may be applied to a body moving around a fixed
point in circular motion, or bodies moving around corners.
Newton’s First Law states that a body will continue at rest, or move with a constant
velocity in a straight line, unless acted on by a net unbalanced force.
For the situation shown below the object is not moving in a straight line and, even if the
body was moving at constant speed, its velocity would be changing due its constantly
changing direction:
ω (rad s-1)
• When the velocity changes the body
must experience an acceleration. θ
• When a body accelerates it must be
acted on by a net unbalanced force.
To understand what is happening here it is necessary to carefully consider the nature of this
net unbalanced force that causes this acceleration.
The first thing to do is clearly differentiate between the different types of acceleration that
may act on a body that is circling around a fixed point.

5.2 Centripetal Acceleration

In the previous topic the relationship between the angular velocity ω and the tangential
speed v was developed - see equation (4.8) presented again below:
v = rω
Divide both sides by t, the time taken for the velocity to change - it is important that the
velocity changes be linear, in which case the above becomes
v rω
=
t t
But v/t = a and ω/t = α. Substitute these two quantities into the above leads to
α = r α …….…….(5.1)
In the same way that equation (4.8) gives the relation between angular and tangential
velocities, equation (5.1) provides a relation between angular acceleration α with units
-2 -2
(rad s ) and tangential acceleration a (m s ).
The angular and tangential quantities are summarised below in the following equivalence
table:
Quantity Rotational Terms (units) Linear / Tangential Terms (units)

Velocity
ω (rad s )
-1 -1
v (m s )
{Equation (4.8) converts}
Acceleration
α (rad s )
-2 -1
a (m s )
{Equation (5.1) converts}
Note the difference between the tangential acceleration a that causes a rotating body to
speed up or slow down and centripetal acceleration ac that causes a rotating body to
change direction - even when its speed might remain constant.
Intuitively the centripetal acceleration cannot have any component in the direction of
circular motion; otherwise the body would speed up or slow down.

Thus, centripetal acceleration must act perpendicularly to the direction of rotation. It must,
therefore, be directed along the radius of a circle, either towards or away from the centre.
In order to find out how it is directed consider the following:
• A body is moving in a circle with v2

constant angular velocity ω.
• The diagram shows two velocity v1

vectors v1 and v2 taken a short time Δθ
apart with same magnitude.
r
• During this time the angular
displacement is Δθ and speed is
constant.
v2 v1
• Here is a diagram of the same system Δθ

with a smaller value of Δθ.
r
Construct a vector diagram of v2, −v1 and Δv as shown below. This diagram illustrates
vector subtraction and of interest is the Δv vector:
• As Δθ→0 the angle between Δv and v2 v2

vectors→90 . Δv becomes perpendicular
o
Δθ
to v2. Δv
-v1
• Thus the change in velocity vector, which
causes centripetal acceleration, points to
the centre of the circle.
Thus, centripetal acceleration ac is directed towards the centre of the circle and cannot
affect the tangential acceleration a or the velocity in any other plane.

5.2.1 Equations for Centripetal Acceleration

Centripetal acceleration ac can be written in two ways, depending on whether the
tangential speed v or the angular velocity ω is known:
v2
ac = ………….(5.2)
r
ac = rω 2 …………..(5.3)
Students are not required to reproduce the derivation of these expressions but for any
student, who may be interested, full details appear in Appendix A.
Students should know how to use both of the equations and should note that the units for
-2
ac are (m s ).
Example : 5.2.1
Problem:
-1
A body is moving in a circle of radius 2 m with a constant tangential speed of 3 m s
calculate the centripetal acceleration.
Solution:
In this example use equation (5.2) since the tangential speed is given
v 2 32
aC = = = 4.5 m s −2
r 2
The above centripetal acceleration is directed to the centre of the circle and is
perpendicular to the direction of rotation.
Because it is directed to the centre, centripetal acceleration cannot affect the tangential
speed - centripetal acceleration must be caused by some net unbalanced force acting in
the same direction (Newton’s Second Law).
.............................................

Example:5.2.2
Problem:
A sling is 1.5 m long. The thrower rotates the sling shot slowly at a constant angular
-1
velocity of 6.28 rad s . A target is identified and the thrower increases the speed to 12
-1
rad s over a 3 s period determine the following:
a) The centripetal acceleration at both angular velocities.
b) The angular acceleration over the 3 s period of time
c) The tangential acceleration over the 3 s period of time.
Solution:
a) The appropriate expression to use for centripetal acceleration is equation (5.3)
since the angular velocity is known:
-1
At 6.28 rad s :
aC = rω 2 = 1.5 × 6.28 2 = 59.16 m s −2
-1
At 12 rad s :
aC = rω 2 = 1.5 × 12 2 = 216 m s −2
b) For this part ωo, ω and time t are given - thus, use following relation:
ω = ωo + α t
ω − ω0 12 − 6.28
⇒a = = = 1.91 rad s − 2
t 3
c) For this part use the simple conversion between angular acceleration and
tangential acceleration given by equation (5.1)
α = rα
a = 1.5 × 1.91 = 2.87 m s −2
What is causing this centripetal acceleration, in part a), is the centripetal force which we
will consider in the next section.
.............................................

5.3 Centripetal Force

According to Newton’s Second Law if a body experiences an acceleration then it must be
acted on by a unbalanced force:
ω (rad s-1)
• The body is moving in a circle with
constant angular velocity “ω”.
• The direction is constantly changing so r

that the body experiences a centripetal Δθ
acceleration towards the centre of the
circle.
fcen
• There must be a centripetal force “fc”
acting in the same direction as the
acceleration.
Newton’s Second Law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration - thus it
follows that the radially inward centripetal force is given by either equation listed below:
mv 2
fC = ……………..(5.4)
r
or,
f C = mω 2 r ……………..(5.5)
For an object being rotated around in a circle, attached to the centre by a cable, the
centripetal force will have to be supplied by the tension in the cable that connects the
object to the device that induces rotation.
Whenever a vehicle is cornering this centripetal force will have to be supplied by the
friction between the tyres and the road.

Example:5.3
Problem:
A sling is 1.5 m long and is used to propel lead shots. Initially, the thrower rotates the sling
-1
(and its shot) at a constant angular velocity of 6 rad s . When she spots a suitable target,
-1
the slinger increases the angular velocity to 12 rad s if the lead shot has mass 0.1 kg,
calculate the following:
a) The centripetal acceleration at both angular velocities.
b) The centripetal force at both angular velocities.
Solution:
-1
a) At 6 rad s the centripetal acceleration is
aC = rω 2 = 1.5 × 6 2 = 54 m s −2
-1
While at 12 rad s the centripetal acceleration is
aC = rω 2 = 1.5 × 12 2 = 216 m s −2
-1
b) The centripetal force at 6 rad s :
f C = mrω 2 = 0.1 × 54 = 5.4 N
-1
While at 12 rad s the centripetal force is
f C = mrω 2 = 0.1 × 216 = 21.6 N
Notice that whenever the speed of rotation doubles the centripetal force increases by a
factor of 4.
The sling itself would have to resist a force of 21.6 N, at this higher angular velocity,
otherwise the sling would part and the shot would come out of the sling, but in the wrong
direction.
When the sling is released the shot moves off at a constant tangential velocity in a
direction which is a tangent to the circle at the point of release.
…..........................................

5.4 Dynamic Forces on a Cornering Vehicle

A vehicle is cornering - the bend has radius r (m) and the vehicle has a constant
tangential speed v (m s ) thus, the angular velocity ω (rad s ) is constant:
-1 -1
-1
v (m s )
• The frictional force is shown by the
thick arrow pointing to the left and
is given by ff = μ mg (N). ff
r
• The centripetal force “fc” acts
radially inward pointing to the fc
centre of circle. The centripetal
force is fc = mv2/r.
A free-body diagram of the forces acting on a cornering vehicle is given below:
+y
• The weight of the vehicle is fW = mg
(N) acting down. fN
fc
• The vertical reaction of this weight, -x +x
by the road on the vehicle is fN = mg
(N) acting up. ff
fw
• There is an unbalanced frictional -y

force acting towards the centre.
The unbalanced frictional force is, in effect, the centripetal force needed to generate
acceleration towards the centre and keep the car on the road.
If the vehicle is going so fast, or in such a tight circle, that the interaction between the road
and the wheel (which generates the frictional force) cannot provide the necessary forces,
the vehicle will lose grip and can no longer generate the required centripetal acceleration -
-1
it will leave the road with tangential speed v (m s ).

Example : 5.4
Problem:
A car, mass 1000 kg, is moving round an unbanked corner which has a constant radius of
60 m. Determine the following:
a) The maximum speed of the car when the road is dry and uncontaminated and
has a coefficient of static friction of 0.9.
b) The maximum speed of the car when the road is contaminated with oil so that the
coefficient of static friction is reduced to 0.20.
c) Calculate the maximum centripetal force, for the dry uncontaminated case,
assuming that the car actually corners at this maximum tangential velocity.
Solution:
First take the expression for the centripetal force equation (5.4), and rearrange
mv 2
fC =
r
fC r
⇒ v=
m
a) But the centripetal force is supplied by the force of friction so that fc = ff and the
force of friction is ff = μs R = μs mg where R is the reaction from road on the car.
Substituting into the above leads to the result - now solve for case (a) leads to
v max = rm S g = 60 × 0.9 × 9.81 = 23.0 m s −1
b) Repeating for case (b) gives
v max = rm S g = 60 × 0.2 × 9.81 = 10.9 m s −1
c) The first case corresponds to 83 km/hr and the second to 39 km/hr. The
centripetal force
mv 2 1000 × 10.9 2
fC = = = 1.98 kN
r 60
…..........................................

5.5 Moments, Levers, Couples and Torque

Consider a garden gate hinged to a post as shown below. If a force f (N) is applied
through a perpendicular distance r (m) from the axis of rotation (the square post):
r
• The turning effect of force “f”
acting through a perpendicular
distance “r” (from the axis) is
the “Moment of the force”. f
• The larger the force “f” and the

larger the distance “r” then the
larger the moment.
Thus, the moment or torque is defined by equation (5.6) below. Moments have units of (N
m), some are "clockwise moments" others are "anti-clockwise moments":
M = f r ………………(5.6)
If the force acts at an angle θ to the radius, then r is no longer the perpendicular distance:
• The new perpendicular distance r

must be found from the line of
action of the force.
θ
• Subtend the line of action of the r sin θ f
force backwards, as shown, to
find the correct perpendicular
distance.
This anti-clockwise moment now becomes:
M = f r sin θ .................(5.7)
5.5.1 Static Equilibrium - Co-Planar and Parallel Forces

There are two conditions for static equilibrium and both need to be satisfied:
• The vector sum of the forces acting on a body is zero.
• The moments about any point are zero.

Example:5.5.1
Problem:
A support beam of uniform cross-section is 5 m in length. Its weight fw is 400 N acting at
its centre-of-gravity. The beam is supported at two points (as shown in diagram below).
Find the reactions fN1 and fN2 of the supports acting on the underside of the beam:
Solution:
fN1 (N)
fN2 (N)
5m
1m
fw = 400 N
2.5 m
Applying the first condition for static equilibrium - there can be no unbalanced force:
fN1 + fN2 − 400 = 0
Take moments about left-hand end of the beam - clockwise moments positive, anti-
clockwise moments negative:
(2.5 × 400) − (1 × fN1) − (5 × fN2) = 0
Solving both equations simultaneously leads to the desired result:
fN1 = 250 N
fN2 = 150 N
...............................................

5.5.2 Levers
A lever is a special application of moments where a smaller force, acting over a large
perpendicular distance, can move a much larger force in the opposite direction, acting
over a small perpendicular distance.
Example : 5.5.2
Problem:
A stiff beam is wedged under a large rock which requires an upward force of around
7,000 N (the load) to dislodge it. The maximum downward force which the man can exert
is his own weight of about 700 N (the effort) - the effort acts on one end of the lever which
is 3 m in length. How close to the rock must the fulcrum (the point about which the beam
rotates) be placed to just dislodge the rock.
Solution:
At equilibrium all the moments will sum to zero - let x (m) be the distance (m) that the
fulcrum should be placed from the rock-end of the beam, taking moments about the
fulcrum:
(7, 000 × x) − (700 × (3 − x)) = 0
⇒ x = 0.333 m
The effort should displace the load if the fulcrum is placed closer than 0.333 m from the
load-end of the beam.
..........................................
5.5.3 Couples
A couple is where two parallel forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, and
not acting along the same line of action, produce a total turning moment or torque T equal
to one of the forces times the perpendicular distance between them.
T = f d .....................(5.8)
The torque has units of (N m) - note, torque induces rotary motion only.

5.6 Moment of Inertia

Newton’s Second Law should now be applied to the case of rotational or angular motion:
• If the angular acceleration is constant there will be a linear change in angular

velocity with respect to time.
• In the case of linear motion force induces acceleration, whereas for angular
motion torque induces acceleration.
The situation under consideration is a point object mass m rotating around a circle with
radius r and angular velocity ω. If an unbalanced tangential force f is applied to the body
then it will accelerate tangentially:
f
ω (rad s )
-1
By Newton’s Second Law the tangential acceleration depends on the force
f=ma
But the tangential acceleration is also given by equation (5.1) which can be substituted
into the above to give
f=mrα
According to equation (5.6) torque is equal to the force times the perpendicular distance
through which it acts - thus, the force equals the torque divided by the perpendicular
distance, so that previous equation may be written as
T=Fr
⇒ T = m r2 α

2
Grouping the terms m r together and calling this grouping I leads to
T = I α ……….…. (5.9)
Where,
2
I = Moment of inertia of a body (kg m ).
T = Torque acting on the body (N m).
For a point mass the moment of inertia is given by equation (5.10) below, but for an
object consisting of a collection of point masses use equation (5.11) below
I = m r2 ……….…. (5.10)
I= ∑m r
i
i i
2
…….….(5.11)
Notice that equation (5.9) for angular motion looks very like f = m a for linear motion, but
with I replacing m and α replacing a.
Equation (5.9) is Newton’s Second Law for angular motion.
Point mass bodies do not exist, because in reality the mass of an object is distributed in
accordance with its shape.
The moment of inertia is difficult to calculate, however, for common shapes this
calculation has been done and formulae are available in standard Physics textbooks
[Cutnell and Johnson 2013].
2
Shape Drawing Moment of Inertia (I) [kg m ]
Point Mass I = m r2
Thin rod with axis passing Length “L” 1

I= m L2
through one end 12
R
Solid cylinder or disk 1
I= m R2
2

Example : 5.6
Problem:
A solid disk is 300 mm in diameter and weighs 200 g. If it is accelerated uniformly up to its
-2
top speed with an angular acceleration of 90 rad s then calculate the following:
a) The moment of inertia of the solid disk.
b) The torque needed to achieve this acceleration.
Solution:
a) First calculate the moment of inertia from the formula listed in the table
1 1
I= mR 2 = × 0.2 × 0.15 2 = 2.25 × 10 −3 kg m 2
2 2
b) Then find the torque from Newton’s Second Law
T = I α = 2.25 × 10 −3 × 90 = 0.20 N m
.............................................

5.7 Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Linear momentum is defined as being mass times velocity, likewise angular momentum
is defined as the moment of inertia of the object multiplied by its angular velocity:
L = I ω ……….…. (5.12)
Where,
2 -1
L = Angular momentum (kg m s ).
2
I = Moment of inertia of the body (kg m ).
The law of conservation of angular momentum states that the angular momentum of a
body is conserved, so long as it is not being acted on by any unbalanced torque.
For a point mass body then I = m r2 and equation (5.12) may be written in two ways
depending on whether ω or v is known. If ω is known then
L = m r2 ω ……….…. (5.13)
If v is known then substitute v = rω to get the alternative expression
L = m r v ……….…. (5.14)
Applying the law of conservation of angular momentum to a before (1) and after (2)
situation, i.e. the angular momentum must be conserved before and after an event:
L1 = L2

Example:5.7
Problem:
An ice skater is spinning anticlockwise with his arms extended at an angular velocity of
-1
+6.0 rad s calculate the following:
a) The new angular velocity when he pulls his arms to his side - look out for the
moments of inertial supplied below.
b) The angular acceleration if he lowers his arms over a 2 s period of time.

2
Moment of inertia arms outstretched = 5.0 kg m .
2
Moment of inertia arms by his sides = 1.8 kg m .
Solution:
a) The angular momentum of the skater with his arms outstretched (situation -1)
must be the same as his angular momentum with his arms by his side (situation -
2), angular momentum is conserved before and after this event:
L1 = L2
Thus applying equation (5.12) leads to
I 1 ω1 = I2 ω2
I1ω1 5.0 × 6.0

ω2 = = = +16.67 rad s −1
I2 1.8
b) The change in angular velocity, angular acceleration and time are all linked
through equation (4.5) which may be re-arranged to give angular acceleration
(ω − ω o ) 16.67 − 6.0
⇒a = = = 5.3 rad s − 2
t 2
..........................................

5.7.1 Angular Work

In the case of linear motion work is force times distance moved or
WTran = f s ….................(5.15)
For angular motion force f = T /r and distance is s = θ × r so that
WRot = (T / r )(θ × r )
⇒ WRot = T θ .................(5.16)
The units for angular work W are (N m), which in SI system is the same as the joule (J).
Consider carefully the case below where (N m) cannot be simplified to (J):
• Torque is force times distance - but this distance is r the distance to the axis of
rotation which is perpendicular to direction of the force.
• Torque has units (N m) but do not convert these to joules (J) since torque is not
energy - it is the turning effect of a force.
• The same applies to Moments - leave its units as (N m).
• To summarise, although moment and torque have units (N m) do not convert

these to joule (J), since these quantities are not forms of energy.
While angular work is also force times distance moved; the distance moved, in this case,
is in the same direction as the force - it is not the perpendicular distance.
Thus, the units of work are (N m) and these may be converted into joules (J) because
work is a form of energy.
5.7.2 Angular Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy associated with linear motion can be called translational kinetic energy
and is given by the well-known expression
1 2
KETran = mv
2
In a similar way the kinetic energy associated with the angular motion of a body may be
called rotational kinetic energy - it is given by a very similar expression
1
KE Rot = mω 2 ……………(5.17)
2

Whenever an object is rolling down an inclined plane it possesses both rotational and
translational kinetic energy
K ETotal = K ERot + K ETran ……………. (5.18)
Now, substituting the various definitions of kinetic energy, leads to
1 2 1 2
KETotal = Iω + mv …………….(5.19)
2 2
Finally, if there is no slippage between the rolling object and the plane, the tangential
velocity of the object must equal its translational velocity.
5.7.3 Concluding Remarks

The relationship between linear motion expressions, or quantities, and those that apply to
angular motion may be summarised as follows:
Quantity Linear Quantity Angular Quantity
Average Velocity s θ
v= ω=
t t
v = u + at ω = ωo + α t
Kinematic Relation - 1
1 2 1
s = ut + at θ = ωo t + α t 2
Kinematic Relation - 2 2 2
Kinematic Relation - 3 v 2 = u 2 + 2as ω 2 = ωo 2 + 2α θ
Displacement
s θ
Velocity
v or u ω or ωo
a α
Acceleration
f T
Force
mass
m I
Newton’s 2nd Law F =ma T =Iα
Momentum P=mv L=Iω
Work Done WTran = f s WRot = T θ
1 2 1 2
Kinetic Energy KETran = mv KE Rot = Iω
2 2


-1
1. A car of mass 900 kg turns into a corner with a tangential velocity of 25 m s - the
corner has a radius of 100 m. Calculate the force of friction between the tyres of
the car and the road surface.
2. An object of mass 5 kg is moving in a circle with a radius 5 m at a tangential

-1
velocity of 5m s calculate the following:
a) The centripetal force required to maintain this object in this circular path.
b) The centripetal acceleration experienced by the object as it rotates in this
circular path.
3. If a person is spinning around with a heavy ball in their arms - the ball moves in a
-1
circular path with radius 1.1 m. The tangential velocity of the ball is 1.5 m s and
the ball has a mass of 3 kg. Given all this information calculate the magnitude and
direction of the tension in the person’s arms.
4. The radius of the Earth is 6380 km calculate the tangential velocity of a person
standing at the equator caused by the Earth’s rotation. Calculate the centripetal
acceleration of this person and express it as a fraction of the acceleration due to
gravity g - speculate on the danger of a person being thrown off the Earth’s
surface.
5. Neutron stars are the remains of supernovae; they are tiny - just a few km across
and spin with an extremely large angular velocity. Suppose there is a neutron star
of radius 20 km and that it spins with a period of 1.2 seconds. If an object is
placed at the equator of this star calculate the centripetal acceleration of this
object and express it as a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity on Earth -
that is multiples of g.
6. A large box is 4.2 m tall and 2.0 m wide with a coefficient of friction from box-to-
floor of 0.60. Calculate the maximum distance, from the floor, that a horizontal
force must be placed to slide the box without it rotating about its width in the
direction of motion.
7. A cylindrical grinding wheel has a radius of 30 cm, a thickness of 8.0 cm and

mass of 20 kg determine its moment of inertia.
8. A solid disc has a mass of 100 kg and a radius of 80 cm. The disc rotates around
-1
an axis through its centre with an angular velocity of 9 rad s determine its Kinetic
Energy.
9. A 30 cm ruler rotates in a circle with the axis at one end. The ruler has an angular
-1
velocity of 0.1 rad s and mass of 100 g. An insect located on the axis moves to
the other end of the ruler. Determine the angular velocity of the ruler when the
insect, mass 3 g, reaches the far end of the ruler.
10. A playground roundabout rotates about its centre on frictionless bearings with
-1 2
angular velocity of 1 rad s ; it has a moment of inertia of 150 kg m and a radius
of 1.70 m. A person, mass 50 kg climbs on the roundabout, at its outer edge.
Using the conservation of angular momentum principle determine the new angular
velocity of the roundabout and the person.

5.9 Appendix A
5.9.1 Derivation of Centripetal Acceleration

If rotating vector v sweeps out an angle Δθ in time Δt then the tangential speed and
angular displacement is given by the two expressions below:
s = v ∆t
s = r ∆θ
Equating these two expressions leads to
v ∆t = r ∆θ
∆θ v
=
∆t r
dθ v
= ……………(A)
dt r
If Δθ is very small
v2
Δθ
Δv
-v1
∆θ ∆v / 2
sin =
2 v
Or,
∆v = 2v sin ∆θ / 2
∆v sin ∆θ / 2
⇒ = 2v
∆θ ∆θ

Re-arranging the above gives
∆v sin ∆θ / 2
=v
∆θ ∆θ / 2
The sine to cosine change makes use of L’Hopital’s Rule
dv  sin ∆θ / 2   cos (∆θ / 2 )×1 / 2 

⇒ = lim v  = v lim v 
dθ Δθ →0  ∆θ / 2  Δθ →0  1/ 2 
dv
⇒ = v …………..(B)
dθ
Using the chain rule of differentiation and substituting (A) and (B) leads to result
dv dv dθ v
= =v
dt dθ dt r
This is the centripetal acceleration and because of equation (4.8) it takes two forms
v2
⇒ ac = ……….…(5.2)
r
⇒ ac = rω 2 …………(5.3)
Students are not expected to reproduce the above derivation. However, whenever
centripetal acceleration is required students should know how to use both of the equations
-2
given above - notice both give acceleration in (m s ).

Topic 6
Simple Harmonic Motion
Contents
6.1 Introduction and Definition of SHM .................................................................... 110
6.2 Origin of General SHM Relation ........................................................................ 112
6.2.1 Period and Frequency ............................................................................ 113
6.2.2 Velocity Displacement Relation .............................................................. 115
6.2.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy .................................................................. 117
6.3 Mass on a Vertical Spring .................................................................................. 118
6.4 A Simple Pendulum............................................................................................ 120
6.5 A Conical Pendulum ........................................................................................... 121
6.6 Damped Oscillations .......................................................................................... 123
6.7 Tutorial Topic 6 ................................................................................................... 126
• Understand radians, angular displacement, velocity and acceleration.

• Ability to apply Newton’s laws to both linear and circular motion.
• Understanding of basic calculus.
Learning Objectives
• Describe the concept of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).

• Apply mathematics to model SHM systems.
• Apply SHM equations to spring-weight systems.
• Apply SHM equations to simple and conical pendula.
• Demonstrate how energy conservation principle applies to SHM.
• Describe how oscillations can become damped.
• Solve practical SHM problems.
TOPIC 6. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 110
6.1 Introduction
The kinematic relations for both linear and angular motion were based on the assumption
of constant acceleration.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is based on the principle that the acceleration of a body
is proportional to its displacement from some neutral point - thus, the acceleration
changes in a regular way depending on the body’s position.
Consider a horizontal spring anchored at one end to some fixed point and attached, at
the other end, to mass m which is free to move:
• The mass “m” is free to slide Anchor Mass

on a frictionless surface. “m”
• The mass is shown in the

“neutral position” – the spring
Natural
is neither compressed nor Position
extended.
Now pull the mass to the right and hold it stationary at a displacement y from the neutral
point - the free-body diagram is shown below:
Natural
• The force needed to extend Position
the spring is "f" (N).
T f
• There is an equal and
opposite tension “T” (N)
Displacement
exerted by the spring on the
mass. “y”
According to Hooke’s Law the force needed to extend the spring is directly proportional
to the extension - in this case displacement y.
Thus, if f is the force needed to extend the spring and, if y is the initial displacement from
the neutral point, then according to Hooke’s Law
f = ks y .................(A)
Where,
f = the applied force (N)

-1
ks = spring constant (N m )
y = initial displacement from neutral position (m)

While the mass is in static equilibrium (stationary) the tension exerted by the spring on the
mass is equal and opposite to the applied force
T = −k s y
Now if the mass is released there is an unbalanced force T which, according to Newton’s
Second Law, will cause an acceleration in the direction of that force.
m a = −k s y
Acceleration is rate of change of velocity, while velocity is rate of change of displacement,

therefore, acceleration is the second derivative of displacement with respect to time
d2y kS
2
=− y ……………………(6.1)
dt m
d2y
The acceleration is proportional to displacement y.
dt 2
However, the displacement and acceleration vectors act in opposite directions. Equation
(6.1) may be generalised to deal with any SHM situation as follows:
d2y
= −ω 2 y ……………………(6.2)
dt 2
Well, this appears to be a rather strange way of writing any physical constant. Why on
Earth give a negative, squared term here. We had better explain…

6.2 Origin of General SHM Relation

A mass m is rotating in a circle with a constant angular velocity ω (rad s ) - demonstrate
-1
that the projected motion of the object, on to the "y-axis", oscillates in accordance with the
general SHM relation given by equation (6.2):
time = t
• Mass is at y=0 at t=0. ω (rad s-1)

r
• Body is moving with constant y
-1
angular velocity “ω” (rad s ). θ time = 0
• At some later time “t”, the

mass has swept out an angle
“θ” and moved “y” units of
displacement on y-axis.
Thus, the y-axis displacement is given by
y = r sin θ
But, during time t the body has moved through an angle θ = ωt so that
y = r sin ωt
The projected velocity of the object onto the y-axis is its rate of change of displacement
and the projected acceleration is its rate of change of velocity
dy
= rω cos ωt
dt
d2y
= − rω 2 sin ωt
dt 2
But y = r sin ωt so that the general SHM expression is obtained:
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y ………..….(6.2)
dt
And here we have exactly the same equation, obtained from an entirely different method.
There must be a linkage between an oscillating system and a system modelled by
Hooke’s Law.

6.2.1 Period and Frequency

Notice, the body itself is moving with constant velocity along a circular path - it is only the
y-axis projection of the body’s motion that obeys the principle of SHM.
The periodic time T (s) was defined in terms of the angular velocity ω (rad s ) and 2π
-1
(rad) - see equation (4.3) in Topic 4
2π
T=
ω
Now frequency f (Hz) is just the reciprocal of the periodic time
1
⇒ f = ……………….(6.3)
T
and
2π
ω= = 2π f ....................(6.4)
T
Now please go back a few pages, and write Equation 6.2 on this page. Thus, for the
horizontal spring/mass system oscillating with SHM, the acceleration of the mass is
proportional to its displacement.
Whenever the mass returns to the neutral position y = 0, it has zero acceleration; see
equation (6.2). At either limit of displacement its acceleration is a maximum.
The velocity of the mass should also vary between zero, at either limit of displacement, to
a maximum at the neutral point - the exact derivation follows after the next two examples.
Example : 6.2.1
Problem:
A mass moves with SHM such that 50 complete oscillations occurs in 5 seconds
a) The frequency of oscillation (Hz).
b) The period of oscillation (s).

-1
c) The angular velocity (rad s ).
Solution:
a) The frequency (Hz) is the number of cycles completed in each second
50
f = =10 Hz
5

b) The period of oscillation is the reciprocal of the frequency
1 1
T= = = 0.1 s
f 10
c) The angular velocity is linked to both the frequency and the period
2π
ω= = 2πf = 2π × 10 = 62.83 rad s −1
T
..........................................
Example : 6.2.2
Problem:
-2
A mass moves with SHM and experiences an acceleration of 5 m s when displaced
-0.15 m (to the left of the neutral point). Calculate the acceleration when it is displaced
+0.10 m (to the right of the neutral point).
Solution:
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y
dt
ω = − 5 − 0.15 = 5.77 rad s −1
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y
dt
d2y
= −(5.77) 2 × 0.1 = −3.33 m s −2
dt 2
The acceleration is always in the opposite direction to the displacement.
..........................................

6.2.2 Velocity Displacement Relation

At the beginning of this section the equations below were derived:
y = r sin ωt
y
⇒ sin ωt =
r
dy
= v = rω cos ωt
dt
v
⇒ cos ωt =
rω
Applying the well-known trigonometric identity sin θ + cos θ = 1 to the above gives
2 2
y2 v2
+ =1
r 2
r ω2
2
⇒ y 2ω 2 + v 2 = r 2ω 2
( )
⇒ v = ω r 2 − y 2 ……………..…….(6.5)
Equation (6.5) shows how the velocity v varies with displacement y. At either limit of
displacement (y = r) the velocity is zero - at the same point in the cycle the acceleration is
a maximum.
At the neutral point (y = 0) the velocity is a maximum - at the same point in the cycle the
acceleration is zero.
Therefore, whenever the velocity is a maximum the acceleration is zero and whenever
the velocity is zero the acceleration is a maximum.
For any value of y, except for y = r, equation (6.5) yields both a positive and a negative
answer - corresponding to the same displacement either side of the neutral point, where
the velocities have equal magnitude but opposite sign.

Example:6.2.3
Problem:
-2
The acceleration of a mass undergoing SHM is -3 m s when its displacement from the
neutral point is +0.1 m determines the following:
a) Calculate the constant angular velocity of the mass.
b) If a maximum unbalanced force of +60 N is acting on this mass of 10 kg calculate

the amplitude of the displacement.
(Hint: maximum force corresponds to maximum acceleration which only acts at either
limit of SHM displacement).
Solution:
a) The exact device is not specified, but if any two out of the three variables below
are known then the third may be found:
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y
dt
⇒ ω = − (−3) + 0.10 = 5.48 rad s −1
b) If the maximum unbalanced force is 60 N and the mass is 10 kg, then the
maximum acceleration may be found from Newton’s Second Law f = ma
f = ma
f max +60
⇒ a max = = = + 6 m s −2
m 10
For SHM the angular velocity is constant and the maximum displacement is
easily found from the general SHM relation
 d2y 
 
 dt 2 
  max +6
y max = − =− = − 0. 2 m
ω 2
5.48 2
The amplitude of the oscillation is 0.2 m either side of the neutral point.
..........................................

6.2.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy

The kinetic energy for linear motion is well-known and the velocity of a body undergoing
SHM is fixed by equation (6.5) - combine these equations to get the kinetic energy of a
body at any point in a SHM cycle:
1
( )
KE SHM = m ω 2 r 2 − y 2 ……………(6.6)
2
Equation (6.6) shows that the kinetic energy K ESHM also varies with displacement:
• At extreme displacements of the SHM cycle, where y = r, both the velocity and
the kinetic energy are zero.
• At the neutral point of the SHM cycle, where y = 0, both the velocity and the
kinetic energy are a maximum.
Energy must be conserved and, without any external energy input, it follows that as the
mass moves towards the neutral point and gains kinetic energy, it must do so at the
expense of potential energy.
Hence, the maximum kinetic energy, at the neutral point, must correspond to the
maximum potential energy at either end of the SHM cycle (where y = r), so that
1
KE MAX = m ω 2 r 2
2
1
PE SHM = m ω 2 y 2 ……………..(6.7)
2
Thus whenever the KE is zero the PE is a maximum and, whenever the PE is zero the KE
is a maximum. Notice that energy is converted continuously from one type to the other
without any external input.

6.3 Mass on a Vertical Spring

Consider a vertical spring anchored at the top end to some fixed point and attached at the
bottom end to a moveable mass m:
Anchor
• Without the mass attached, the

spring has a “natural length “l”.
• The mass “m” is attached and the

spring extends by an amount “e” (I+e)
Neutral
to settle at the neutral point. Position
y
• Displace the mass vertically Mass
“m”
down by an extra amount “y” and
then release it.
With the mass attached and the spring in static equilibrium, the spring tension acting up
T = kse is equal to the weight fw = mg of mass acting down. If the spring is now displaced a
further amount y then the new tension up is T = kse + ksy
When the mass is released the unbalanced force ∑fy = ks e + ks y − mg = ks y causes the
mass to accelerate in the opposite direction to the original displacement (hence the
negative sign below) - thus, in accordance with Newton’s Second Law ma = −ks y
d2y ks
⇒ 2
=− y …………….(6.8)
dt m
Put the above into standard SHM form as follows:
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y
dt
Where, for a vertical spring-mass system the angular velocity is given by,
ks
ω= ………………….(6.9)
m

Example:6.3
Problem:
When a spring is stretched beyond its natural length it obeys Hooke’s Law which states
that f = −ksy where f is the restoring force (N), ks is the spring constant (N m ) and y is the
-1
displacement (m). The negative sign indicates that restoring force is in the opposite
direction to the displacement. Given the above determine the following:
a) The spring constant if a spring is stretched in the downward direction by 0.10 m

while, at the same time, the restoring force is measured at 100 N.
b) The extension needed to produce a restoring force of 120 N, assuming the same
spring is used.
c) The compression needed to produce a restoring force 120 N - again use the
same spring.
Solution:
a) The restoring force is 100 N (up), while the displacement is - 0.10 m (down)
f = −k s y
f 100
ks = − =− =1000 N m-1
y − 0.10
b) For the same spring, the spring constant will not change
f = −k s y
f +120
y=− =− = − 0.12 m
ks 1000
c) The restoring force now acts down because the spring is compression
f = −k s y
f −120
y=− =− = + 0.12 m
ks 1000
……………………………..........

6.4 A Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of mass m suspended from one end of a cable length l, the
mass (called a bob) is displaced through a small angle θ and released:
Anchor Point
• The bob is displaced by an angle “θ”,
but the arc through which the bob is l
displaced is “y”.
θ
• The weight of the “bob” can be Neutral Position

resolved into a component f = mg sin θ
perpendicular to the cable.
y f = mg sin θ
• The other component f = mg cos θ is
parallel to the cable and acts in the
f = mg cos θ fw = mg
opposite direction to the cable tension
“T”.
The restoring force is f = mg sin θ and for small angles sin θ = y/l, where y is the initial
displacement - now apply Newton’s Second Law to this unbalanced force
y d2y
f = mg =− m 2
l dt
d2y g
⇒ 2
=− y ………………..(6.10)
dt l
Putting this into standard SHM form
d2y
=−ω2y
dt 2
Where the angular velocity ω and period T for a simple pendulum are given by
g
ω=
l
and using T = 2π/ω
l
T = 2π …………………(6.12)
g

6.5 A Conical Pendulum
The vector diagram below shows the Tension T in the pendulum cable, and the weight of
the pendulum bob which is mg (N)
• The vector sum must be

θ
F = T + mg
l
• The bob does not move

in the Y-direction (up
and down) and simply r
continues revolving in
the same X-plane
fw = mg
Resolving the tension in the vertical Y-direction and summing forces algebraically in this
direction leads to
T cos θ − m g = 0
In the X-direction only the tension T has a horizontal component. This component is the
centripetal force which keeps the bob moving in a horizontal circle. The centripetal force
has been found previously so that
mv 2
T sin θ =
r
Dividing one equation by the other
T sin θ mv 2
=
T cos θ r m g
Or
v2
tan θ =
rg

The tangential velocity ν in the previous equation can be replaced by the period of the
bob τ as follows:
2π r
τ =
v
or
4π 2 r 2
v2 =
r2
Putting this into the equation for tan θ
4π 2 r 2
tan θ =
r2g
Solving for τ
r
τ = 2π
g τan θ
Noticing that r = l sin θ and substituting this into the above leads to
l sin θ
τ = 2π
g τan θ
or
l cos θ
τ = 2π
g
The period depends on the value of l (the length of the string) and the angle from the
vertical.

6.6 Damped Oscillations

An undamped spring-mass system, see below, is known as a simple harmonic oscillator:
Anchor
(I+e)
Neutral
Position
y
Mass
“m”
In an undamped system, no energy is ever lost to friction so that equation (6.1) perfectly
models the process
d2y ks
2
=− y
dt m
Put this above into standard SHM form as before gives
d2y
2
= −ω 2 y
dt
Where, the angular velocity for the spring/mass system is given by the expression derived
previously
ks
ω=
m
Such a system will oscillate back and forth with constant amplitude; the displacement will
correspond exactly to the SHM model.
The variation in vertical displacement is shown on the y-axis, absolutely no damping is

present and the motion is pure SHM - see the following diagram:

Damping occurs whenever energy is lost to friction. The equation of motion for a damped
oscillator is shown below - notice the added term in the middle that accounts for damping:
d2y dy
m 2
+r + ks y = 0
dt dt
The above expression can be put into standard form as follows:
d2y r dy k s
2
+ + y=0
dt m dt m
or,
d2y dy
2
+ 2ςω o + ω o2 y = 0
dt dt
The performance of the damped oscillator is controlled by two parameters the damping
factor and the undamped angular frequency, defined below.
The undamped angular frequency of the oscillating system is given by
ks
ωo =
m

And, the damping factor is given by the Greek letter µ
r
m=
2 mk s
Whether the system oscillates or not depends on the damping factor as follows:
• Highly underdamped behaviour is

shown by the red curve.
• Slightly Underdamped behaviour is

shown by the blue curve.
• Overdamped behaviour is shown by

the green curve.
When the damping factor µ < 1 then the model output response is underdamped; the
spring-mass system can oscillate - as the damping factor approaches zero, the motion
approached pure SHM.
When the damping factor µ > 1 then the model output response is overdamped; the
spring-mass system will not oscillate and a slow exponential decay will be evident - the
higher the damping factor the slower the decay.
When the damping factor µ = 1 then the response is critically damped and, while the
spring-mass will not oscillate, it will be on the point of oscillation.


1. A steel ball mass 0.35 kg is free to move on a horizontal frictionless surface. A
-1
horizontal spring, with spring constant 475 N m , is firmly anchored at one end
and is connected to the ball at the other end. The ball is initially at rest at the
neutral point which corresponds to the natural length of the spring. If the ball is
displaced 50 mm to the right, and then released to set it in SHM, calculate the
following:
a) The angular velocity as defined by the general SHM expression.

b) The period and frequency of oscillation.
c) The acceleration at the point of release.
d) The velocity at the point of release.
e) The acceleration at the neutral point.
f) The velocity at the neutral point.
2. Take exactly the same problem as above - the horizontal spring-mass system in
SHM and determine the following.
a) Specify where the mass has its maximum kinetic energy and then calculate
its value. Find the potential energy at the same point.
b) Specify where the mass has its minimum kinetic energy and then calculate its
value. Find the potential energy at the same points.
c) Determine the kinetic and potential energy mid-way between these two cases
above - calculate the total "potential plus kinetic" energy at this point.
3. A steel ball mass 0.35 kg is free to move in a vertical direction. A vertical spring,
-1
with spring constant 475 N m , is firmly anchored at one end and is connected to
the ball at the other end. The ball is supported only by the spring and is allowed
to come to rest in the Earth’s gravitational field before the system is set in motion.
If the ball is now displaced 50 mm vertically downwards, and then released to set
it in SHM, calculate the following:

b) The period and frequency of oscillation.

4. A simple pendulum has a "bob" with mass 0.4 kg and is to be set in SHM to drive
a clock mechanism - take it that the displacement angle applied to this pendulum
is small. If the period of oscillation is to be one second calculate the length of the
pendulum and then determine the following - assume that the initial displacement
of the bob, to the right of the neutral point, is 0.15 m:

b) The frequency of oscillation.
5. Now repeat the above - the simple pendulum in SHM - and determine the
following.
a) Specify where the mass has its maximum kinetic energy and then calculate
its value. Find the potential energy at the same point.
b) Specify where the mass has its minimum kinetic energy and then calculate its
value. Find the potential energy at the same points.
c) Determine the kinetic and potential energy mid-way between these two cases
above - calculate the total "potential plus kinetic" energy at this point.
-1
6. A spring has a spring constant of 300 N m . Calculate the magnitude of the force
needed in the following circumstances:
1. When it is stretched by 3 mm from its unstrained length.

2. When it is compressed by the same amount.
7. A room is 2.30 m high and a spring, unstrained length 0.35 m, hangs from the
ceiling. Attached to the free-end of the spring is a board, 1.88 m in length and
mass 10kg. The board extends to, but does not touch, the floor. Given all of the
above calculate the spring constant.
8. An object is in Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) with an angular velocity of ω = 3.4

-1
rad s and amplitude 0.30 m. What is the velocity of the object when its
displacement is 0.15 m from the equilibrium point (neutral point).
9. Atoms in a solid are not stationary, but vibrate about their equilibrium positions;
12
typically, the frequency of vibration is about f = 2 x 10 Hz, and the amplitude is
-11
about 1 x 10 m. For a typical atom, as described above, determine its
maximum velocity and acceleration.
o
10. Initially a conical pendulum, length 0.5 m, is displaced by 7 from the vertical,
-2
take gravitational acceleration to be g = 9.8 ms . Under these initial conditions
calculate the period of the pendulum then determine the following:
1. The period of the pendulum if its length is increased to 1.5m.

2. The angle that the bob makes with the vertical when is period is 1.0 seconds
and its length is 10 m.


Topic 7
Work, Heat, Energy and Power
Contents
7.1 Work, Kinetic and Potential Energy ................................................................... 131

7.1.1 Kinetic Energy ........................................................................................ 131
7.1.2 Potential Energy ..................................................................................... 131
7.2 Heat and Internal Energy ................................................................................... 133
7.3 Energy Conservation Principle........................................................................... 135
7.3.1 Other Forms of Energy ........................................................................... 137
7.4 Renewable Energy ............................................................................................. 138
7.5 Power ................................................................................................................. 139
7.5.1 Mechanical Power .................................................................................. 139
7.5.2 Power Conversion Efficiency .................................................................. 140
7.5.3 Energy and Energy Consumption .......................................................... 141
7.6 Tutorial Topic 7 ................................................................................................... 144
7.7 Bibliography........................................................................................................ 145
TOPIC 7. WORK, HEAT, ENERGY AND POWER 130
• Ability to apply Newton’s laws of motion.
• Background understanding of work, heat and energy.
• Fundamental understanding of the energy conservation principle.
Learning Objectives
• Classify and distinguish between the different types of energy.
• Apply SI energy units correctly to work, heat, energy and power.
• Describe energy transformation and conservation.
• Differentiate between heat and work and energy storage terms.
• Define power, rate of heat transfer and understand units.
• Identify energy losses with equipment efficiency.
• Solve practical problems associated with energy, power and energy losses.

7.1 Work, Kinetic and Potential Energy

7.1.1 Kinetic Energy
Ignoring friction and assuming horizontal motion, the change in kinetic energy of a body
may be found by calculating the work required while the velocity of a body is changed
smoothly from some initial value to some final value.
Using this approach it is possible to derive the well-known expression for kinetic energy
given below
1 2
KE= mv …………….(7.1)
2
Kinetic energy and work are both forms of energy, but in this case work is the amount of
energy transferred to a mass to increase its velocity - this work is then stored as kinetic
energy as the mass continues to move at some constant final velocity.
Work and kinetic energy, being just different types of energy must share the same units,
see below.
The unit of work is the joule (J) and in SI units 1 J = 1 N m, but the newton is defined
-2
coherently as 1 N = 1 kg m s . Thus, in terms of fundamental units, the joule can also be
2 -2
expressed as 1 J = 1 kg m s .
2 -2
After inspecting equation (7.1) the units for KE must be (kg m s ), but these have
already been shown to be identical to (J) - thus work and kinetic energy have the same
units.
7.1.2 Potential Energy

Ignoring friction and assuming purely vertical motion, the change in potential energy of a
body may be found by calculating the work required as a body is raised very slowly
through some vertical distance.
Using this approach it is possible to derive the well-known expression for potential energy
given below
P E = mgh ...................(7.2)
It is important to raise the mass very slowly if work is to equate to potential energy, if not
raised slowly some additional energy would have to be stored as kinetic energy.
Potential energy and work are both forms of energy. In this case work is the amount of
energy transferred to a mass as it is raised vertically - this work is then stored as
additional potential energy at the end of the process.
Work and potential energy, being different forms of energy, must share the same units,
see below.

The unit of work is the joule (J) and in SI units 1 J = 1 N m; however, in terms of
2 -2
fundamental units the joule is given by 1 J = 1 kg m s .
2 -2
After inspecting equation (7.2) the units for PE must be (kg m s ) and this has been
shown to be the same as (J) - thus work and potential energy have the same units.
In summary work, kinetic and potential energy are just different forms of energy, so they
are all measured in (J).

7.2 Heat and Internal Energy

Note, this material is covered in detail in Process Industries A and is only included here to
cover the concept of energy transformation. This section 7.2 is not assessable.
Consider a closed system containing an ideal-gas undergoing a constant volume heating

process - "heat in" is positive, whereas "heat out" is negative:
• If the volume is constant the gas

cannot expand and no work can be
done.
• However, heat may be transferred

into or out of the gas.
Under these specific conditions the amount of heat transferred in or out is equal to
Q = m (v2 − v1 ) …………….(7.3)
Where,
Q = Heat transferred into or out of the ideal-gas system (kJ).
m = Mass of the ideal-gas system (kg).

-1
u = Specific Internal energy of the gas inside the system (kJ kg ).
The subscript "2" refers to the internal energy at the end of the heating or cooling
process. The subscript "1" refers to internal energy of the gas at the beginning of the
heating or cooling process.
Q can be positive (heat in) or negative (heat out) depending on whether final internal
energy is larger or smaller than the starting internal energy.
Q = m CV (T2 − T1 ) ................(7.4)
To obtain equation (7.4) the internal energy change of an ideal-gas, see (A) below, was
substituted into equation (7.3) - this will be covered in later courses.
(u2 − u1 ) = CV (T2 − T1 ) ..............(A)

Where,
-1 -1
CV = The heat capacity of constant volume (kJ kg K )
The specific heat determines how much energy a substance, an ideal gas in this case,
can store per unit change in its temperature.
When heating or cooling a gas, heat energy (kJ) is transferred into or out of the gas – this
transfer of energy causes the stored internal energy to either increase or decrease.
Differentiate between heat and work, which are energy transfer mechanisms, and kinetic,
potential and internal energy, which are all energy storage terms - internal energy like
work, heat, kinetic and potential energy is measured in (J).
For non-ideal gases internal energy is the sum total of all kinetic and potential energy of
all molecules within a system - internal energy depends on how fast the gas molecules
are travelling and how close they are together.
This is the end of "non-assessed" material.

7.3 Energy Conservation Principle

The energy conservation principle is one of three very important conservation principles in
Engineering - the other two are mass conservation and momentum conservation.
Energy Conservation Principle states: "Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
be transformed from one form to another".
Example : 7.3.1
Problem:
A mass of 10 kg is at rest and stored on a platform 5 m above the ground level, if it is
subsequently dropped calculate the following:
a) The potential energy (J) of the mass when stationary on the platform.
b) Ignoring friction, the final velocity of the mass before striking the ground.
c) The final kinetic energy of the mass before striking the ground.
Solution:
a) The original PE of the mass, when stationary on the platform, is given by equation
(7.2)
P E = mgh = 10 × 9.81 × 5 = 490.5 J
b) The final velocity is given by equation (2.6) - the mass is initially at rest
v 2 = u 2 + 2as = 0 + (2 × 9.81 × 5) = 98.1 m2 s-2
v = 9.905 m s-1
c) The kinetic energy of the mass before striking the ground is easily found
1 2 1
KE= mv = × 10 × 9.905 2 = 490.5 J
2 2
Notice that the original PE has been completely converted into KE.
..........................................

Example:7.3.2
Problem:
A light van, 1500 kg in weight, is accelerated from rest to 110 km/hr in 20 s (convert the
-1
velocity as follows 110/3.6 = 30.556 m s ). If frictional effects are ignored calculate the
following:
a) Force needed to produce this acceleration.
b) The final kinetic energy of the car.
Solution:
a) Use the first kinematic relation to find the acceleration of the light van
v = u + at
30.556 − 0
⇒a= = 1.528 m s-2
20
Now find the displacement from another kinematic relation
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
v 2 − u 2 933.67 − 0
⇒s= = = 305.52 m
2a 2 × 1.528
By Newton’s Second Law the force needed to produce this acceleration is
∑ f = ma
⇒ ∑ f = 1500 × 1.528 = 2.202 kN
-1
b) The kinetic energy of the light van at a velocity of 30.556 m s is
1 2 1
KE= mv = × 1500 × 30.556 2 = 700.3 kJ
2 2
The work done would be the same as the Kinetic Energy. To allow for friction the net
external force will have to be greater, thus the work required will exceed the kinetic
energy - this additional work will supply the energy needed to overcome friction.
..........................................

7.3.1 Other Forms of Energy

Chemical energy is energy stored within chemical bonds - it is only released or absorbed
when a chemical reaction takes place.
Nuclear energy is energy that binds atomic particles together in the nucleus of atoms - it
is only released when a nuclear reaction takes place.
Electrical energy (the flow of electrons through a wire) is regarded as work. It is energy
being transferred in or out of a system - not an energy storage term.
Electromagnetic energy is radiant energy of various types depending on the wavelength.

This again is energy being transferred in or out of the system - infra-red radiation is
actually a heat transfer mechanism.
Sound energy is also energy being transferred away from some vibrating system.
In summary, different forms of energy either store energy or act as energy transfer
mechanisms - see partial list below:
Energy Form Energy Storage Energy Transfer

Kinetic energy Yes No
Potential energy Yes No
Internal energy Yes No
Chemical energy Yes No
Heat No Yes
Work No Yes
Electrical energy No Yes
Electromagnetic energy No Yes

7.4 Renewable Energy

Energy sources such as coal, peat and natural gas are non-renewable energy sources, in
the sense that they were laid down over geological time and are rapidly being consumed
as more societies are become industrialised.
Over time these sources of energy are being used up and cannot be replaced. In addition
fossil fuel consumption is linked with:
• A build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - particularly CO2.
• Rise in average global temperatures, melting of glaciers and ice-caps, rising

seawater levels and erratic climate-change phenomena.
To minimise these changes renewable energy technologies and processes are being
developed, such as:
• Wind turbines.
• Hydro-electric power - also tidal and small-scale water turbines.
• Photovoltaic panels.
• Solar thermal panels.
• Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants.
• Biomass plants and boilers.
• Geothermal power plants.
• Development of biofuels, e.g. biogas, ethanol and various types of oil.
Many technologies are classified as renewable energy technologies but are designed to
improve energy efficiency and flexibility - these include:
• Combined Heat and Power (CHP) engines, both large and small.
• Heat pumps - both air-source and ground-source.
• Combined cycle electrical generation plants.
The list is not exhaustive, but many of these technologies and/or processes will be
discussed in detail over the coming years.

7.5 Power
Power is the rate at which work is being done. The unit of power, named after the
famous Scottish engineer, is the watt (W).
In the SI system of units1 W= 1 J per second:
•
-1
Thus, 1 W = 1 J s .
•
-1
But,1 J =1 Nm and so1 W=1 Nm s .
•
-2 2 -3
But,1 N=1 kg m s and so 1 W= 1 kg m s .
The symbols used to represent power vary, but in Engineering and especially
Thermodynamics it is common to use the symbol Ẇ.
The W represents the work required; the "dot" above the symbol represents per second;
thus Ẇ reads as work required per second.
There is another type of power called thermal power, also called rate of heat transfer,
which is often given the symbol Q̇ .
The Q represents the amount of heat transferred; the "dot" above the symbol represents
per second; thus Q̇ reads as heat transferred per second, or rate of heat transfer.
In Engineering the symbol ṁ appears frequently: the m represents mass; the "dot" above
the symbol represents "per second"; thus ṁ reads as mass flow per second or simply
-1
mass flowrate (kg s ).
Watch out for the same symbols without the dot; these are used mainly for non-flow batch
plant; while the same symbols with the dot are used for continuous plants.
7.5.1 Mechanical Power

For rotary motion work required is the product of the external force, acting at the
circumference of a circle, times arc or displacement traced out at the circumference
W = f s .................(B)
But torque is related to the force acting at the circumference, while the angle is related to
the length of the arc and the radius through the definition of the radian:
T = f r .................(C)
s = θ r .................(D)

Thus, substitute (C) and (D) into (B) to get the expression for rotary work
W = T θ .................(7.5)
The work required per second is called the power - now divide both sides of equation
(7.5) by time: the left hand side is the power developed; the right hand side is angular
-1
displacement divided by elapsed time, which is angular velocity (rad s ) - equation (7.5)
becomes
.
W = T ω .................(7.6)
Where,
Ẇ = Mechanical power developed by a rotating shaft (W).
T = Torque, or turning effort, acting on rotating shaft (N m).
ω = Angular velocity of rotating shaft (rad s ), or (s ).

-1 -1
7.5.2 Power Conversion Efficiency

Power output of any device is always less than power input - this is simply due to energy
losses during the conversion process itself. In order to allow for these losses and to
quantify them an efficiency is defined as follows:
Power output
η= × 100 .................(7.10)
Power input
The power output can be estimated by re-arranging equation (7.10).

7.5.3 Energy and Energy Consumption

Energy and energy consumption data are widely reported in the renewable energy sector
- indeed most household electricity and gas bills provide consumption figures in terms of
kWh units; that is, kWh of gas usage; or, kWh of electrical usage.
Many students struggle to understand both the concept of the kWh and how it is possible
to convert between joules and kilowatt-hours.
In addition some students tend to treat energy and power as synonyms; as students can
see from the last few sections, this is clearly not the case.
The reference for this section is not [Cutnell and Johnston, 2013]. For this section a
different reference text is used [Moaveni, 2011] - particularly relevant is chapter 13,
headed "Energy and Power".
Energy is the ability to perform work and as is the case with energy in all its forms, it is
measured in joules (J).
Power is the amount of energy used or produced per second. In the SI system power is
-1
measured in watts (W) - of course 1 W = 1 J s so, examining these units, it possible to
see that power is simply energy per unit time.
A kilowatt-hour (kWh or kWhr) is an amount of energy produced or consumed over a one

hour period of time: 1 kWh = 1 kW × 1 hr. Thus a kWh is actually power times time and
this quantity must be an amount of energy.
To summarise:
•
-1
1 W=1 J s
•
-1
1 kW =1 kJ s
Multiplying through by time gives, on the LHS of the expression below, power times time
(kW s) - the RHS is clearly an amount of energy (kJ), therefore we get
• 1 kW s = 1 kJ
-1
Now divide the LHS of the above expression by 3,600 (s h ) converts (kW s) into (kWh),
it just remains to multiply across to get the conversion from (kWh) to (MJ):
• 1 kWh = 3,600 kJ = 3,600,000 J = 3.6 MJ
Most foundation level textbooks include good energy balance and transformation
examples. [Himmelblau and Riggs, 2012]

Example : 7.5
Problem:
The indigenous production of primary fuels in the UK is a measure of the amount of
energy produced in the UK each year. The indigenous production of primary fuels in the
UK has reduced over the last three years as the UK is importing more and more fuel - see
table below for published annual production figures:
a) Determine the total indigenous energy production in the UK in each of the three
years and give your answers in joules (J).
b) Determine indigenous power generated for each person in the United Kingdom
for 2010 and 2011 when the populations were 62,262,000 and 62,735,000
respectively.
Natural
Total Coal Petroleum Nuclear Renewable
Gas
2009 166.9 14.1 74.7 61.6 15.2 1.25
2010 157.9 14.7 69.0 59.1 13.9 1.19
2011 137.0 15.4 56.9 47.2 15.6 1.85
The energy values in this table are in "millions of tonnes of oil equivalent" (M toe)
[1 Million tonne of oil equivalent = 11.6 MWh = 11,630 kWh]
Solution:
a) For 2009:
4 9
166.9 M toe = 166.9×1.16×10 kWh = 1.936×10 Wh
3
1 Wh = 3.6×10 J
9 12
⇒ 1.936×10 Wh = 6.97×10 J
For 2010:
4 9
157.9 M toe = 157.9×1.16×10 kWh = 1.831×10 Wh
3
1 Wh = 3.6×10 J
9 12
⇒ 1.831×10 Wh = 6.59×10 J
For 2011:
4 9
137.0 M toe = 137.0×1.16×10 kWh = 1.58×10 Wh
3
1 Wh = 3.6×10 J
9 12
⇒1.58×10 Wh = 5.72×10 J

b) For 2010:
The figures based on energy and power are, respectively, as follows:
6.59 × 1012
= 1.0584 × 10 7 J
6.2262 × 10 7
1.0584 × 10 5
= 3.36 mW
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
For 2011:
The figures based on energy and power are, respectively, as follows:
5.72 × 1012
= 9.118 × 10 4 J
6.2735 × 10 7
9.118 × 10 4
= 2.89 mW
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
..........................................
Good chemical engineering textbooks are a rich source of worked examples in this area.
[Felder and Rousseau, 2008]
Handbooks provide good background information and are supplied with many tables for
estimating physical properties. [Perry and Green, 2008]


1. A car has a mass of 1,000 kg and is travelling in a straight line at a constant
velocity of 120 km/hr. If the ignition is switched off and the gear placed in neutral
just as it starts up a steep incline then, ignoring all frictional effects and, taking
the potential energy to be zero at this point, calculate the following:
a) The kinetic energy of the car just before the ignition is switched off.
b) The maximum vertical elevation the car will reach before it comes to a
complete stop.
c) If the driver is adept enough, the kinetic energy and velocity of the car,
now travelling backwards downhill, when it just reached the bottom of the
incline.
2. A sports car has a mass of 900 kg and accelerates from rest to 60 m.p.h. in only
6 s. Ignoring all frictional effects calculate the following:
a) The linear acceleration of the car over this time period - assume
the acceleration is constant.
b) The displacement of the vehicle over the 6 s time period while it
is accelerating to its final speed.
c) The work required to achieve this final velocity over the specified time
(kJ).
d) The final kinetic energy of the car (kJ).
e) If the car brakes, and comes to rest after 2 seconds, find the distance
travelled during the braking phase and the average rate of heat transfer
(kW) from each of the four brake callipers over the two second braking
period.
3. A car engine develops a maximum power output of 100 kW when tested on a

brake dynamometer (a device that measures the power produced by an engine).
If the speed of the engine is 4,000 r.p.m. calculate the following:
a) The periodic time and angular velocity of the engine crankshaft at this
engine speed.
b) The torque produced by the engine under these conditions.
4. A small rocket, mass 400 g, is fired vertically upwards powered by a chemical

propellant. If 100 J of work is done during the flight (to lift the rocket) calculate
the maximum height attained by the rocket.
-1
5. A four-bladed ceiling fan rotates with an angular velocity of 10.0 rad s . The
length of each blade is 45 cm and the mass of each blade is 600 g. Each blade
can be modelled as a uniform thin rod which rotates about one end. Determine
the total kinetic energy of the four blades (In order to solve this problem a
Rotational Kinetic Energy formula from one of the previous topics will be needed).
6. A machine shaft is rotating at 3,000 revolutions per minute. If it consumes 5 kW

of power calculate the Torque acting on the shaft.
7. An electric motor draws 5 kW of power from the mains supply determine the
following:

a) Calculate how much mechanical power is available at the output shaft of the
motor assuming that the motor is 80% efficient.
b) Calculate the power that is available to raise water from a well if the same motor
is connected to a water pump, which itself has an efficiency of 60%.
c) Calculate how many litres of water can be raised per second assuming that the
well is 15 m deep.
d) Calculate how long it would take to fill a 2000 litre water tank.
7.7 Bibliography
1. Himmelblau, David M. and Riggs, James B. Basic Principles and Calculations in
Chemical Engineering. 2013. 8th ed. London: Pearson.
2. Moaveni, Saeed. 2011. Engineering Fundamentals An Introduction to

Engineering. 4th ed. Andover: Cengage Learning Inc.
3. Felder, Richard M. and Rousseau, Ronald W. 2008. Elementary Principles of

Chemical Processes. 3rd ed. India: Wiley
4. Perry, Robert H. and Green, Don W. 2008. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’

Handbook. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.


Topic 8
Significant Figures, Errors and

Error Propagation
Contents
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 149

8.2 Significant Figures and Rounding ...................................................................... 150
8.2.1 Significant Figure Examples ................................................................... 150
8.2.2 Significant Figure Rules ......................................................................... 151
8.2.3 Significant Figure Summary ................................................................... 151
8.2.4 Rounding ................................................................................................ 152
8.3 Significant Arithmetic ......................................................................................... 154
8.3.1 Multiplication ........................................................................................... 154
8.3.2 Division ................................................................................................... 155
8.3.3 Addition................................................................................................... 156
8.3.4 Subtraction ............................................................................................. 156
8.4 Experimental Errors ........................................................................................... 157
8.5 Propagation of Experimental Error .................................................................... 159
8.5.1 Addition and Subtraction of Measurements ........................................... 159
8.5.2 Multiplication and Division of Measurements ......................................... 161
8.6 Tutorial Topic 8 ................................................................................................... 164
8.7 Bibliography........................................................................................................ 165
TOPIC 8. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, ERRORS AND ERROR PROPAGATION 148
• Familiarity with scientific notation.

• Understanding of how to round numbers.
• Ability to manipulate algebraic expressions.
• Some background in experimental error assessment.
Learning Objectives
• Identify significant figures

• Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
• Apply rounding and work in scientific notation.
• Apply significant figures to algebraic operations - addition and subtraction
• Apply significant figures to algebraic operations - multiplication and division.
• Assess errors in experimental results.
• Identify and quantify how errors propagate.

8.1 Introduction
The first requirement is to distinguish between two terms that are used interchangeably in
common language - however, for scientists and engineers these terms have very different
meanings:
• Accuracy
• Precision
Say the density of a liquid is repeatedly measured using a density bottle, together with
the suppliers Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) - assume that experimental
conditions are kept the same.
Given a sufficient number of measurements the results may be plotted as a frequency

distribution - such as the one shown below:
True value Mean value
• The true value is

known because a Accuracy
standard is available. Number of
density
• There will be a spread measurements
falling into a
of results depending specific band
on the equipment, the
operator and the
procedure.
Density
Precision bands
The precision is the spread of results obtained when all efforts are made to keep the
experimental conditions the same. The precision can also be called the repeatability or
the reproducibility - it is basically the consistency of the measurement.
The accuracy is how close the mean value of the measured results is to the true value,
as can be seen accuracy and precision are different.
Standard chemical engineering textbooks usually offer little support in this area, however,
[Felder and Rousseau, 2008] have a useful section on significant figures.

8.2 Significant Figures and Rounding

The more significant figures there are associated with a measurement then the more
precision there is in that measurement. However, it is important not to give the impression
of a false precision.
For instance when making up a reagent the weight may have been measured by a
technician as 23.5 g - now, consider that this is written down as follows:
• Case (1), Weight = 23.5 g; this has three significant figures and informs anyone
who might pick up the result, that its value could actually lie anywhere in the
range 23.45 g - 23.55 g - the precision is 23.5 ± 0.05 g.
• Case (2), Weight = 23.500 g; five significant figures are now being claimed. This
means that the result could now lie anywhere in the range 23.4995 - 23.5005,
notice that a false precision of 23.5 ± 0.0005 g is now being claimed.
Therefore, writing down the number in the wrong way, in this case with too many decimal
points (although same applies to numbers without decimal points), creates a false
precision.
At this point do not confuse precision with accuracy. A laboratory balance may be very
precise, that is give highly reproducible answers, but at the same time, it may be out of
calibration and therefore quite inaccurate.
8.2.1 Significant Figure Examples

To establish the correct precision within a data set, and then maintain a consistent
precision throughout a calculation using this data, requires a clear understanding of the
rules governing significant figures.
First consider a sequence of examples and then it should be possible to summarise a set
of clear rules:
1. All non-zero numbers are significant - for instance the average molar mass of a
-1
mixture is 28.6 kg kmol . The numbers "2, 8 and 6" are non-zero and
"significant", therefore, the molar mass is known to three significant figures.
2. Zeros within a string of non-zero numbers also count as significant figures, for
-2
instance standard atmospheric pressure is taken as 101.325 kN m . The
numbers "1, 0, 1, 3, 2, 5" are all "significant" - there are six significant figures.
3. Leading zeros do not count as significant figures - for instance the triple point
pressure of water is 0.006112 bar. The three leading zeros are insignificant, only
"6, 1, 1, 2" are "significant", so that there are four significant figures.
4. If a number has a decimal point then trailing zeros are significant - for instance
-2
atmospheric pressure could be written as 0.611200 kN m thus "6, 1, 1, 2, 0, 0"
are all "significant" - there are now six significant figures.
-2
a) To maintain the same precision, but now working in N m instead of kN
-2 -2
m , atmospheric pressure would have to be written as 611.200 N m
thus, there are still six significant figures.

b) The weight of a sample is 120.00 g - there are five significant figures,

because whenever there is a decimal point trailing zeros count.
5. If a number has no decimal point then trailing zeros are ambiguous. The weight
of a large van may be quoted as 3,500 kg - this is ambiguous:
a) The weight may be exactly 3,500 kg.

b) The weight may have been rounded to the nearest hundred kg.
c) If it is exactly 3,500 kg, then the ambiguity may be resolved in two ways;
first, write 3,500. kg (note the decimal point); second, write 3.500 tonnes;
in both cases there are four significant figures.
8.2.2 Significant Figure Rules

Having considered a number of examples, the rules about significant figures may be
listed as follows:
1. All non-zero digits in a number are significant.
2. Zero digits within a string of non-zero digits count as significant.
3. Leading zero digits are not significant.
4. When a number has a decimal point trailing zero digits are significant.
5. When a number has no decimal point trailing zero digits are ambiguous, either
insert a decimal point, or change the unit prefix or use scientific notation (there
are other conventions but they are rarely used).
8.2.3 Significant Figure Summary

All of the above rules can be summarised in a very condensed way as follows:
"For any measured quantity the number of significant figures is the number of
digits starting from the first non-zero digit on the left and ending either, if there is
a decimal point, with last digit (whether zero or non-zero) or, if there is no decimal
point, the last non-zero digit".
Working in scientific notation can simplify the question of significance:
Number of Significant
Measurement Scientific Notation Figures
3
9600 9.6 x 10 2
3
9600.0 9.6000 x 10 5
4
96050 9.605 x 10 4
-3
0.0096 9.6 x 10 2
-3
0.00605 6.05 x 10 3

8.2.4 Rounding
When using a calculator numbers must be rounded - there are two ways of doing this:
• Rounding to some arbitrary number of decimal places. In financial work rounding

to two decimal places is usual.
• Rounding to significant figures. When the number of significant figures is known

the result is rounded to the known number of significant figures - this is the
recommended approach.
The first approach of rounding to a certain number specified decimal places is not
recommended: too many decimal places lead to false precision; too few decimal places
lead to loss of information.
When rounding a calculated result the approach should be as follows:
• The number of significant figures will be known from the values entered into the
calculator and the operation (add, subtract, multiply, divide) - see next section on
how to do this.
• Take the calculated result and apply the number of significant figures to the value
displayed on the calculator.
• Retain all digits that are "significant" - the most significant to the left the least
significant to the right and then inspect the digits immediately to the right of the
least significant digit.
• These digits are not significant and will be discarded. If they are over "5" then
round the least significant figure up, if less than "5" then round it down. Now apply
these rules to the number 16.72532:
Significant Figures Final Result

5 16.725
4 16.73
3 16.7
2 17
1
1 2 x 10
• Now take the same number 16.72532 and round it using same number of decimal
places:
Decimal Places Final Result

5 16.72532
4 16.7253
3 16.725
2 16.73
1 16.7

Take the case where two significant figures apply - the correct answer should be written
as 17, meaning that the result could actually lie anywhere in the range 16.5 - 17.5, hence,
the precision is ±0.5.
However, using two decimal places provides a result 16.73 - clearly the result, using this
incorrect approach, could be anywhere in the range 16.725 - 16.735 which implies a false
precision of ±0.005.
A problem arises when rounding 16.725 to four significant figures - applying the rules as
before. Only four digits are significant and these are "1, 6, 7, 2" the rest are insignificant
and the least significant digit is "2".
In this case there is only one digit to the right of the least significant digit and this is "5",
clearly it is difficult to know whether to round the least significant digit up or down. There
are two different ways of doing this:
1. Expand the previous rule from "greater than five - move up" to "five or more -
move up", the 16.725 would then appear as 16.73.
2. Apply the rule "round to nearest even number" - that is if the least significant
figure is an even number then leave it, if the least significant number is odd then
round to the nearest even; using this rule 16.725 becomes 16.72.
It is a matter of choice which rule to apply - rule 1 has the effect of always rounding up,
which can shift the result of many calculations in this direction. Rule 2 has the advantage
of randomising the rounding process - it is a superior approach.

8.3 Significant Arithmetic

In the previous section the number of significant figures was given; in fact the number of
significant figures depends on the precision of the starting data and the operation that is
being carried out (multiplication, division, addition or subtraction). This is known as
significant arithmetic.
8.3.1 Multiplication
When multiplying or dividing two values together the number of significant figures that
should be applied to the result can be simply stated as follows: "The starting value with
the least number of significant figures by itself determines the number of significant figure
of the final result".
In the case of significant multiplication, the precision of the final result cannot be more
precise than the least precise starting value - now apply this rule given to the following
examples (involving multiplication only):
Starting Data Multiplication Final Rounded Result
Figures
9 x 9 = 81 1 80
9 x 9.0 = 81 1 80
9.0 x 9.0 = 81 2 81
9.2 x 9.54 = 87.758 2 88
1501 x 271 = 406,771 3 407,000
3.146 x 16.0 = 50.3360 3 50.3
3.146 x 16 = 50.336 2 50
At this point some confusion may arise in the mind of a student; it is well-known that
9x9 =81, but the result is rounded to 80 which seems wrong - however, the confusion is
easily clarified:
• It is important to realise that the "9" in question is not an integer it is a measured

value, say 9 cm. Thus the student could be working out the area of a square 9
2
cm×9 cm, which might appear to be 81 cm .
• However, there is only 1 significant figure, which means that the "9 cm" can
actually lie anywhere in the range 8.5 - 9.5 cm. With such a low measurement
2
precision the calculated area must be stated as 80 cm .
The above approach is strictly correct when a single multiplication is being carried out.
Sometimes a sequence of calculations is needed and then it is wise to hold all
intermediate answers to an extra significant figure and round at the end.
This avoids "rounding errors" that gradually enter calculations if each intermediate result is
rounded, as a general loss of information builds up over the calculation as a whole.
Consider 1200x1.610 = 1932 - the factor "1.610" has four significant figures but there is
ambiguity about how many significant figures apply to "1200":

• If there is no decimal place "1200" has only two significant figures and the answer
is must be written as 1900.
• If "1200" just happens to be exactly "1200" then there are four significant figures
and the answer is 1932 - there are three ways getting round this ambiguity:
1. place a decimal point after the final "0"

2. modify the unit prefix - if it is 1200 g write this as 1.200 kg
3
3. use scientific notation, i.e. 1.200×10 g
One final point, if there are 1200 samples each with average mass 1.61327 g calculate
the mass of the entire batch = 1200×1.61327 g = 1935.924 g. In this case there are 6
significant figures and the answer must be rounded to 1935.92 g.
When a value has been arrived at by counting (not by measurement) there are an infinite
number of significant figures - basically this number can in no way limit the overall
number of significant figures of the final result.
By taking an infinite number of significant figures what is being inferred is that the number
is known precisely.
8.3.2 Division
The same significant figure rule that applies to significant multiplication also applies to
significant division. That is the final answer can have no more precision than the factor
with the least precision - consider the following examples:
Starting Data Division Final Rounded Result
Figures
9 / 4 = 2.25 1 2
9.0 / 4 = 2.25 1 2
9.0 / 4.0 = 2.25 2 2.3
9.00 / 4.00 = 2.25 3 2.25
9.2 / 9.54 = 0.964361 2 0.96
1501 / 271 = 5.5387454 3 5.54
3.146 / 16.0 = 0.196625 3 0.197
3.1461 / 16.11 = 0.195289 4 0.1953
The above approach is strictly correct when a single division is being carried out.
Sometimes a sequence of calculations is needed and again it is wise to hold all
intermediate answers to an extra significant figure and then round at the end.
Consider the following division 1200/1.610 = 745.34161 - the factor "1.610" has four
significant figures but there is ambiguity about how many significant figures apply to
"1200". The rules are the same as before, but just to recap:
• If there is no decimal place, "1200" has only two significant figures and the
answer is must be written as "750".
• If "1200" just happens to be exactly "1200" then there are four significant figures

and the answer is "745.3" - once again there are three ways getting round this:
1. place a decimal point after the final "0"

2. modify the unit prefix - if it is 1200 g write this as 1.200 kg
3
3. use scientific notation, i.e. 1.200×10 g
If there are 1200 samples with a total mass 1935.924 g the average mass of each sample
= 1935.924 g/1200 = 1.613270 g. There are seven significant figures.
8.3.3 Addition
In the case of significant addition, the number of significant figures that should be
applied to the result can be stated as follows:
• When two or more values are added the position of the least significant digit in
the starting values should be noted.
• The position of the least significant figure in the final result should correspond to
the furthest left of the least significant digit in the starting values.
• Notice that it not the number of significant figures that matter, it is the position of
the least significant figure that is important.
Apply this rule given to the following addition examples:
Position of Least Significant

Starting Data Addition Final Rounded Result
Figure From Left
4 + 5.1 = 9.1 One’s place 9
4.0 + 5.1 = 9.1 Tenth’s place 9.1
22.1 + 130 = 352.1 Tens place 350
22.1 + 130. = 352.1 One’s place 352
22.1 + 130.0 = 352.1 Tenth’s place 352.1
8.3.4 Subtraction
For significant subtraction, the result is once again rounded to the position of the least
significant figure in the more imprecise of the two starting values - for example:
Position of Least Significant

Starting Data Subtraction Final Rounded Result
Figure From Left
15 - 7.9 = 7.1 One’s place 7
15.0 - 7.9 = 7.1 Tenth’s place 7.1
130 - 22.1 = 107.9 Tens place 110
130. - 22.1 = 107.9 One’s place 108
130.0 - 22.1 = 107.9 Tenth’s place 107.9

8.4 Experimental Errors

There are two general categories of error in any measurement:
• Random error is an unpredictable variation in, either the measured reading of an

instrument from its true value, or a random variation of an observer’s
interpretation of the measurement from its true value.
• Systematic error is a predictable offset of the measured value from its true
value, caused either by the instrument or the observer’s technique or
environmental interference.
Random errors are evident when the measured values vary randomly around the true
value - all measurements contain random errors.
Systematic errors are evident when the measured value varies randomly but is always
offset, either on one side or the other, from the true value. Systematic errors are generally
caused by the following - either singly or in combination:
• Instrument calibration problems or zero errors - these may be corrected.
• Problems with experimental technique - these may be eliminated.
• Interference in the measurement caused by outside factors - these may be

eliminated.
Systematic errors should be eliminated but there will always be a random error
associated with any measurement.
No scientific measurement that has even been taken and recorded was absolutely correct.
All scientific measurements have an associated numerical uncertainty. In this Topic, we
will refer to them as “associated errors” or “experimental errors” or “estimated errors”
If x is a measured value and Δx is its associated numerical uncertainty, then the result
should be quoted as
x ± Δx
One of the simplest forms of determining numerical uncertainty is to take “half of the
smallest division on the scientific instrument under investigation”.
For example, if the length of a pencil is 16.5 cm and my ruler has 1mm divisions, then half
of the smallest division is 0.5mm, and this measurement is
165 ± 0.5 mm
Some scientists believe that this should be given as (165 ± 0.5) mm indicating that unit
applies to both 165 and 0.5. I am one of them.

Going on to introduce two other-related-terms, it is important to distinguish between the

absolute error and the relative error as follows:
e = v − ve .................(8.2)
v − ve
η= .................(8.3)
v
Where,
v = True value of the quantity being measured.
ve = Measured or estimated value of the quantity being measured.
ε = Absolute error between the true and measured values.
η = The relative error is absolute error divided by the true value.
The relative error may also be expressed as a percentage - simply multiply the relative
error, or fractional error, by one hundred; relative error is good where there are big
differences in size between different experimental values.
Confusingly, the term “relative error” is also sometime used to mean
The Associated Numerical Uncerta int y

ϕ=
The Measured Value

8.5 Propagation of Experimental Error

The usual textbook used in this course [Cutnell and Johnson, 2012] has little or no
information on any of the issues raised in this topic. However, [Preston and Dietz, 1999]
covers this material well.
8.5.1 Addition and Subtraction of Measurements

Suppose that it is necessary to calculate some value using the formula shown below, in
this formula individual measurements are added or subtracted:
W = Ax + By + Cz .................(8.4)
Where,
A = is a constant, likewise B and C.
x = is a measured quantity, likewise y and z.
W = is the calculated quantity.
The key factor is how the errors in the individual measurements will propagate through to
the final calculated value - a common way of finding this propagation error is given
below:
∆W = ( A ∆x )2 + (B ∆y )2 + (C ∆z )2 .................(8.5)
Where,
Δx = is the known error in quantity x, likewise Δy and Δz.

ΔW = is estimated error in the calculated quantity.
Equation (8.4) may be used to find the calculated value of W from measured values of x, y
and z. Equation (8.5) is then used to estimate the likely error ΔW associated with the
calculated value.

Example : 8.5.1
Problem:
Take the three measured lengths shown below L1, L2, L3 and L4 together with the formula
shown below and then determine the following:
a) Calculate the length L4 according to the formula - see below.
b) Use equation (8.5) to calculate the estimated error Δ L4 associated with L4.
Solution:
The individual measured lengths and the formula for finding the calculated length L 4 are
supplied below:
L1 = 5.0 ± 0.1 cm
L2 = 3.4 ± 0.2 cm
L3 = 9.5 ± 0.1 cm
L4 = L1 + 3L2 − 2L3
a) Students are asked to calculate L4 = ------------------------------------
b) Students are asked to calculate Δ L4 = ---------------------------------
c) Students are asked to quote the value of L4 = ------------------------
..........................................

8.5.2 Multiplication and Division of Measurements

Suppose the starting point is now a function similar to the one shown below:
W = k x a y b z c .................(8.6)
Where,
k = is a constant, likewise a, b and c.
x = is a measured quantity, likewise y and z.
W = is the calculated quantity.
A different formula will now have to be used to estimate the likely propagation error in the
calculated value as follows:
2 2 2
∆W  a ∆x   b ∆y   c ∆z 
=   +   +   .................(8.7)
W  x   y   z 
Where,
Δx = is the known error in the measured quantity x, likewise Δy and Δz.
ΔW = is the estimated error in the calculated quantity.
Equation (8.6) may be used to find the calculated value of W from measured values of x, y
and z. Equation (8.7) may then be used to estimate the likely error ΔW associated with the
calculated value.
The above formula is derived using the sum of partial derivatives found from
differentiating equation (8.6), partially, with respect to each measured quantity.

Example : 8.5.2
Problem:
Take the four measured quantities shown below m1, m2, r and G, together with the formula
shown (gravitational attraction formula) and then determine the following:
a) Calculate the gravitational attraction F according to the formula supplied - see

below.
b) Use equation (8.7) to calculate the estimated error ΔF associated with F.
The individual measured quantities and the formula for finding the calculated quantity F
are supplied below:
m1 = 19.7 ± 0.2 kg
m2 = 9.4 ± 0.2 kg
r = 0.641 ± 0.009 m
G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2
G m1 m2
F=
r2
Solution:
a) The gravitational attraction between these two masses can be found from the
formula supplied in the question
G m1 m2 6.67 × 10 −11 × 19.7 × 9.4

F= =
r2 0.6412
⇒ F = 3.0 × 10 −8 N
b) To find the error in the calculated value use equation (8.7) - modified below to for
the gravitational attraction expression
2 2 2
∆W  a ∆x   b ∆y   c ∆z 
=   +   +  
W  x   y   z 

2 2
 ∆m1   ∆m2   − 2∆r 
2
∆F
=   +   +  
F  m1   m2   r 
2 2 2
∆F  0.2   0.2   − 2 × 0.009 
=   +  + 
F  19.7   9.4   0.641 
∆F
⇒ = 0.0367
F
The above is the relative error. Now convert this to an absolute error
∆ F = 0.0367 × F = 0.0367 × 3.0 × 10 −8
∆ F = 1.1× 10 −9 N
The calculated force of attraction with its estimated error is given by
F = (3.0 ± 0.1)× 10 −8 N
……………………………………


1. Determine the number of significant figures assuming that the following quantities
have been measured in the laboratory:
a) The mass of a sample is 128.63 g.

b) The absolute temperature of a gas is 307 K.
c) The absolute pressure of a gas is 0.00712 bar.
d) The absolute temperature of a gas is 307.00 K.
e) The mass of a sample is 100 g.
2. A sample weight is stated as 1.200 g, however, if it weighs exactly 1.200 g

resolve the ambiguity as to the number of significant figures as follows:
a) Use the decimal point method and state number of significant figures.
b) Change the unit prefix and state number of significant figures.
c) Use scientific notation and state number of significant figures.
3. A sample weight is stated as 1,200 g, however, if it weighs 1,200 g to one

hundredth of a gram then resolve the ambiguity as to the number of significant
figures as follows:
a) Use the decimal point method and state number of significant figures.
b) Change the unit prefix and state number of significant figures.
c) Use scientific notation and state number of significant figures.
4. Consider the following measurements 1300 (precise to hundred units), 0.0013,

0.00105, 13040 (precise to ten units),1300.0 and determine the following:
a) The number of significant figures in each case.

b) Write the numbers in scientific notation.
5. Consider the following measured values and round them to four significant
figures:
a) 18.843 g.
b) 18.845 g apply the rule "five or more round up".
c) 1.845 g apply the rule "round to even".
d) 1.855 g apply the rule "five or more round up".
e) 1.855 g apply the rule "round to even".
6. The following measured values have to be multiplied and divided, see below,
apply the rules of significant arithmetic to round the final result (the result that
would appear on a calculator is also indicated below):
a) 7×7= 49
b) 7.0×7= 49
c) 7.0×7.0 = 49.
d) 1605×152 = 243,960
e) 10.0/4 = 3.25

f) 10.0/4.0 = 3.25
g) 10.0/4.00 = 3.25
h) 5.782/3.200 = 1.806875
7. The following measured values have to be added and subtracted, see below,
apply the rules of significant arithmetic to round the final result (the result that
would appear on a calculator is also indicated below):
a) 4 + 3.1 = 7.1
b) 4.0 + 3.1 = 7.1
c) 15.2 + 160 = 175.2
d) 15.2 + 160. = 175.2
e) 15.2 + 160.0 = 175.2
f) 17 - 5.1 = 11.9
g) 17.0 - 5.1 = 11.9
8. An A4 sheet of paper has a measured length L = (29.7 ±0.1) cm and measured

width W = (21 ±0.1) cm, use the formula below to calculate the perimeter "P" (cm)
of the A4 sheet. Calculate how the uncertainty of the individual measurements
propagate through an uncertainty in the final calculated result and quote the final
result to an appropriate number of significant figures.
P= 2L+ 2W
9. An A4 sheet of paper has a measured length L = (29.7 ±0.1) cm and measured

2
width W = (21 ±0.1) cm, use the formula below to calculate the area "A" (cm ) of
the A4 sheet. Calculate how the uncertainty of the individual measurements
propagate through an uncertainty in the final calculated result and quote the final
result to an appropriate number of significant figures.
A= LW
8.7 Bibliography
1. Felder, Richard M. and Rousseau, Ronald W. 2008. Elementary Principles of

Chemical Processes. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Wiley
2. Preston, Daryl W. and Dietz, Eric R. 1999. The Art of Experimental Physics. New
Jersey: Wiley

GLOSSARY 166
Glossary
Acceleration
Acceleration is a vector quantity defined as the rate of change of velocity. In the
derivation of the kinematic laws the acceleration is taken to be constant.
Accuracy
When an experiment is repeated a sufficient number of times under identical
conditions the results may be plotted as a distribution. The difference between
the average of this distribution and the true value is the accuracy. Thus accuracy
is different from precision; see "Precision" in this glossary.
Angular Acceleration
-2
Angular acceleration (rad s ) is the rate of change of angular velocity. The
angular acceleration may be positive or negative depending on direction of
rotation and whether angular velocity is increasing or decreasing.
Angular Displacement
In the case of rotary (angular) motion, angular displacement (θ) is the angle,
measured in radians, swept out by an object as it circles around some point - this
point being the centre of the circle. The rotation may either be clockwise or
anticlockwise, so that angular displacement will have a sign.
Angular Kinematic Relationships

These expressions provide all the relationships between angular displacement θ,
angular velocity (initial ωo and final ω), angular acceleration α and time t needed
to solve angular motion problems - the assumption underlying their derivation is
one of constant angular acceleration, which results in a linear angular velocity
time relationship. Thus, simple arithmetic average angular velocities may be
used. They are the angular analogues of the linear kinematic relations.
Angular Momentum
Just as the term momentum applies to linear motion, so angular momentum
applies to angular motion. Angular momentum is equal to the product of the
moment of inertia and the angular velocity when a body is rotating about some
2 -1
axis. The units of angular momentum are (kg m s ) which can also be
expressed as (N m s). See also "Conservation of Angular Momentum" in this
glossary.
Angular Velocity
-1
Angular velocity (rad s ) is the rate of change of angular displacement. The
angular velocity may be positive or negative depending on direction of rotation.
Angular Work
If a force moves through a distance then work is done (N m); joules (J) may be
used since work is a form of energy. If a torque moves through some angular
displacement then angular work is done, also measured in (N m) or (J).
Apparent Weight
The apparent weight is the actual weight of an object experiences when acted on
by forces in addition to gravity in the y-direction. The apparent weight may be

GLOSSARY 167
greater or smaller than the actual weight of the object, see "True Weight" in this
glossary.
Average Speed
Average speed is a scalar quantity and is defined as the distance travelled
divided by the elapsed time.
Average Velocity
Average velocity is a vector quantity and is defined as the displacement of an
object divided by the elapsed time.
Bob
Refers to a pendulum bob and is the name given to the mass suspended at the
end of the vertical rod or cable.
Centripetal Acceleration
See also "Angular Acceleration" and "Tangential Acceleration" in this glossary.
The centripetal acceleration is nothing to do with changes in angular velocity that
result in angular and tangential acceleration. When a body is rotating at constant
angular velocity its direction is changing, it therefore follows that it must be
accelerating. This acceleration acts towards the centre of the circle and is called
centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal Force
If a body is rotating in a circle at constant angular velocity its direction is
continuously changing so it must be accelerating. This acceleration is directed to
the centre of the circle and is called centripetal acceleration; see "Centripetal
Acceleration" in this glossary. However, by Newton’s Second Law this
acceleration must be caused by an unbalanced force. This force must also point
to the centre of the circle and is called the centripetal force.
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is energy absorbed or released when chemical bonds are made
or broken. Chemical energy is only evident if a chemical reaction takes place
whereupon it will be noted that the reacting system will either absorb or release
heat. Chemical energy is an energy storage term and has units of (J).
Coefficient of Kinetic Friction

The coefficient of kinetic friction is the ratio of the frictional force between two
surfaces divided by the normal force exerted by the surface on the object when
the object is moving. The coefficient of static friction is always greater than the
coefficient of kinetic friction - it takes a greater force to start an object moving
than it does to keep an object moving.
Coefficient of Static Friction

The coefficient of static friction is the ratio of the frictional force between two
surfaces divided by the normal force exerted by the surface on the object when
the object is stationary.

GLOSSARY 168
Coherent System
A coherent system of units is one where all the derived units are defined in terms
of fundamental units without any proportionality constants.
Co-linear
Co-linear is a term used when all the forces are aligned to the same line of
action. The forces may all point in the same direction or in opposite directions. A
free- body diagram helps to account for the sign of the forces so that the
magnitude and the direction of any net force may be found.
Conservation of angular momentum

Just as linear momentum of a body is conserved, so long as the body is not acted
on by an unbalanced force, so also angular momentum of a rotating object is
conserved, so long as the rotating body is not acted on by an unbalance torque.
Couple
A couple is where a pair of equal and opposite forces act at either end of a device
that is free to rotate. The forces are parallel to each other and produce a turning
effect, or torque, that is the product of one of the forces (they are equal) times the
perpendicular distance between them. The torque has units of (N m); see
"Moment" of a force in this glossary.
Damping
If an oscillator is subject to friction then the displacement cycle will be damped.
The mathematical model for a damped oscillator is different from the model that
describes a pure SHM oscillator. The degree of damping depends on the
damping factor. If the damping factor is equal to zero then no damping is present
and motion reverts to SHM behaviour. The displacement cycle may be
underdamped, critically damped or overdamped depending on the numerical
value of the damping factor.
Efficiency
The efficiency with which a device converts energy from one form into another is
the ratio of the output power divided by the input power. The difference between
input power and output power is equal to the energy losses that occur each
second, between the input of the device and the output.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is flow of electrical current through a wire and is regarded as
work done per second or power. As such flow of electricity is an energy transfer
term not an energy storage term.
Electromagnetic Energy
Is energy associated with electromagnetic waves. There is a spectrum of
electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths. Engineers commonly deal with
thermal radiation which is radiation in the infra-red part of the spectrum. Heat is
transferred as thermal radiation from a hotter to a cooler object. Electromagnetic
energy may be transferred through a vacuum. This is an energy transfer term and
has units of (J).

GLOSSARY 169
Energy Conservation Principle

The energy conservation principle states: "Energy cannot be created or
destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to another".
Force of Friction
The force of friction always operates in opposition to the direction of motion.
Friction may be increased or decreased but never completely eliminated. Friction
is proportional to the normal force exerted by the surface on the object and the
constant of proportionality is the coefficient of friction.
Free-Body Diagram
When applying Newton’s Second Law it is recommended that a free-body
diagram is drawn. This drawing must show the body or object of interest and all
the external forces acting on it. As far as acceleration is concerned of interest is
the net unbalanced force which is directly proportional to the acceleration through
Newton’s Second Law.
Frequency
For a pure SHM oscillator the frequency is the number of complete cycles traced
out per second. The frequency has units (Hz) or cycles per second. The period of
oscillation is the reciprocal of the frequency and is the time taken, in seconds to
-1
perform one full displacement cycle. The period has units of (cycles s ), but since
-1
cycles are dimensionless this may be written as (s ).
Heat
Heat is energy that is transferred to or from an object when there is a
temperature difference between the object and its surroundings. It is an energy
transfer term and has units of (J).
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law applies to a spring either in tension or compression. Hooke’s Law
states that the force exerted by the spring (spring force) is directly proportional to
the extension (or compression) of the spring from its natural length. The constant
of proportionality is the spring constant.
Impulse
The impulse of a force is the product of the force acting on a body times the
duration of that force. Often short-acting forces are variable and an average force
may be used.
Internal Energy
Internal energy is energy a body has by virtue of the total kinetic and potential
energy of all the atoms or molecules the make up the body. Internal energy
depends on the temperature and pressure of a substance. The units for specific
-1
internal energy are (J kg ) and for total internal energy (J).
Kilowatt-hours
Kilowatt-hours (kWh) is the product of power times time. If power is energy per
unit time, then power times time must be energy. Thus kilowatt-hours is an
amount of energy generated or consumed.

GLOSSARY 170
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy stored in an object by virtue of its motion. It is directly
proportional to the product of the bodies mass and its velocity squared. Any work
done to change a body’s velocity is stored as an increase or decrease in kinetic
energy - kinetic energy has units of (J).
Lever
A lever is a practical device that makes use of the principle that if there are
upward and downward forces acting on a beam, which can pivot around a
fulcrum then, if the beam is in equilibrium, all the moments must sum to zero. A
level enables an operator, using a small effort, to dislodge a much larger load.
Mechanical Power
Mechanical power is the power transferred from or to a rotating shaft. It is the
-1
product of the torque (N m) time the angular velocity (s ) of the shaft. As such
-1
mechanical power has units of (J s ) or (W).
Moment
The moment of a force is the product of the force times the perpendicular
distance and in SI it has units of (N m). Care should be taken not to substitute
joules, because a moment of a force is a turning effect and not energy. What
makes this different from energy is that the distance is the perpendicular distance
from the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation, not the distance through
which the object is moved. Moments can be clockwise or anticlockwise.
Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia for a body in rotary motion is analogous to mass for linear
motion. Just as mass is the resistance to linear acceleration, so moment of inertia
is the resistance to angular acceleration. The term "inertia" is used because it
means resistance to change. A tightrope walker uses the moment of inertia of a
long pole to resist rotation and assist balance.
Momentum
Momentum of a body is the product of the velocity of the body times the mass of
the body.
Momentum Conservation
The momentum of a body, when not acted on by an unbalanced force, is
conserved. If two or more moving objects collide the total momentum of all bodies
before and after the collision must be the same.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is energy associated with binding together the nucleus of an
atom. This type of energy is only evident if a nuclear reaction takes place.
Nuclear energy is an energy storage term and has units of (J).
Parallelogram Law
The Parallelogram Law of vector addition allows the resultant to be found in
situations where two vectors are joined tail-to-tail; see “Resultant” in this glossary.

GLOSSARY 171
Periodic Time
Periodic time (s) is the time taken to sweep out one complete revolution of a
circle. The periodic time has no sign associated with its value.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is energy stored in an object by virtue of its position in the
Earth’s gravitational field. It is directly proportional to the product of the bodies
mass and its elevation with respect to some datum point. Any work done to
change a body’s elevation in the Earth’s gravitational field is stored as an
increase or decrease in potential energy - potential energy has units of (J).
Power
Power is the rate at which energy is produced or consumed; it is energy per unit
-1
time. The unit of power is the watt (W) and is defined as 1W=I J s .
Precision
When an experiment is repeated a sufficient number of times under identical
conditions the results may be plotted as a distribution. The spread or scatter of
the experimental values is the precision. It is also called the reproducibility or
repeatability. Thus precision is different from accuracy; see "Accuracy" in this
glossary.
Propagation Error
Propagation error arises because experimental measured values are entered into
a function to find some result and, as a result of the nature of the function, errors
propagate through to the final result. However, knowing the functional
relationship between the starting values mathematics may be used to predict the
propagation error in the final result.
Radian
Angles at the centre of a circle may be expressed either in degrees or radians.
Any angle at the centre of a circle, radius r, will subtend an arc of length s at its
circumference. The angle in radians is the ratio of s divided by r. Radians in SI
units are written as (rad). It is a dimensionless quantity being a distance divided
by a distance - when cancelling units it may be struck out, because it has no
dimensions.
Random Error
Random error is an unpredictable variation in either the measured instrument
reading from its true value, or a random variation of an observer’s interpretation
of the measurement from its true value. Random errors are evident when the
measured values vary randomly around the true value; all measurements contain
random errors.
Reaction
If body A exerts a force on body B then, by Newton’s Third Law, body B exerts
and equal but opposite force on A - this is called a reaction. A mass suspended
from a spring balance exerts a force on the spring. When the mass is stationary
then the spring exerts an equal and opposite reaction on the mass.

GLOSSARY 172
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy that comes from any source that can be
replenished, e.g. wind, sunlight, tides, waves, hydroelectric, biomass, biofuels
and geothermal.
Resolving a Vector
Resolving a vector into components is the opposite operation to finding the
resultant of two vectors; the vector is split into two component parts. In most
cases vectors are resolved either vertically and horizontally in the Earth’s gravity
field, or parallel and perpendicular to some line of action.
Resultant
The resultant of two vectors is the overall effect. The resultant of two vectors not
only takes into account the size of the individual component vectors, but also
takes into account their respective directions; the term resultant applies whenever
two vectors are added or subtracted in order to find the overall effect.
Rotational Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy associated with linear motion, also called translational kinetic
energy, is the energy stored in a moving body. Kinetic energy is directly
proportional to both the mass and the velocity squared; it has units of joules (J).
Kinetic energy associated with angular motion, called angular kinetic energy, is
energy stored in a rotating body. It is directly proportional to both the moment of
inertia of the body and the angular velocity squared; it also has units of joules (J).
Rounded
A calculator often produces an answer to many decimal places. Such a result
should be rounded to retain only the number of significant digits in accordance
with the rules of significant figures and the rules of significant arithmetic, see both
"Significant Figures" and "Significant Arithmetic" in this glossary. It is good
practice in a chain of calculations to hold intermediate answers to a higher
precision and then round once the final result has been found.
Scalar
A scalar quantity has only magnitude. A scalar quantity has no direction. Work,
energy, power, area, volume, density, etc. are all scalar quantities. Because
scalar quantities have no direction they may be added and subtracted using the
normal rules of arithmetic. Velocity is a vector but speed is a scalar, displacement
is a vector but distance (or length) is a scalar. When motion is restricted to a
straight line, always in the same direction, then and only then can velocity/speed
and displacement/distance be used interchangeably; this is because, under these
strict circumstances, vector addition simplifies back to normal rules of arithmetic.
Sign Convention
This depends on problem type: 1) for vertical free-fall cases then acceleration,
velocity and displacement are all taken as positive in a downwards direction; 2)
for vertical motion up and down, velocity and displacement are positive up and
negative down - gravity is always negative since it always acts down; 3) for
motion in two dimensions, but only falling vertically down, use the first convention
above; and 4) for motion in two dimensions, where object may rise or fall
vertically, use the second convention above.

GLOSSARY 173
Significant Addition
The rule of significant addition is that if two experimental quantities are added
together, the result of the calculation should be rounded to the position of the
least significant digit of the more imprecisely known of the two starting values.
This is the same rule that applies to "Significant Subtraction", see this glossary.
What is important is the position of the least significant figure not the number.
Significant Arithmetic
Significant arithmetic refers to the multiplication, division, addition and subtraction
of experimentally determined values. There are rules to determine the number of
significant figures that should be applied to the result. However, the basic
requirement is that the result can be no more precise than the least precisely
known of the starting value.
Significant Division
The rule of significant division is that if two experimental quantities are divided
one into the other, the result of the calculation should be rounded to the number
of significant figures that applies to the least precisely known of the two starting
values. This is the same rule that applies to "Significant Multiplication", see this
glossary. What is important is the smaller number of significant figures of the two
starting values.
Significant Figures
Significant figures and significant digits are used interchangeably. The number of
significant figures is the number if digits in an experimental value that are
significant in terms of the precision of the measurement.
Significant Multiplication
The rule of significant multiplication is that if two experimental quantities are
multiplied together, the result of the calculation should be rounded to the number
of significant figures that applies to the least precisely known of the two starting
values. This is the same rule that applies to "Significant Division", see this
glossary. What is important is the smaller number of significant figures of the two
starting values.
Significant Subtraction
The rule of significant subtraction is that if two experimental quantities are
subtracted one from the other, the result of the calculation should be rounded to
the position of the least significant digit of the more imprecisely known of the two
starting values. This is the same rule that applies to "Significant Addition", see
this glossary. What is important is the position of the least significant figure not
the number.
Simple Harmonic Motion

In the case of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) the acceleration either side of the
neutral point is proportional to the displacement. The displacement and the
acceleration act in opposite directions. For a pure oscillator the displacement will
oscillate continuously with constant amplitude without any damping.
Simple Pendulum
A pendulum was often used in clocks for timekeeping. It consists of a vertical rod
or cable, free to pivot at its top end and connected to a mass at the other; the
mass is called a "bob". It can be set in pure SHM and will operate cyclically with a

GLOSSARY 174
regular period of oscillation. In the case of a simple pendulum the displacement

cycle occurs in a single plane. Its output does not become damped because
energy is fed into the cycle at regular intervals to overcome friction.
Sound Energy
Sound energy is an energy transfer term and is caused by energy being
transferred from a vibrating system. Sound is transferred through a solid, liquid or
gas but cannot be transferred through a vacuum.
Static Equilibrium
Whenever the net force acting on a body is zero, and the body is not moving,
then it is said to be in static equilibrium. It implies that the body is absolutely
stationary with no tendency to move and that no unbalanced force is acting upon
the body.
Systematic Error
A systematic error is identified as an offset of the measured value from its true
value and is caused either by the instrument or the observer’s technique or
environmental interference. Systematic errors are evident when the measured
value varies randomly, but is always offset either on one side or the other from
the true value.
Tangential Acceleration
See also "Angular Acceleration" in this glossary. The tangential acceleration
-1 -1
(m s ) is linked directly to the angular acceleration (rad s ); in fact the tangential
acceleration is simply the angular acceleration times the distance to the centre
(radius). On a rotating circular disc, which is either speeding up or slowing down,
all the points along any radius will have the same angular acceleration; however,
each point on the radius will have a different tangential acceleration, since each
point will be a different distance from the centre.
Tangential Speed
-1
Tangential speed is the linear speed (m s ) that an object has at any distance
from the centre of the circle around which it is circling. At constant angular
velocity the tangential speed is directly proportional to the distance - that is, the
distance from the point of interest to the centre of the circle.
Tension
The tension in a cable is the force exerted by the cable on an object. By Newton’s
Third Law the object also exerts an equal and opposite pull or reaction) on the
cable; thus tensions occur in pairs and act to pull the cable apart. If the free body
diagram applies to the object only the external force acting on the body should be
shown. Thus only the original pulling tension on the body is shown - the reaction
will not be shown, unless a free-body diagram for the cable is of interest.
Thermal Power
Thermal power is also known as the rate of heat transfer. It is the amount of heat
-1
(J) transferred per second and has units of (J s ) or (W).
Torque
Torque is another name given to the moment of a force; see "Moment" in this
glossary.

GLOSSARY 175
Triangle Law
The Triangle Law of vector addition allows the resultant to be found in situations
where two vectors are joined head-to-tail; see “Resultant” in this glossary.
True Weight
The true weight of an object is the weight the object experiences when no other
forces, except gravity, are acting in the y-direction, see "Apparent Weight" in this
glossary.
Unbalanced Force
Newton’s Second Law states that force is directly proportional to acceleration and
mass. It is important to use the correct force in this equation. Draw a free-body
diagram and identify the net unbalanced force that is acting on the body - this is
the one that applies to Newton’s Law. Forces may be resolved in two directions
so the unbalanced force in each direction will then be needed.
Vector
A vector is a physical quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and momentum are all vector
quantities. Addition and subtraction of vectors must be done vectorially; that is,
not using the normal rules of arithmetic. In this course vectors will be added or
subtracted using vector diagrams. Care must be taken, when adding or
subtracting co-linear vectors, to apply the correct sign convention; co-linear
vectors act along the same straight line, but may be act in the same, or the
opposite, direction.
Velocity
Displacement is a vector quantity that specifies how far and in what direction an
object has moved. Velocity is a vector quantity and is defined as rate of change
of displacement. See also “Average Velocity” and “Average Speed” in this
glossary.
Work Required
The work required, or sometimes the work done, is the amount of energy needed
to move an external force through a distance. The direction in question is the
direction of motion. Work is energy being transferred to/from an object when it is
acted on by an unbalanced force and has units of (J). Work is not an energy
storage term it represents an exchange of energy.

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B47 AC

Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom

Produced by Heriot-Watt University, 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

This material is prepared to support the degree programmes in Chemical and

Distributed by Heriot-Watt University

We would like to acknowledge the assistance and contributions from colleagues

1 Vectors and Scalars 1

3 Mass, Force and Momentum 43

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

4.5 Tutorial Topic 4………………………………………………………………………… 83

6 Simple Harmonic Motion 109

7 Work, Heat, Energy and Power 129

8 Significant Figures, Errors and Error Propagation 147

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

Vectors and Scalars

• Fundamental ability to manipulate algebraic expressions.

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

• Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities.

We should start by distinguishing between "vector" and "scalar" quantities: a scalar

• The vectors to the left are

• The length of the arrow is the

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.2 Vector & Scalar Quantities

Quantity Dimension SI Unit

More Scalar Quantities Fundamental SI units

Vector Quantities Fundamental SI Units

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

Thus, distance or length is a scalar quantity and distances can be added in a

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.3 Resultant of Two Vectors

Either method may be used to find the resultant (vector sum).

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

a) Walks in same direction as the walkway at 1.6 m s-1.

b) Runs in the same direction as the walkway at 3.0 m s-1.

c) Walks in the opposite direction as the walkway at 1.6 m s-1.

d) Runs in the opposite direction as the walkway at 3.0 m s-1.

(a) v1 = 1.2 m s-1 v2 = 1.6 m s-1

(b) v1 = 1.2 m s-1 v2 = 3.0 m s-1

(c) v2 = 1.6 m s-1

r = 0.4 m s-1 v1 = 1.2 m s-1

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

a) Plot the resultant displacement (the vector sum) on a vector diagram.

b) Find the magnitude of the resultant displacement

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.4 Resultant of Several Vectors

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.5 Three Forces in Static Equilibrium

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.6 Resolving a Vector into Components

Using trigonometric relations:

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.6.1 Resolving Vectors and Inclined Planes

To double-check these are indeed components, sketch in a parallelogram as discussed

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

determine the following:

c) frxn = 37.6 N (opposite to fv)

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3

1.7 Tutorial topic 1

a) Find the magnitude and direction of sa + sb.

a) Calculate the vertical component of the aircraft’s velocity at the moment of

Two ropes each

©HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY B47AC June 2015 v3