INTERNAL FORCES

Beams, Frames, Arches

APPLICATIONS

These beams are used to

support the roof of this gas
station.

Why are the beams

tapered? Is it because of
the internal forces?

If so, what are these

forces and how do we
determine them?
 APPLICATIONS

A fixed column supports

Statics Rules this rectangular billboard.

Usually such columns are

wider at the bottom than at
the top. Why?
Is it because of the internal
forces?
If so, what are they and how
do we determine them?
APPLICATIONS

The concrete supporting a

bridge has fractured.
What might have caused the
concrete to do this?

How can we analyze or design

these structures to make them
safer?
 INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS

The internal forces in a beam can be made visible and thus

accessible to calculation with the aid of a free-body diagram.
Accordingly, we pass an imaginary section perpendicularly to
the axis of the beam.
 INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS

The internal forces p (forces per unit area) acting at the

cross-section are distributed across the cross-sectional area.
Their intensity is called stress.
it was shown previously that any force system can be
replaced by a resultant force R acting at an arbitrary point C
 INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS

V
and a corresponding couple M(C). When carrying this out, we
choose the centroid C of the cross-sectional area as the
reference point of the reduction.
The resultant force R is resolved into its components N
(normal to the cross-section, in the direction of the axis of
the beam) and V (in the cross section, orthogonal to the
axis of the beam). The quantities N, V and M are called the
stress resultants. In particular,
N is called the normal force, V is the shear force and M is
the bending moment
INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS
The design of any structural member
requires finding the forces acting
within the member to make sure the
material can resist those loads.
For example, we want to determine
the internal forces acting on the cross
section at C. First, we first need to
determine the support reactions.
Then we need to cut the beam at C
and draw a FBD of one of the halves
of the beam. This FBD will include the
internal forces acting at C. Finally, we
need to solve for these unknowns
using the E-of-E.
 INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS
In two-dimensional cases, typical
internal loads are normal or axial forces
(N, acting perpendicular to the section),
shear forces (V, acting along the
surface), and the bending moment (M).

Left section Right section

The loads on the left and right sides of the section at C are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. This is
because when the two sides are reconnected, the net loads
are zero at the section.
INTERNAL FORCES IN FRAMES

Internal
fiber
 STEPS FOR DETERMINING INTERNAL FORCES

1. Take an imaginary cut at the place where you need to

determine the internal forces. Then, decide which
resulting section or piece will be easier to analyze.

2. If necessary, determine any support reactions or joint

forces you need by drawing a FBD of the entire structure
and solving for the unknown reactions.
3. Draw a FBD of the piece of the structure you’ve decided
to analyze. Remember to show the N, V, and M loads at
the “cut” surface.
4. Apply the E-of-E to the FBD (drawn in step 3) and solve
for the unknown internal loads.
INTERNAL FORCES IN SPATIAL STRUCTURES
 EXAMPLE

Given: The loading on the

beam.

Find: The internal forces at

point C.
Solution

1. Plan on taking the imaginary cut at C. It will be easier to

work with the left section (point A to the cut at C) since
the geometry is simpler.
2. We need to determine Ax and Ay using a FBD of the
entire frame.
 EXAMPLE
FBD: 400 N
1.2 m

Ax
Ay By

3m 2m
Applying the E-of-E to this FBD, we get

 +  Fx = Ax + 400 = 0 ; Ax = – 400 N

+  MB = -Ay(5) - 400 (1.2) = 0 ; Ay = – 96 N

3. Now draw a FBD of the left section. Assume directions

for VC, NC and MC.
 EXAMPLE
1.5 m
MC
400 N NC

A C
96 N VC

4. Applying the E of E to this FBD, we get

 +  Fx = NC – 400 = 0; NC = 400 N

 +  Fy = – VC – 96 = 0; VC = – 96N

+  MC = 96 (1.5) + MC = 0 ; MC = -144 N m
 EXAMPLE
Determine the normal
force, shear force, and
moment at a section
passing through point D
of the two-member
frame.
w =400N/m, a = 2.5 m,
b = 3 m, c = 6 m
Solution:
Ax
ΣMC = 0;
Ax ×2.5 + (400×6/2)
×(2×6/3)=0 Ay
Ax = – 1920 N
→+ΣFx =0; Cx + Ax =0 Cx
Cx = – Ax = 1920 N Cy
 EXAMPLE

Ax Bx

Ay By

ΣMA = 0; By ×6 – (400×6/2) ×(2×6/3)=0

By = 800 N

↑+ ΣFy = 0; Ay + 800 – (400×6/2) =0

Ay = 400 N

→+ ΣFx = 0; Ax – Bx =0
Bx = Ax = – 1920 N
 EXAMPLE
Internal Forces at point D:

Ax
→+ Σ Fx = 0; ND + Ax = 0
ND =-Ax ND = 1920 N
Ay
↑+ ΣFy = 0;
Ay − VD – 1/2×(400×3/6) ×3=0
VD = 100 N
ΣMD = 0; – Ay ×3 + (400×3/6) ×(3/2×1/3×3)+MD=0
MD = 900 N.m
 EXAMPLE By
Bx

Cx
Cy
→+ Σ Fx = 0; Cx + Bx = 0 Cx = – Bx= 1920 N
↑+ ΣFy = 0; Cy − By =0 Cy = By = 800 N

→+ Σ Fx = 0; Cx + NE = 0 ME
NE= –Cx = – 1920 N Cx
↑+ ΣFy = 0; Cy − VE =0 VE NE
VE = Cy = 800 N Cy
ΣME = 0; – Cy ×3 + ME =0 ME = 2400 N.m
Mechanics of Material I
(Strength of Material)
TEXT BOOK:

This course will cover the

following topics:
1-Normal Force, Shear Force,
Bending Moment and Torsion
2-Stress and Strain
3-Bending of Beams
4-Shear of Beams
5-Torsion of Beams
6-Deflection of Beams
Normal Force, Shear Force, Bending Moment and
Torsion

The purpose of a structure is to support the loads for which it

has been designed. To accomplish this it must be able to
transmit a load from one point to another, i.e. from the
loading point to the supports.
For example, the beam shown transmits the effects of the loads
at B and along the span to the built-in end A. It achieves this by
developing an internal force system and it is the distribution
of these internal forces which must be determined before
corresponding stress distributions and displacements can
be found.
Acknowledge of stress is essential in structural design
where the cross-sectional area of a member must be such
that stresses do not exceed values that would cause
breakdown in the crystalline structure of the material of the
member; in other words, a structural failure.

In addition to stresses, strains, and thereby

displacements, must be calculated to ensure that as well
as strength a structural member possesses sufficient
stiffness to prevent excessive distortions damaging
surrounding portions of the complete structure.
In this chapter we shall examine the different types of load
to which a structural member may be subjected and then
determine corresponding internal force distributions.
 INTERNAL FORCES
The design of any structural
member requires finding the forces
acting within the member to make
sure the material can resist those
loads.
For example, we want to determine
the internal forces acting on the
cross section at C. First, we first
need to determine the support
reactions.
Sc
Then we need to cut the beam at C
and draw a FBD of one of the halves
of the beam. This FBD will include
the internal forces acting at C.
Finally, we need to solve for these
unknowns using the E-of-E.
 INTERNAL FORCES (continued)
In two-dimensional cases, typical internal
loads are normal or axial forces (N, acting
perpendicular to the section), shear
forces (V, acting along the surface), and
the bending moment (M).

The loads on the left and right sides of the section at C are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. This is
because when the two sides are reconnected, the net loads
are zero at the section.
Generally, internal forces vary throughout the length of a
structural member.
We note that applied loads of one type (concentrated
forces) can induce internal forces of another. For example,
in the previous slides the external loads, produce Normal
(axial), shear and bending at the section C.
Internal forces are distributed throughout beam sections in
the form of stresses. It follows that the resultant of each
individual stress distribution must be the corresponding
internal force; internal forces are therefore often known
as stress resultants..
In 3-D We have six types of internal forces
NOTATION AND SIGN CONVENTION

Notation and sign

conventions for
displacements and
externally applied
loads

Positive internal
force systems
NORMAL FORCE
EXAMPLE 3.1 Construct a normal force diagram for the beam AB
shown in Fig. 3.8(a).

Solution
1- Draw the
F.B.D. RA,H, =10 kN

F.B.D
2- determine the
support
reactions → + ∑Fx=0→ -H A+10=0 → H A=10kN
 3- determine the normal
internal fore at section x
from A


 Fx  0   RA, H  N x  0  N AB  N x  RA, H  10 kN

N.F.D
EXAMPLE 3.2
Draw a normal force diagram for the beam ABC shown

Solution
1- Draw the
F.B.D.

2- determine the 
support reactions  Fx  0   RA,H  10  0  RA,H  10 kN
There is a loading discontinuity at B so that the distribution of
the normal force in AB will be different to that in BC.
section X1 between A and B section X2 between B and C.

for 0  X 1  L / 2 for L / 2  X 2  L
 
Fx  0   RA, H  N AB  0 Fx  0   RA, H  10  N BC  0
N AB  RA, H  10 kN N BC  0 kN
Tension
+
N. F. D
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
EXAMPLE
Cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the free end.
Draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for this beam.

At section x write the E-O-E:

 FY  0  S AB  W  0  S AB  W

M x  0  M AB  W ( L  x )  0  M AB  W ( L  x )
 The shear force is
therefore constant along
-ve the length of the beam

MAB varies linearly along

the length of the beam,
and increases from zero
-ve at the free end (x=L) to
−WL at the built-in end
where x=0.
It is usual to draw the
bending moment
diagram on the tension
side of a beam.
This procedure is particularly useful in the design of reinforced
concrete beams since it shows directly the surface of the beam
near which the major steel reinforcement should be provided.
 +Ve tension
+Ve
+ + -

- - +

NORMAL SHEAR +Ve BENDING

Loading discontinuities, such as concentrated loads and/or

concentrated moments and/or a sudden change in the intensity
of a distributed load, cause discontinuities in the distribution of
Normal, shear force and bending moment so that it is
necessary to consider a series of sections, one between each
loading discontinuity.
EXAMPLE
Cantilever beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of intensity w.
  FY  0  S AB  W ( L  x )  0  S AB  W ( L  x )
SAB varies linearly with x and varies from zero at B to −wL at A
W W
M x  0  M AB  ( L  x )  0  M AB   ( L  x )2
2

2 2
MAB, is negative at all sections of the beam and varies parabolically

Differentiating with respect to x we obtain:

dM AB
 W ( L  x)
dx
so that when x=L, dMAB/dx=0 and the bending moment diagram is
tangential to the datum line AB at B.
EXAMPLE
Simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load.
 1- REACTIONS
2- shear & moment calculations
L L
 FY  0   S AB  W x  W  0  S AB  W ( x  )
2 2
SAB therefore varies linearly along the length of the beam from
−wL/2 at A (x=0) to +wL/2 at B (x=L). Note that SAB =0 at mid-
span (x=L/2).
Wx 2 WL Wx
M x  0  M AB   x  0  M AB   ( L  x)
2 2 2
Thus MAB varies parabolically along the length of the beam and is
positive (sagging) at all sections of the beam except at the
supports (x=0 and x=L) where it is zero.
dM AB L
 W (  x)
dx 2
we see that dMAB/dx=0 at mid-span where x=L/2, so that the
bending moment diagram has a turning value or mathematical
maximum at this section. In this case this mathematical
maximum is the maximum value of the bending moment in the
beam and is, from Eq. (ii), +wL2/8.
 Problem to be solved for the next practical session

P3.1
P3.2
P3.3
P3.6
P3.7
P3.9
P3.10