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South and South East Asia includes Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Malaya, Indonesia, IndoChina, Thailand and the Philippines Even
before the rise of the new imperialism, many of these countries were
already dominated by the Europeans Sri Lanka was occupied by the
Portuguese, then by the Dutch, and later by the British England
introduced tea and rubber plantations, which came to form 7/8th of Sri
Lanka’s exports. The Dutch lost Malaya to the British, including
Singapore, lying at the tip of the Malaya peninsula. The conquest of
Malaya and Singapore meant control of all the trade of the Far East
that passed through the Straits of Malacca. Indonesia and the
surrounding islands were under Dutch control After 1875, Holland
extended her control over a group of islands known as the Moluccas.
IndoChina
In 1880, the king of Burma gave France the right to build a railway
from Tonkin to Mandalay The French were trying to dominate all of
SouthEast Asia. The British government, fearing French expansion,
started a war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent
to India Burma was annexed and became a part of Britain’s empire in
India in 1886.
Thailand, or Siam, remained an independent state, though
sandwiched between the French conquests in IndoChina and of the
British in Burma But France and England exercised much power and
authority over its affairs
Philippines
IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
You have already read in Chapter 4 (Vol.1) about the emergence of
civilization and the formation of states, kingdoms and empires in
different parts of Africa You have also read about the contacts which
African cultures and civilizations had with the rest of the world since
ancient times From the time of European explorations in the later part
of the fifteenth century, a new phase began in the history of some
parts of Africa
Besides the establishment of commercial relations with some parts of
Africa, this phase was characterized by slave trade As mentioned
earlier, till about the last quarter of the nineteenth century, European
control over Africa extended over about one-fifth of the territory of the
continent. However, within a few years almost the entire continent
was partitioned among various European imperialist countries though
it took them much longer to establish their actual effective occupation
Slave Trade
When Stanley was carving out the empire for King Leopold in Congo,
a Frenchman, de Brazza, was active north of the Congo river
Following the methods of Stanley, de Brazza won the area for France,
this area became what was until recently called the French Congo
with its capital town named Brazzaville, after de Brazza. On Africa’s
west coast, Senegal and been occupied by France earlier Now
France set out to extend her empire in West Africa. Soon she
obtained Dahomey (pi esent Benin), the Ivory Coast and French
Guinea By the year 1900, the French empii e extended further into the
interior. More territories were added to the West African conquests
after 1900 and French West Africa came to include present Senegal,
French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Mauritania, French Sudan,
Upper Volta and Niger Territory. The French conquest resulted in
brutal exploitation of the people everywhere in Africa. For example, in
a period of only 20 years, the population of the French Congo was
reduced to one-third of its former size.
After 1880, Germany also got very interested in possessions in Africa
First she occupied an area called Togoland on the west coast; soon
after, the Cameroons, a little farther south. Still farther south, the
Germans established themselves in South-west Africa where, to
suppress local rebels, more than half of the population was
exterminated. But these conquests did not satisfy Germany; she
wanted the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique and
Congo for herself Before the First World War started, England and
Germany agreed to partition Angola and Mozambique between
themselves, but the war shattered Germany’s dreams. After the war,
when the German colonies were given to the victorious powers,
Togoland and the Cameroons were divided between England and
France, and German South-west Africa was given to South Africa.
Spain had only two colonies on the western coast of Africa —Rio de
Oro (Spanish Sahara) and Spanish Guinea. Portugal possessed
valuable regions of Angola and Portuguese Guinea. Thus, with the
exception of Liberia, the whole of West Africa was divided up among
the Europeans Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in
America. Though she remained independent, she came increasingly
under the influence of the United States, particularly the American
investors in rubber plantations.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Dutch had established the Cape Colony, which
the British took over in the early nineteenth century. The Dutch
settlers, known as Boers, then went north and set up two states, the
Orange Free State and the Transvaal. By 1850 both these states
were ruled by the Boers.
Rhodesia
Like Germany, Italy entered the colonial race late. The Italians
occupied two desert areas in what is called the ‘horn of Africa’
Somaliland and Eritrea. The country of Abyssinia, now known as
Ethiopia, was an independent state. Italy wanted to declare Abyssinia
its protectorate and invaded her. The king of Abyssinia rejected Italy’s
claim and in 1896 defeated the Italian invading army Unlike other
African states, Abyssinia had been able to get arms from France. This
historic battle in which an African state had defeated a European
state’s army is known as the Battle of Adowa. So the Italians had to
withdraw Italy made another attempt to conquer Abyssinia in 1935,
before the Second World War Except for a brief period during those
years, Ethiopia, except Eritrea, was able to maintain her
independence.
North Africa
Egypt was a province of the Turkish empire when the scramble for
colonies began in the nineteenth century. It v as ruled by a
representative of the Turkish Sultan, called Pasha Since the time of
Napoleon, France had been interested in Egypt A French company
had gained a concession from Ismail Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, to
dig a canal across the isthmus of Suez. The canal was completed in
1869 and aroused British interest in the area Disraeli, the British
Prime Minister, bought a large number of shares of the canal from the
Pasha to make sure of keeping the route to India safe The canal was
described by Disraeli as ‘ a highway to our Indian empire.’
The financial troubles of the Pasha led to increased joint Anglo-
French control over Egypt When the Pasha tried to resist, he was
forced to abdicate and anew governor was appointed In 1882, there
was a revolt against the Anglo-French control and, in suppressing the
revolt, the British armies conquered Egypt Restoration of law and
order and protection of the Suez Canal were the reasons given for the
military intervention in Egypt. England announced that she would
withdraw her troops as soon as order was restored After the revolt
was suppressed, Egypt came under British control. In 1914, when the
First World War started, England announced that Egypt was no longer
a Turkish province but a British protectorate. The Egyptians never
reconciled themselves to the British conquest. After the war was over,
leaders of Egypt started for the Paris Peace Conference to plead the
case of Egypt, but they were arrested. In 1922, though she still
retained her rights over the Suez and many other concessions, Britain
was forced to recognize Egypt as an independent sovereign state
Sudan, or what was earlier known as Egyptian Sudan, was jointly
exploited by Egypt and Britain. A Sudanese leader who had
proclaimed himself the Mandi had succeeded in overthrowing
Egyptian and British control over Sudan. His army had defeated
Egyptian and British troops In 1898, British and Egyptian troops
succeeded in recapturing Sudan after a long and bloody war in which
20,000 Sudanese troops, including the successor of the Mandi, were
killed. Sudan came under British rule. The French at this time tried to
occupy southernparts of Sudan but were forced to withdraw by the
British France, however, was given a free hand to extend her control
over wha t was known as western Sudan and the Sahara France
occupied these areas after a long war of conquest. With these gains,
France was able to connect her equatorial conquests with her west
and north African conquests.
During the period from the 1890s to the early years of the twentieth
century, the United States spread its control, direct and indirect, over
South America and the Pacific In 1823, the President of the United
States had proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine which warned the
European powers against any attempt to extend their power in the
Western/ Hemisphere In 1895, the Monroe Doctrine was given a new
meaning. There was a territorial dispute between British Guiana (now
Guyana) and Nicaragua, and the British threatened to send troops
against Nicaragua. The US government forced Britain not to send her
troops and declared that “Today the United States is practically
sovereign on this Continent“. A new corollary was added to the
Monroe Doctrine in 1904 by the then U.S. President, Theodore
Roosevelt Britain and Germany had imposed a naval blockade of
Venezuela as she had failed to repay the loan which she had taken
from them. Theodore Roosevelt forced Britain and Germany to lift the
blockade and declared that the United States alone had the right to
intervene in the affairs of her neighbouring countries if they were
unable to maintain order on their own. The United States took control
of the finances of the Dominican Republic which she retained for three
decades and occupied that country in 1916 for eight years. In 1906,
American troops were sent to Cuba and remained there for three
years to ‘protect’ Cuba from disorder. In 1909, American troops were
sent to Nicaragua in support of a revolt which had been inspired by an
American mining company. The United States secured from the
government which had been installed there the ugh t to intervene in
that country to protect American interests In 1915, American troops
Were sent to Haiti and remained there till 1934.
Mexico
The policy of the United States was described as the ‘Big Stick’ policy
and one of an ‘international policeman’ . The extension of the U S
influence through economic investments in the region is known as the
‘Dollar diplomacy’. The economic and political domination of South
America was facilitated by the absence of strong governments in the
countries of South America. Many of these countries were ruled by
caudillos, or crude and corrupt military leaders with armed gangs.
They floated loans for ready cash and sold concessions to foreign
companies to exploit the natural resources of their countries. They
served as markets for manufactures, and sources of raw materials for
industrialized countries, particularly the United States, as well as
avenues for investment of capital from these countries. Most of the
countries of South America, though political independent, came under
the economic and political control of the United States.
Panama Canal
One of the major acquisitions by the United States in this period was
the Panama Canal. A French company had started the construction of
the canal in the Isthmus of Panama in Colombia (Central America).
The canal which would link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans was of
great economic interest In 1901, the United States decided to
undertake the canal project alone.
She paid $40 million to the French company and entered into an
agreement with the government of Colombia. According to the
agreement, Colombia was to give the United States perpetual rights to
a six mile wide ‘canal zone’ across her territory in exchange for ten
million dollars plus $ 250,000 as annual rent. The agreement was
completely against the interests of Colombia and Colombia’s
Parliament refused to ratify it. In 1903, the United States financed and
organized a revolt in Panama and landed her troops there. Soon after,
the United States recognized Panama as an independent state The
government of Panama signed a new agreement with the United
States according to which the amount of compensation remained the
same but instead of the six mile wide canal zone, ten mile canal zone
was granted to the United States. The canal was opened in 1914 and
the canal zone has remained under the occupation of the United
States since then.
Hawaii
The United States also extended her control in the Pacific during this
period The islands of Hawaii had been important for American
shipping and for trade with China The United States’ economic and
commercial influence gradually increased in these islands and with
the settling of Americans there, particularly as sugar planters, these
islands became closely tied to the economy of the United States The
United States had secured the exclusive use of Pearl Harbor as a
naval station. In 1893, the American residents in the Hawaii islands
revolted against the queen of Hawaii and, asked for the annexation of
the islands by the United States. By 1898, Hawaii had been annexed
by the United States. Later, it became one of the states of the United
States.
The United States also extended control over other islands in Pacific.
There was rivalry among the US Britain and Germany over these
lands. In 1899, Germany and States divided these islands bets selves
and as ‘compensation given islands elsewhere in the Pacific.
EFEECTS OF IMPERIALISM
By 1914, almost all parts of the non-industrialized world had come
under or indirect control of a few industrialized countries. Most
countries of Africa had Lost their political freedom and were ruled by
one or other country. The economies of all countries as well as of
those which were politically independent were control imperialist
countries to serve rests. All parts of the world were brought together
under a world economic control which was based on the exploit
colonies. Since 1946, most Asia can colonies have become free and
independent. You will read about it later. But the effects of imperialism
in the life of the people in these country are still evident.
Economic Backwardness
EXERCISES
1. Explain why the Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of
imperialism
2. Describe the steps, giving examples, by which the imperialist
countries ‘took over most of Africa.
3. Why were Asian and African countries so easily dominated by
the Western powers?
4. How did nationalism help to make imperialism ‘popular’ in
Europe?
5. Describe the emergence of the United States of America as an
imperialist power Give examples
6. Describe the imperialist expansion of japan up to 1914
7. Explain the meaning of the following terms, with examples:
Sphere of influence, exploitation, extraterritorial rights,
protectorate, Monroe Doctrine, Dollar diplomacy.
8. Prepare maps of Asia and Africa showing the colonies and
spheres of influence of the various imperialist powers before the
First World War
9. Study the developments that have taken place in Africa after the
revolution in Portugal in April 1974
10. Write an essay on ‘Slavery and Slave Trade and the
Struggle for their Abolition
11. How did the empires of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries differ from the empires of ancient times —for example,
those of the Mauryas, the Romans and of Alexander?
12. Discuss the differences between the imperialist expansion
during the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries and 1870 to I
914
13. Name and discuss some of the big problems faced by
newly independent countries Why are their problems also the
problems of all countries?
14. Discuss the long-term impact of imperialist control on the
countries of Asia, Africa and South America