Irritability, Sensitivity and Coordination

Irritability

As previously discussed, irritability is one of the seven characteristics of living organisms.

This is the characteristic of living organisms that allows them to respond to changes in their
external and internal environment. These changes are sometimes not drastic changes, such
as climate changes, but some very common changes such as hunger. E.g. a hungry snake will
move towards a rat from tasting the chemicals it releases into the air with its long forked
tongue.

Stimulus and Response

A stimulus is defined as the change in the environment that an organism produces a

responding action to. A response is the change in the organism bought about with respect
to the stimulus.

The Sense Organs

Humans have a total of five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell. These senses have
some form of specified organ in the body to which they act in conjunction to. These organs
are called sense organs and consist of a series of sensitive neurons and tissues.

 The Eye

The eyes are two sense organs that are fitted in the skull cavities and located at the front of
the head in humans. They have a light sensitive back layer, called the retina, which contains
photo receptors (light sensitive cells). These photo receptors are sensitive to red, green and
blue light. When light enters the eye through the pupil, they are focused on the retina
where the impulses are sent to the back of the brain via the optic nerve. Here they are
interpreted as images.

 The Ears

The ears are those sense organs which contribute our sense of hearing. Here sound waves
are sent to the inner ear where they stimulate sensitive hairs. These produce impulses
which are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.

 The Nose

The nose is that sense organs which contributes our sense of smell. The air enters our nose
and chemicals within it stimulate sensitive hairs. This produces an impulse which is sent to
the brain.

 The Tongue
The tongue is that sense organs which contributes our sense of taste. As food is in-taken
through the mouth, chemicals within it stimulate taste buds which line the surface of the
tongue. These produce impulses which are then sent to the brain.

 The Skin

The skin is the largest organ in our body. It contributes our sense of touch. Along the skin,
there is a lining of receptor cells which are sensitive to pain and touch.

THE NERVIOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system consists of neurones or nerve cells which are located throughout the
body. These cells formulate our nervous system which consists of two parts:

 The Central Nervous System (CNS) which consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) which consists of all nerves outside the CNS.

The peripheral nervous system forms a complex system of nerves which link the reception
of stimulus to the respective response. The receptors are those cells which accept stimulus
and the effectors are those that conduct the respective responses.

The sensory neurones are those that conduct electrical impulses from the receptors to the
brain. The motor neurones conduct electrical impulses from the brain to the effectors. The
relay neurones link the sensory neurones and the motor neurones in the brain so that they
can communicate.

The nervous system is adapted to transmit messages around the body quickly so that swift
responses can be made. Sometimes the effector may be a gland such as the endocrine glans
in the body.

The Synapse

Signals travel along neurones as electrical impulses, which are very fast. However, there are
millions of neurones in your body, and where the ends of two neurones meet there is a
small gap called a synapse.

Electrical impulses cannot cross this gap. As a result, they are converted into a chemical and
moves from the previous neurone to the next. Once it arrives to the next, it is quickly
converted back into an electrical impulse.

Reflex Actions

A reflex action is a rapid and automatic response to a stimulus. It doesn’t require conscious
control. E.g. knee jerk, sneezing, the pupil reflex and blinking. The pathway between the
receptor and the effector is called the reflex arc.
There are two types of reflexes:

 Spinal Reflexes

These are impulses that are taken only to the spinal cord. The most common example is the
knee jerk when it is tapped slightly with a hammer.

 Cranial Reflexes

These are reflexes in the head region only. An example of cranial reflexes is blinking.

The Brain

The brain is the most important part of the human nervous system. It enables humans to
think and reason, something most animals lack.

The brain has an outer grey part and an inner white part. It is surrounded by tough
membranes, called meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid which soaks up shock. The brain is
also surrounded by the bony skull.

The Endocrine System

In humans, the endocrine system consists of a series of glands called the endocrine glands.
These glands control growth and development. A gland is a structure which secretes a
special chemical substance. In humans, there are two types of glands: endocrine and
exocrine.

The exocrine glands transport their secretions via ducts directly into their target organs.
Example the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Endocrine glands
secrete chemicals called hormones into the blood stream where they travel to the target
organ.

Drugs and the Effects of Drug abuse

A drug is any substance or chemical which alters the body’s normal functioning. These
substances directly affect the nervous system of the body. A doctor may prescribe sertain
drugs to a patient after careful analysis of the situation and the patient’s allergies to any
particular substances. These drugs are called therapeutic drugs.

Penicillin is a common antibiotic drug that is used to control bacterial invasion in the body.
These drugs, if used extensively, can lead to bacteria becoming resistant to the antibiotic
thus rendering it useless.
Painkillers such as aspirin is used to alleviate body pains , however, they are very easily
abused by people all over the world. These people don’t take into consideration the various
side effects of the drug.

Caffeine is a common drug that is found in coffee and even some colas. These are stimulants
since they keep the user alert and energetic. However, if overused, they can lead to the
body’s inability to absorb sufficient calcium which can lead to weak bones and teeth in the
later years.

People in this modern time tend to use certain diet pills to help them with losing excess
weight quickly. The problem with these pills is that they contain a drug called ephedrine
which increases the body’s heart rate and metabolism. This can lead to a wide variety of
health complications like: heart attack, stroke, cardiac arrest and even death in some cases.

Steriods is a drug that is used to treat asthma and sinus reactions. However, they are
commonly abused by athletes who want to put on more muscle quickly. Like all other drugs,
they also have certain side effects like: baldness in men, masculinity in females, reduced sex
drives and aggression.

Abuse of Drugs

Drug abuse refers to use of substances which may cause a person to become dependent on
them. These range from mild stimulants like caffeine to powerful chemicals like narcotic
drugs (cocaine, alcohol, nicotine and heroine). These drugs are able to interfere with the
nervous system of persons and alter mood and behaviour (psychoactive drugs).

Drug addiction is the complete psychological dependence on a drug. Physical dependence

occurs when the body adapts to a drug and increases it tolerance to that drug’s effect. As a
result, a person takes larger doses to achieve the same original effect.
Movement in a Limb of Humans

Without the bones, it will be typically impossible to move around. They provide the general
structure of the body. Together with the bones, there are the muscles which serve an
equally important task as the bones. They are convert energy and move the bones allowing
human movement. There are those muscles that work as a tem to get work done, they are
called antagonistic muscles. A simple example is the elbow in the body. When the arm is
flexed, the biceps contract while the triceps relax and when extension occurs, the biceps
relax while the triceps contract.

Muscles are connected to the bones via tendon while the bones are connected to one
another by ligaments.

Types of Joint

There are three main types of joints:

1. Immoveable joint

These joints offer no type of movement in any direction and are found in abundance in the
skull.

2. Partially Movable Joints (Gliding Joints)

These joints allow a small range of movement in the body. E.g. the ankle joint which allows
movement in a lift and right direction. These joints are able to glide over the plane of one
another allowing movement.

3. Movable Joints (Synovial Joints)

They are called synovial joints since they are lubricated by synovial fluid produces by
synovial membranes. E.g. Ball and socket joint and hinge joint.
 EXCREATION , OSMOREGULATION AND HOMEOSTASIS

Metabolism

Metabolism is the general term used to refer to the sum of chemical reactions occurring
within a living body. Like all other chemical reactions, they produce products form the
reactants. These are called metabolic waste or excretory products (urea, carbon dioxide,
sweat). These wastes are removed through a process called excretion because if they are
left to accumulate in the body, they can be toxic and poisonous to living cells.

Excretory Products in Animals

1. Waste Products of Respiration

Respiration is one among the many chemical reactions occurring in living cells continuously.
Respiration is that chemical reaction which allows the body to access energy trapped in
ingested food. This reaction produces carbon dioxide as it waste product. In vertebrates, like
the human, carbon dioxide is taken away from living cells in the blood and removed from
the body during exhalation.

Together with carbon dioxide, some of the energy produced is converted to heat which can
increase the temperature of the body. This temperature increase, can slowdown the speed
of enzymes in the body and can even cause them to become denatured (destroyed by heat).
Excess heat is removed when sweat (released from sweat pores in the skin) is evaporated.

2. Waste Products from Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are formed in the marrow of bones in the body. They are responsible from
transporting oxygen in the body by using a protein pigment called haemoglobin. These cells
have so much haemoglobin that there is no space for a nucleus which gives red blood cells a
life spawn of 2-3 months. After these 2-3 months, they are destroyed in the liver or spleen.
After they are destroyed, the haemoglobin is converted into amino acids and used in the
body while the rest of the cell is converted into bile pigments.

4. Waste Products of Protein Metabolism

Protein, as we know, is rich in nitrogen and serves a very important role in the bodies of
living organisms. They are responsible from growth and repair of damaged tissues. If they
are broken down in excess, nitrogenous waste is produced which is converted into ammonia
by the liver. This ammonia is then converted into a less toxic form called urea which is
removed in urine by the kidneys.
The Human Excretory System

The human excretory system consists of two bean-shaped organs called the kidneys, located
in the lower back region just behind the intestines. The kidneys are the major
osmoregulatory and excretory organs in the body. Osmoreglation is the control of the
blood’s water concentration. Since the blood is in such close contact with the body cells, the
kidneys are said to control the amount of water in the body in a whole.

The renal artery brings dirty blood to the kidney from the aorta. When the blood is in the
kidney, it is filtered of all the bad substances that are in excess in it. This clean blood is then
taken from the kidneys by the renal vein and the vena cava. The waste products then
continue down the pelvis and into the ureter where it moves down to the bladder. Here the
waste, now called urine, is stored until it is expelled from the bladder by the urethra into the
environment.

The kidney consists of three sections called the cortex, medulla and the pelvis. The cortex
contains all the Bowman’s capsules of the nephrons and all the convoluted tubules. The
medulla contains the loops of Henle and collecting ducts of all the nephron. The pelvis is at
the end of the collecting ducts and collects the urine and sends it to the bladder.

The Nephron and Urine Production

The kidney consists of a series of smaller units called nephrons where filtration actually
occurs. It is basically made up a cup shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule which
contains the glomerulus (coil of capillaries). The Bowman’s capsule is connected to the
proximal convoluted tubule where selective reabsorption of glucose occurs. Afther the
proximal convoluted tubule, there is the loop of hele where water is reabsorbed. Then there
is the dismal convoluted tubule and the collection duct. Here more water and slats are
reabsorbed from the filtrate according to instructions from the pituitary gland in the form of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Kidney Failure and Kidney Transplants

Sometimes the kidneys may fail due to infection or damage due to external forces (most of
the time). If one of the kidneys fail, the person can still survive, however, adjustments will
be needed to ease stress on the kidney. If both kidneys fail, and left untreated, the person
can die due to the accumulation of toxic waste in the blood.

There are two possible treatments for this problem:

 Kidney Transplant

This can be a very complicated process and can be very expensive. A donor needs to be
found with a matching tissue type since the body rejects that which is not it.
  Dialysis

This is a cheaper and less complicated method of treating with kidney failure. However, this
process can be time consuming since a person needs to be attached to the dialysis machine
for up to 10 hours every few days of the week. During this procedure, the patient’s dirty
blood is passed through a tube made up of selectively permeable membranes which is
surrounded by a hormone called heparin which prevents blood clotting. The right next to
the tube, there is dialysis fluid which has the same concentration as normal blood, so any
substance in excess will diffuse into the dialysis fluid. Hence, dialysis fluid leaving the
machine is dirty. The clean blood is then returned to the patient’s body.

Osmoregulation

As stated in the above text further up, osmoregulation is the control of the amount of water
in the body by the kidneys. The kidneys achieve this by regulating the amount of water and
salts in the blood itself. This function is mainly completed by the dismal convoluted tubules
(DCT) and the collecting ducts.

During the regular circulation of blood in the body, it passes through the brain and the
hypothalamus monitors its concentration. If the concentration is too high, the
hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to release more antidiuretic hormone into the
blood stream. This hormone travels in the blood until it reaches the kidneys where it
stimulates the dismal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts to reabsorb more water
from the urine (filtrate). When the blood is too dilute, the exact opposite procedure occurs.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the process by which the body keeps a constant internal environment. This is
done as a safety measure because if there is any change, some chemical process may be
severely affected. When a change occurs, the body quickly does something (feedback) to
restore it to its original conditions.
 Storage in Plants and Animals

Why do organisms store food?

Animals store food for a multitude of different reasons. Some are:

 To provide for periods of food shortages.

 To produce special reproductive structure.
 To overcome the need to constantly feed.
 To provide for special functions (movement)

Food Storage in Plants

The food made plants during photosynthesis may be stored temporarily in the leaves of the
plant to supply the respiring cells with glucose. Other parts of the plants are used to store
food on a long term basis