Yoga and Freedom: A Reconsideration of Patañjali's Classical Yoga

Author(s): Ian Whicher

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Apr., 1998), pp. 272-322
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
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IanWhicher YOGA AND FREEDOM: A RECONSIDERATION
OF PATANJALI'S CLASSICAL YOGA

DeputyDirectorofthe Introduction
DharamHinduja This essay centerson the thoughtof Patalijali(ca. second-third
Institute
ofIndic
ResearchintheCentre centuryC.E.),the greatexponentof the authoritative Classical Yoga
forAdvancedReligiousschool(dar?ana)ofHinduism andthereputedauthoroftheYoga-Satra. I
will arguethatPatalijali'sphilosophical
and TheologicalStudies perspective has, far too often,
at theUniversity
of been lookeduponas excessively "spiritual"or isolationistic to thepoint
Cambridge of beinga world-denying philosophy, indifferent to moral endeavor,
neglecting theworldofnatureand culture, and overlooking thehighest
potentials forhumanreality, and creativity.
vitality, Contrary totheargu-
mentspresented bymanyscholars, which associate Patanijali's Yoga ex-
clusively with extreme asceticism, mortification, denial, and therenun-
ciationand abandonment of"material existence"(prakrti) infavorofan
elevatedand isolated"spiritual state"(purusa)or disembodiedstateof
spiritualliberation, I suggestthatPatalijali'sYoga can be seen as a
responsibleengagement,in variousways, of "spirit"(purusa=Self,
pureconsciousness) and "matter"(prakrti= thesourceof psychophysi-
cal being,which includesmind,body,nature),resulting in a highly
and
developed,transformed, participatory human nature and identity, an
integrated and embodied state of liberatedselfhood In
(jTvanmukti).sup-
portofthisthesis,textualevidencehas beendrawnlargely from thetwo
main authoritative sourcesof Classical Yoga: the Yoga-Sotra (YS) of
Patanijaliand the Yoga-Bhjs.ya (YB) ofVyasa (ca. fifth-sixthcentury C.E.).1
ThusI challengeand attempt to correctconclusionsaboutClassical
Yoga philosophydrawnby traditional and moderninterpretations of
Patalijali'sYoga-SCOtra.From a critical itis
perspective, necessary to make
efforts to integratetheories ofreality and knowledge perse withtheher-
meneuticalreflection and human motivation within whichthetheories
weredevised.Thereis a crustofpreconceived ideassurrounding Patali-
jali's Yoga, and to unfreeze the Yoga-Satra from the traditional reception
thatit has encountered in theWestsincethenineteenth century is no
easy task. Millionsof people in both the East in
(i.e., India) and the West
todaypracticesome formor formsof Yoga influenced by or directly
aligned with Patalijali'sYoga-Sotra. I have to
attempted reinterpret a
East& West
Philosophy central featureofthe Yoga-SOtra, the of
namely objective cittav.rttinirodha
Volume48, Number2 or the cessationof the misidentification withthe modifications of the
April1998 mind,and providea freshvisionof the spiritualpotentialpresentin this
272-322 seminaltext,therebycontributingto our understandingand receptionof
Yoga thought and of
spirituality. interpretation Pataijali's Yoga dar-
The
? 1998
of
byUniversity gana presentedin thisstudy-which walks the line between a historical
Hawai'iPress and hermeneutic-praxis (some mightsay theological or "systematic")

272
orientation-counterstheradicallydualistic,isolationistic,
and ontolog-
icallyoriented of
interpretationsYoga presented by manyscholarsand
an
suggests open-ended, oriented
epistemologically hermeneutic,
which,
I maintain,is moreappropriateforarrivingat a genuineassessment of
system.
Patanijali's

Cessation(Nirodha): Transformation or NegationoftheMind?

In Pataiijali'scentraldefinition of Yoga, Yoga is definedas "the
cessationof Ithemisidentification with]the modifications of the
(vrtti)
mind(citta')"(YS 1.2).2 Nirodha(cessation)is one of the mostdifficult
termsemployedin the YS,and itsmeaningplaysa crucialrole in the
propercomprehension ofPatanijali'ssystem ofYoga.The"attainment" of
liberationis based on theprogressive purification ofmind(sattvasuddhi)
and the increasinglightof knowledge(jfdana-dTpti) thattake place in
theprocessofnirodha.Since,as I shallnowargue,themisunderstanding
of thisprocesshas been fundamental to the misapprehension of the
meaningofPatalijali'sYoga,thereis a needto clarify it.
The word nirodhais derivedfromni (down,into)and rudh(to
obstruct,arrest,stop,restrain,prevent).3 Insomewell-known translations
of YS 1.2,nirodhahas been renderedas "suppression,"4 "inhibition,"5
"restriction,"6"cessation,"7"restraint,"8 and "control."'These mean-
ings,I submit, are problematic, erroneous, or misleading ifunderstood,
as theyarebymanyscholars,witha viewthatemphasizesnirodhaas an
ontologicalnegationordissolution ofthemindand itsfunctioning. I am
suggesting thatanyattempt to interpret Pataiijali'sYoga as a practicethat
seeks to annihilateor suppressthe mindand itsmodifications forthe
of
purpose gainingspiritual liberation distortsthe intended meaningof
Yoga as definedby Patanijali. In regardto the processof nirodha,the
wide rangeofmethodsinthe YS indicatesan emphasison theongoing
applicationofyogictechniques, nota deadeningofthementalfaculties
whereintheoperations of consciousness, including our perceptualand
ethicalnatures,are switchedoffor abandoned.By definingnirodha
as "cessation,"I mean to implythe "undoing"of the conjunction
(samryoga)betweenpurusa,the"Seer" andprakrti, the"seeable"
the that (drat.r),
as a mental
(dcrgya), conjunction Vyasaexplains superimposition
(adhyjropa)10 resultingintheconfusion ofidentity betweenpurusaand
thementalprocesses(vrtti). Oursenseofselfbecomesmisidentified with
thementalprocesses(v.rtti), thereby creating, in the words of Vyasa,"a
mentalselfoutofdelusion.""
Nirodha,I am suggesting, refersto the cessationof the worldly,
empirical effectsof the v.rttison the yogin's consciousness, not the
complete cessation of themselves.
v.rttis Nirodha means to cease the
congenital,epistemologicalpower of the vrttisover the yogin; that is,
in the formof affliction lanWhicher
nirodhais the epistemologicalcessation of vrttis

273
 (kleSa),whichat rootis thecongenitalignorancel2 ofourtruespiritual
identity and ultimate destiny.
One will naturally ask how practitioners who attempt to obeyany
teachingsresulting in death to their minds would have the capacityto
comprehend or carryoutanyfurther instructions. Perhaps,moreimpor-
tantly, how could one function practicallyas a human beingwithout the
faculties ofthinking, memory, discernment and reason,and an individ-
ual senseofself,or I-sense,withwhichone can distinguish oneselffrom
otherpeopleandtheworld?Surelysucha personwouldhaveto be mad
or unconscious.Ifall thegreatYoga masters ofthepasthad obliterated
or so thoroughly suppressed their minds in order to become liberated,
how did theyspeak,teach,reason,remember, empathize, or even use
the word"1"? The mindand thebodyare theonlyvehiclesin which
to attainliberation. Itis themind,as Yoga readilyadmits,thatmustbe
utilizedto studyand listento theguru;itis themindthatis neededto
followa spiritual pathto liberation; and it is equallythe mindthatis
requiredbytheaspirant inordertofunction as a humanbeinginday-to-
day life.
Byadvisingor explaining thatthemindand itsvariousfaculties are
to be negated,suppressed, or abolished,manyscholars,teachers,and
writers on Yoga have,I wouldliketo suggest, missedthepointofprac-
ticingYoga. For itis not the mind, but rather the exclusiveidentification
withmaterial existenceas one'strueidentity (orSelf)thatisthesourceof
all humandifficulties and dissatisfaction (duhkha);itis a specificstateof
consciousnessor cognitiveerrorevidencedin the mind,and notthe
mind itself,that is at issue. Misidentification refersto the process
our
whereby self-identity conforms (sirQpya) to the changingnatureof
vrtti.13Avidyi,the rootaffliction (kleSa)in Yoga thatgivesriseto four
otherafflictions-I-am-ness/egoity (asmiti),attachment (raga),aversion
(dvesa), and the desire for continuity or fear of death (abhinivesa)14-is
a positivemisconstruction of realitythatmistakespurusaforprakrtic
existence.
Itisthecondition ofmisidentification-the samrsariccondition ofself
and world-and notthemindintotal,thatmustbe discardedin Yoga.
Anyadviceto destroy or negatethemindis,itseemsto me,detrimental
toa humanbeingandtothepracticeofYoga.Howcouldprogress on the
of
path Yoga be made with such an approach? What would the ethical
ramifications be? The beliefthatmentalannihilation leads to spiritual
liberation has become a popularand unfortunate teachingof modern
interpretations of Yoga. Despitethe factthatit is neithertrulyyogic,
practical,logical, nor appealing, and, furthermore,may be destructive
foraspirants,recentteachingsand workson Yoga have oftenprescribed
the negation or suppression of the mind, ego, and thoughtsas the
East& West primarymeans to self-emancipation.15
Philosophy This stance, I submit,is a gross

274
misrepresentation of Yoga; a confused,misleading, and, at best,naive
at
attempt conveying depth the and of the
profundity processofnirodha
as termedbyPatanijali.
Fromtheperspective ofthediscerning yogin(vivekin), humaniden-
titycontainedwithinthedomainofthethree (prakrti)amountsto
nothing more than sorrow and dissatisfactiongun.as
(duhkha).16 declared
The
goal ofClassical Yoga, as with and
Samkhya Buddhism, is to overcome
all suffering (dulhkha) (YS 11.16)bybringing about an inversemovement
or counterflow (pratiprasava,)17 understood as a "return to theorigin"'18
or "process-of-involution"19 of the a kindof reabsorption into
the transcendent of
purity being gun.as,
itself.What does this "process-of-
involution"-variously referred to as "return to theorigin,""dissolution
intothesource,"20 or "withdrawal frommanifestation"-actually mean?
Is ita definitive ending to the perceived world of the yogincomprised of
change and transformation, forms and phenomena?Ontologically con-
ceived,prasavasignifies the"flowing forth" oftheprimary constituents
or qualitiesof prakrti intothe multipleformsof the universein all its
dimensions, thatis,all theprocessesofmanifestation and actualization
or "creation"(sarga,prasarga).Pratiprasava on the otherhanddenotes
theprocessof "dissolution or
intothesource" "withdrawal frommani-
festation" ofthoseformsrelativeto thepersonal,microcosmic levelof
theyoginwho is aboutto attainfreedom (apavarga).
Does a "return to the origin"culminatein a stateof freedomin
whichone is stripped ofall humanidentity and voidofanyassociation
withthe worldincludingone's practicallivelihood?The ontological
emphasisusuallygivento the meaningof pratiprasava-implying for
theyogina literaldissolution of manifestation-would seemto
a view,one whichis prominentprak.rti's
inYoga scholarship, ofspiritual
support
liberationdenotingan existencewhollytranscendent (and therefore
stripped or deprived)ofall manifestation including thehumanrelational
sphere. Is thisthe kind of emancipated thatPatauijali
spiritually state had
in mind?In YS 11.3-17(whichset the stageforthe remainder of the
chapteron yogicpracticeor sidhana),Patalijalidescribesprakrti, the
"seeable" (includingour personhood),in the contextof the various
afflictions (klesas)thatgive riseto an afflicted and mistaken identityof
self.Afflicted identity is constructed out of and held captiveby the
rootaffliction of ignorance(avidyA)and its variousformsof karmic
bondage.
Yet, despitethe clear associationof prakrti withthe bondageof
ignorance(avidyV),thereare no real groundsforpurporting that
prak.rti
herselfis to be equated with or subsumed under afflictionitself.To
equate prakrtiwithafflictionitselfimpliesthatas a productof spiritual
ignorance, along withthe afflictions,
is conceived as a realitythat
prak.rti,
the yoginshould ultimatelyavoid or discardcompletely.Patarijalileaves lanWhicher

275
 muchroomforunderstanding "dissolution"or "return to the source"
withan epistemological emphasis, thereby allowing the whole system of
Yoga darsana to be interpreted along more open-ended lines. In other
words,whatactually"dissolves"or is endedinYoga is theyogin'smis-
identificationwithprakrti, a mistaken identity of selfthat-contrary to
authentic identity, namelypurusa-can nothingbe more than a product
ofthethree undertheinfluence ofspiritualignorance. Understood
gun.as need not denotethe definitive
as such,pratiprasava ontologicaldis-
solutionofmanifest for
prakrti the yogin, but rather refers to theprocess
of "subtilization" or sattvification ofconsciousnessso necessary to the
uprooting of misidentification-the incorrectworldview born ofavidyJ-
ortheincapacity oftheyoginto "see" fromtheyogicperspective ofthe
seer(dras.tr)
ourtrueidentity as purusa.
Cessation(nirodha)impliesa processof"subtilization"21 or sattvifi-
cationof consciousness, of a gradualde-identification withv.rtti to the
pointofbeingunmistakably one-in-identity as purusa.Thus,thecessa-
tionofthemisidentification withthemodifications ofthemindinvolves
a progressive "interiorization," "subtilization," or"sattvification" ofcon-
sciousness, of one's focus of attention, wherein the
initially congenital
perceivedmisidentification withthe tamasicand rajasic(klista-)vrttis
constituting one's mentalapparatusceases (in samrprajfiata-samadhi).
Eventually the high-level
(in stateof asamrprajfiita-samJdhi), the con-
genitalperceived misidentification with sattvic(aklista-) vrttis ceases.
also
Yetvrttisthemselves do notcease toexist.Evenintheenlightened yogin
thereare tamasic,rajasic,and sattvicdimensions constituting hisor her
prakrtic apparatus,but these gunic qualitiesno longerobscurethe
yogin'sperception of reality.The yogin,however,detachedfromany
identificationwiththe is no longerenslavedtothevrtti-generating
complexofthemind.gun.as,
I wouldliketo suggest, therefore, thatnirodhadenotesan epistemo-
logicalemphasis and refers to the transformation of self-understanding,
not(fortheyogin)theontologicalcessationofprakrti (i.e.,themindand
Nirodhathusis not,as some have explained,an inwardmove-
vrttis).
mentthatannihilates or suppressesvrttis, thoughts, intentions, or ideas
(pratyaya),nor is itthe nonexistence or absence of rather,
v.rtti; nirodha
involvesa progressive expansionof perception(yogi-pratyaksa) that
eventually revealsourtrueidentity as purusa.Elsewhere22 I haveargued
thatcittavrtti describesthe verybasis of ordinary empiricalidentity:
underthe influence of avidyJ, the unenlightened person'smentalpro-
feed intoand are ineluctably
cesses (v.rtti) drivenby23deeplyrooted
impressions(samskiras)24 and habit patterns/personality traits(visa-
nis)25 sustainingan afflicted
sense of self(asmitd).
Seen in the contextabove, cittavrttican be understoodas a generic
Philosophy &
East West termstandingfora misconceivedknowledge(viparyaya-jf"aina)26 or error

276
thatis structuredin thenetwork ofourpsychological (prakrtic) makeup
and veilsour authenticidentity as purusa.The epistemicdistortion or
erroneousknowledge(mithya-jifina)27 functioning as the of vipar-
withvrttis v.rtti
yayaacts as the basis forall misidentification in the unen-
lightened mode(vyutthana)28 ofextrinsic identity.In short,ourafflicted
identityrooted in spiritualignorance functions through viparyaya. Oddly
enough,thisfundamental insight,whichcan be attributed to Vyasa,29
has not been clearlynotedby scholars.I have attempted to clarify
Vyasa's positionand furthermore suggestthatthisinsightintothe na-
tureof viparyaya has profoundimplications forour understanding of
whole
Patanijali's system.
Accordingly, cittavrttidoes notstandforall modifications or mental
processes(cognitive, affective,emotive)inthemind,butistheveryseed
(bqja)mechanism ofthemisidentification withprakrti and from whichall
othervrttisandthoughts ariseandare(mis)appropriated orself-referenced
in the unenlightened stateof mind.Spiritualignorancegivesriseto a
or
malfunctioningmisalignment of vrtti
withpurusathatinYoga can be
corrected, thereby allowing fora properalignment or"right" functioning
of vrtti.30 is an
Cittavrtti analogicalunderstanding of consciousnessin
thatthe consciousnessthathas becomethe mind-as a reflected state
ofconsciousness-isanalogoustopurusa'sconsciousness.31 Thevarious
categoriesof the "seeable" (d.rsya, prakrti) shouldnotbe reified,32 but
rathershould be understoodas interconnected and interdependent
dimensions of humanexperience.The descriptions of the "seeable"33
can be understood as descriptions of the situation ofpurusaas ifmis-
identifiedwithprakrti. Prakrti'svariouslevelsofmanifestation are corre-
lated in the YS withstatesof consciousness,self-understanding, and
identityanalogousto purusaand, I submit,are to be understood with
an epistemological emphasis;through the
prakrti, yogin comes to realize
authentic identityas purusa.
The ultimate significance of is seen in verydefinite, positive
prak.rti
terms,wherein,fromat leasta provisionalpointof view, has
prak.rti
meaning,metaphysically speaking,in the serviceof soteriology: the
metaphysical dualism of and
purusa prakrti can be taken as a provisional
perspective and as one thathas been abstracted fromyogicexperience.
Thisprovisional approachto the existencesof purusaand prakrti can
serveimportant pedagogicalpurposes. In fact, the whole of
concept the
mind(citta)in Yoga can be seen primarily as a heuristic device,rather
thanas a substanceperse, whereby theyogincomesto understand the
functioning ofconsciousness and discernsthedifference betweenitand
purusa. Itis the cittavrtti
as our confusedand mistakenidentity
ofpurusa,
notour vrttis, and in
thoughts, experiences total, thatmust be broughtto
a stateof definitivecessation.
To repeat,the discerningyoginsees (YS 11.15)thatthisgunricworld lanWhicher

277
 or cycle/wheel ofsamsaricidentity is itself
dissatisfaction (duhkha).But,
we mustask,whatexactlyistheproblembeingaddressedinYoga?What
is at issueinYoga philosophy? Isourontological statusas a humanbeing
involvedinday-to-day existence foreverindoubt,infactinneedofbeing
negated,dissolved,in orderforauthentic identity (purusa),an immortal
consciousness, to
finally dawn? Having overcome all ignorance(avidyi,
the"driver"ofthewheeland cause ofall afflicted identity),is itpossible
forone to liveintheworldand no longerbe inconflict withoneselfand
the world?Can the cease to functionin a stateof ignorance
gunlas
and conflict inthemind?Mustthegunicconstitution ofthehumanmind
and thewholeof prakrtic existencedisappear,dissolve,fortheyogin?
Can thewaysofspiritual ignorance be replacedbyan aware,conscious,
non-afflicted identityand activitythattranscends theconflict and con-
fusionof ordinary, samsaric life?Can we live, to
according Patarijali's
Yoga,an embodiedstateoffreedom?

"Aloneness"(Kaivalya): Implications foran EmbodiedFreedom

The termkaivalya,meaning"aloneness,"34has elsewherebeen
translatedas "absolutefreedom,"35 "totalseparation,"36 "transcendental
aloneness,"37"independence,"38 "absoluteisolation,"39 and "isola-
tion."40In the classicaltraditions of Samkhyaand Yoga, kaivalyais
generally understood to be the state of the unconditional existenceof
purusa. In the YS,kaivalya can refermore preciselyto the "aloneness of
seeing" kaivalyam), which,as Patauijali states,followsfromthe
of
(d.reh.
disappearance ignorance (avidyj) and itscreation ofsamyoga41 -the
conjunction of the seer (purusa) and the seeable (i.e., citta,gunas)-
explainedbyVyasaas a mentalsuperimposition (see note10,thisarticle).
"Aloneness"thuscan be construed as purusa'sinnatecapacityforpure,
unbroken, nonattached seeing/perceiving, observing, or "knowing"of
the contentof the mind(citta).42 In an alternative definition, Patanijali
explainskaivalyaas the"return totheorigin"(pratiprasava) ofthegun.as,
whichhave lostall soteriological purposeforthepurusathathas,as it
were,recovereditstranscendent autonomy.43
This sOtra(YS IV.34) also classifieskaivalyaas the establishment
in "own form"/"nature" (svaropa)and the powerof higherawareness
(citikakti).44
Although theseer's(purusa)capacityfor"seeing"is an un-
changingyetdynamicpowerofconsciousness thatshouldnotbe trun-
cated in anyway,nevertheless our karmically distorted or skewedper-
ceptions vitiatethe natural fullness of "seeing." Havingremovedthe
"failure-to-see" the
(adariana), soteriological purposeofthegunasinthe
samsaric conditionof the mind is fulfilled;the mind is relieved of its
formerrole of being a vehicle foravidyJ,the locus of selfhood(egoity)
and the realizationof pure seeing-the natureof
and misidentification,
East
Philosophy & West the seer alone-takes place. YS IV.34 completesthe definitionof Yoga

278
as cittavrttinirodha,whereupontheseerabides in itsown formor pure
identity(YS 1.3).
According to yetanothersOtra(YS 111.55), we are toldthatkaivalya
is establishedwhenthe sattvaof consciousnesshas reacheda stateof
purity analogousto thatof the purusa.45Throughthe processof sub-
tilizationor "return to theorigin"(pratiprasava) in thesattva,thetrans-
formation (parinima)ofthemind(citta) takes place at thedeepestlevel,
bringing abouta radicalchangein perspective: theformer impure, fab-
ricatedstatesconstituting a fractured identity of self are dissolved,
resulting in thecompletepurification of mind.Thispurified mindprob-
ably refers to the "one mind"(cittarn ekamn)46 in its most refinedand
subtleformofsattva(orbuddhi),which,beingpurelikepurusa,is asso-
ciatedwith"aloneness."47 ForPatalijaligoes on to say: "There[inthat
one mind],whatis bornof meditation is without[karmic]residue."48
When the gunas have fulfilled
their purposeforproviding experience
and liberation, theirafflicted conditiondissolvesforeverand purusa,
absolutelydisjoinedfromthemin theirformof ignorance, neveragain
"experiences" sorrow and dissatisfaction (duhkha).49
Throughknowledgeand itstranscendence, self-identity overcomes
itslackof intrinsic grounding, a lacksustainedand exacerbatedbythe
web ofafflictions intheform ofattachment, aversion, andthecompulsive
clinging to lifebased on the fearof extinction. The yoginis no longer
on
dependent liberating knowledge (mind-sattva),50 is no longerattached
Thebeginningless
as a basisforself-identity.
to vrtti successionofchanges
ofthegunas(orempiricalcharacteristics) thatwas incorrectly assumed
to be relatedto authentic identity(purusa), and which was thefirst
itself
notionof bondage,comes to an end. Thisending,it mustbe empha-
sized, does not marka definitive disappearanceof the gunas from
purusa's view.51 Forthe liberatedyogin,thegunascease to existinthe
formofavidyJ, itssamskiras,vrttis,and falseorfixedideas (pratyaya) of
selfhood, which formerlyveiled true The
identity. changing gunic modes
cannotaltertheyogin'snow purified and firmly established conscious-
ness.The mindhas been liberated fromtheegocentric worldofattach-
menttothings Nowtheyogin'sidentity
prakrtic. (as purusa),disassociated
fromignorance,is untouched,unaffected by qualitiesof mind,52un-
influenced by the v.rttisconstituted of the threegunas.The mindand
purusaattainto a samenessof purity (YS 111.55), of harmony, balance,
evenness,and a workability together: the mind appearing inthe natureof
purusa.53
Accordingto Jan Gonda, the various methods and limbs of Yoga
have but one purpose,the isolation(kaivalya)of the spirit.Gonda sees
kaivalya as incorporatingthe perfectsimplicityand uniformity of the
nucleusofpersonality.54As an addendum to Gonda's positionitcan be
statedthatkaivalyain no way destroysor negatesthe personalityof the lanWhicher

279
 yogin,but is an unconditional statein whichall theobstaclesor dis-
tractionspreventing an immanent and purified relationship or engage-
mentofpersonwithnatureand spirit(purusa)havebeen removed.The
deep-rooted "knots"(granthi) ofthemind55ss intheform ofhabitpatterns
(vJsanis)of misconceivedknowledge(viparyaya-jf-jna)56 have been
undone("untied").The mind,whichpreviously functioned underthe
of
sway ignorance, coloring and blocking perception authentic
our of
has now become purified
identity, and no longeroperatesas a locus
of misidentification,confusion, and dissatisfaction (duhkha).Sattva,the
finest
quality(guna) of the mind, has the capacity be perfectly
to lucid/
transparent,like a dust-free mirror in which thelightofpurusais clearly
reflectedand the discriminative discernment (vivekakhyati)57 between
purusa and the sattva of the mind (as the nature ofthe seeable)can take
place.58
The crucial(ontological) pointto be made hereis thatin kaivalya
prakrticeases to perform an obstructing role. In effect, prakrtiherself
has becomeliberated59 fromavidya'sgripincluding themisconceptions,
misappropriations, and misguidedrelationsimplicitwithina worldof
selfhood.The mindhas been transformed,
afflicted liberatedfromthe
egocentricworldofattachment, itsformer afflicted natureabolished;and
left
self-identity alone in its"own form" or true nature as purusais never
again confused with all the relational acts, intentions, and volitionsof
empiricalexistence. Vyasaexplicitly states that emancipation happensin
the mindand does notliterally applyto purusa,whichis by definition
alreadyfreeand therefore has no intrinsic needto be releasedfromthe
of samsnric
fetters existence.60 Whilethisis truefromtheenlightened
perspective, it would notbe inappropriate to suggestthat,figuratively
speaking,in kaivalya,purusaand prakrti are simultaneously liberated
in that-all ignorancehavingbeen removed-theyare both"known,"
included,and therefore freeto be whattheyare.Therebeingno power
of misidentification remaining in nirbrja-samJdhi,61 themindceases to
operatewithinthecontextoftheafflictions, karmicaccumulations, and
consequentcyclesof samsJara implying a mistaken identity of selfhood
subjectto birth and death.
The Yoga-Sotra has oftenbeen regarded as callingfortheseverance
ofpurusafrom prakrti; concepts such as liberation, cessation, dispassion,
and so forth have been interpreted in an explicitly negativelight.Max
Miller,citingBhoja Raja's (eleventhcentury C.E.)commentary62, refers
to Yoga as "separation"(viyoga).63 More recently, numerousother
scholars64have endorsedthisinterpretation, thatis,theabsolutesepa-
ratenessof purusa and prakrti.In assertingthe absolute separationof
purusa and prakrti,scholarsand non-scholarsalike have tended to dis-
regardthe possibilityforother (fresh)hermeneuticaloptions, and this
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and meaningofPatanijali's Yoga has surelyproveddetrimental to a fuller
of
understanding Yogathe darsana bycontinuing a tradition based on a
misreading of the YSand Vyasa'scommentary. Accordingly, theabsolute
separationof purusaand prakrti can onlybe interpreted as a disem-
bodiedstateimplying deathto thephysicalbody.
However,Patainjali observesthatthe "desireforcontinuity" (abhi-
nivesa)in lifeariseseven in thesage,6s although itwould be accurateto
say thatthesage, havingdevelopeddispassiontowardall things,is no
longerenslavedbythisbasic "thirst" or "clinging to life"or byanyfear
ofextinction. To dislodgethesagefrombodilyexistenceisto undermine
theintegrity ofthepedagogicalcontextthatlendsso muchcredibility or
"weight"to theYoga system. Thusitneed notbe assumedthatinYoga
liberationcoincideswithphysicaldeath.66Thiswould onlyallow for
a soteriological end stateof "disembodiedliberation"(videhamukti).
Whatis involvedin Yoga is thedeathof the atomistic, egoic identity,
thedissolution ofthe karmicweb of samsjrathatgeneratesnotionsof
one beinga subjecttrappedin the prakrtic constitution of a particular
body-mind.
The transformation fromignoranceintotheenlightened perspective
requiresa fundamental restructuringof ideas of self,whichtakesplace
through a processthatwe havetermedthe"sattvification" ofthemind.
Intheordinary consensusreality ofempirical existence, thesenseofself
misidentified withany aspectofprakrti thinksthatit is theseer.Upon
meditative reflection itis disclosedthattheempiricalI-senseis notthe
seer,67butmerelymasqueradesas theseer.A high-level powerofdis-
cernment ascertaining the differencebetween the seer and theseeable
arisesandaids inthedissolution ofanyremaining fixedorreified notions
ofselfandworldthatholdtheegoicsenseofselfto be separatefrom the
of
objects experience. The separate, empirical, and prakrtic I-sense in
samyoga (often equated with the principleof ahamkaira) is then under-
stoodto be a function within prakrticatalyzedbytheaffliction ofasmitj.
Butduetothepurification attainedinsamAdhi, thesenseofselfno longer
intheactofperception,
interferes thusresulting ina stateof"unification"
or
(samipatti) non-separation between seer,seeing,and theseeable.As
YS 111.55implies,kaivalyarequiresthe presenceof bothpurusaand
prakrtiin theact of pure"seeing,"purusaproviding theconsciousness
of theseerwho actually"sees" and prakrti supplying thearenaofthe
seeable,theexistenceoftheseen.68
Not being contentwith mere theoreticalknowledge,Yoga is com-
mittedto a practicalway of lifeimplying"physicaltraining,exertionof
willpower,and acts of decision, because itwantsto deal withthe com-
plete human situationand providereal freedom,notjust a theoryof lib-
eration."69To this end, Pataijali included in his presentationof Yoga
an outlineof the "eight-limbed"path (aStariga-yoga),70dealing withthe lanWhicher

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 physical, moral,psychological, and spiritual dimensions oftheyogin,an
integral path that emphasizesorganiccontinuity, balance,and integra-
tion in contrastto the discontinuity, imbalance,and disintegration
inherent in sampyoga. The idea of cosmicbalance and of the mutual
and
support upholding ofthevariouspartsof natureand societyis not
to
foreign Yoga thought. Vyasadeals withthetheoryof "ninecauses"
or
(navakaranini) types causationaccordingto tradition.71
of The ninth
typeofcause is termeddhrti-meaning "support,""sustenance"-and
is explainedbyVyasaas follows:"Thecause ofsustenance forthesense
organs is the body; and that is
[body] supported by these [sense organs].
The elementssustainthebodiesand thebodiessupport each other;and
because therehas to be mutualsupport,animal,human,and divine
bodiessupport all entities."72 Basedon Vyasa'sexplanation ofdhrti, we
can see how mutuality and sustenanceare understood as essentialcon-
ditionsforthe maintenance of the naturaland social world.Thereis
an organicinterdependence of all livingentitieswhereinall (i.e., the
elements,animals,humans,and divinebodies) worktogether forthe
"good" of the whole and for each other.
AtthispointI would liketo emphasizea muchoverlookedaspect
ofYoga thought. Farfrombeingexclusively a subjectively oriented and
introverted path of withdrawal from life,Classical Yoga acknowledges
the intrinsicvalue of "support"and "sustenance"and the interdepen-
dence of all living(embodied)entities, thusupholdingorganiccon-
tinuity,balance,and integration withinthe naturaland social world.
Having achieved that level of insight(prajfif) thatis "truth-bearing"
the
(rtarpbharA),73yoginperceives the natural order (rta)ofcosmicexis-
tence, "unites" with, and embodies that order. To failto see clearly
(adariana)is to fallintodisorder, disharmony, and conflict withoneself
andtheworld.Ineffect, to be ensconcedinignorance impliesa disunion
withthe naturalorderof lifeand inextricably resultsin a failureto
embodythatorder.Through Yoga one gainsproperaccess to theworld
and is therefore establishedin rightrelationship to theworld.Farfrom
being denied or renounced, the world, forthe yogin,has becometrans-
formed,properly engaged. The term 'Yoga', whichcan mean "addi-
tion,"74carries with itthe philosophical connotations ofan inclusiveness
inthatYoga ultimately adds or includesthepowerofconsciousness that
ispurusabutnottotheexclusionofprakrti. Seen here,sarmyoga amounts
to no morethana misperceived unionresulting in a misalignment of
and
purusa prakrti. Yoga, understood as a disengagement from the world
of samyoga75(i.e., ignorance,misidentification, dissatisfaction,
sorrow),
correctsthis misalignment,allowing for a proper alignmentin con-
sciousness betweenthesetwo principles.
Yoga is the "skill in action" (cf. BG 11.50)thatenables the yoginto
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withinthechangingworldof prakrtic identity dependenton the "con-
sciousness-of-objects" (citta, The
vrtti). yogin then developsthecapacity
for(re)focusing on and "retrieving" theunchanging pureconsciousness
The
(purusa). process of nirodha is an effort at breaking away,letting go
of theordinary focusof consciousnessthatgeneratesthe notionof an
empirical/conceptual selfstanding apartfromtheobjectiveworld.Thus,
fortheskillful yogin,samyogaceases, butnotfortheempiricalselves,
since theworldbased on samryoga (samsaric/extrinsic identity) is their
commonexperience.76 Byourconforming (sarQpya) tothemodifications
ofthemind,purusa(theseer)appearsto takeon thenatureofthe
(vrtti)
seeable (d.rgya) in thestateofsarmyoga, givingriseto mistaken identity.
Theworldofsamyogaand mistaken identity, notprakrtiintotal(i.e.,the
everyday worldofnature, forms, andphenomena as wellas theirunmani-
festsource),constitutes the"nature"/"essence oftheseeable" (d.Iryasya-
atmd)(YS 11.21), whicheventually disappearsfortheyogin(see above).
The statusof samyogaand its samsaricidentifications is being
emphasized here as an epistemological error rather thanan ontological
realm(i.e., prak.rti). Yet, such an afflicted stateof affairsin samyoga
remainsforthosewho have notattainedliberating insight. Byfocusing
on thetruenatureoftheseer (purusa),Yoga does notmeanto negate
prakrti or suggesta radicalwithdrawal fromtheseeablethereby remov-
ingprakrti (formed reality,relative states of existence)completely from
theyogin'sview.The yogindoes notbecomea "mind-less"(or"body-
less") being.Rather, theyoginis leftwitha transformed, fullysattvified
mind,which,due to itstransparent nature,can function in theformof
nonbinding vrttis-whether of a or
cognitive affective/emotive nature-
thoughts, ideas or
(pratyaya), intentions, and so forth.Aranrya arguesthat
liberated yoginswho embarkon theirroleas a teacher(guru)"forthe
benefitof all" do so through theirabilityto createor construct a new
(individualized) mind (nirmana-citta) (YS IV.4), "which can be dissolved
atwill"anddoes notcollectsamskaras ofignorance. Sucha mind,Aranrya
continues, cannot"giverisetobondage,"77 can no longer veiltheyogin's
trueidentity as purusa.
In contradistinction to the interpretation mentionedabove, which
views Yoga as a radical "separation"between spiritand matter/
psychophysical being,I am suggesting thatfarfrombeingincompatible
principles, purusa and prakrti engage or participate
can in harmony,
having attained a balance or equilibrium together. The enstatic con-
sciousnessof purusa can coexistwiththe mindand indeed all of
prakrti.78The yoginfullyreconcilesthe eternallyunchangingseer with
the eternallychangingrealm of relativestatesof consciousness only by
allowing the mind, in the experience of samajdhi,to dwell in its pure
sattvicnaturein the "image of purusa," and then to be engaged once
again in the fieldof relativeexistence. The process of "cessation" (nir- lanWhicher

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 odha)deepensfrom cognitive (YS 1.17)samadhiintosupra-
cognitive(asarmprajffita) (sam.prajilta)
samjdhi,79 where itcan be said thattheseer
abidesinitsownform/intrinsic identity(tadj svarope'vastinam).80
According to Vyasa,the repeatedpractice drastuh,
ofthe "experiences"of
enstasygraduallymaturesthe yogin'sconsciousnessinto kaivalya,
"aloneness"orpermanent Thesteadfastness
liberation. oftheconscious-
nessinkaivalyashouldnotbe misconstrued as eitherbeingor leadingto
sheerinactivity,pacifism, or lethargy;rather, stabilityin nirbija-samadhi
allowsfora harmony inactivity inwhichthegunas,no longerstruggling
forpredominance, do not conflictwitheach otherand are attuned
to purusa.We need notreadPatanijali as sayingthattheculmination of
all yogicendeavor-kaivalya-is a staticfinality or inactive,isolated,
stateofbeing.Infact,YS IV.34tellsus thatkaivalyahas as its
solipsistic
foundation theveryheartoftheunlimited dynamism or powerofcon-
sciousness(citisakti)
thatispurusa;81likean incandescent flame,purusa
whitehotin contrast
is utterly to thesputtering, affected"flame"ofthe
mindand self-identity in samryoga. In termsof our primary analogue
of empiricalexistence(cittavrtti), purusais not "active,"or,betterstill,
purusais notseen to be "active."In termsofpurusa'sinexhaustibility,
purusaconstitutes a supremely dynamicpresencethatallowsfora state
of non-afflicted activity(YS IV.30 and YB IV.30). To conclude that
in the liberatedstatetheyoginis incapableof any activity whatsoever
simply amounts to a tautological statement, indeed impliesa circular
argument addressedfroma prakrtic or gunicrather thanan enlightened
perspective.82
In theliberated stateof"aloneness"itcan be said thatprakrti is so
integrated in the yogin's consciousness thatit has become "one" with
the yogin.Kaivalyacan be seen to incorporate an integrated,
psycho-
logical consciousness along with the of
autonomy pure consciousness,
yetpureconsciousnessto whichthe realmof thegunas(e.g.,psycho-
physicalbeing)is completely attunedand integrated. On the levelof
individuality,theyoginhas foundhis (her)place in theworldat large,
"fittingintothe whole";83no longerstruggling to maintainor seek an
identity rooted in domain, yogin establishedin a lasting
prakrti's the is
contentment/peace thattranscends thechangingnatureand conditions
of empiricalreality.This epistemictransformation and reassessment
of experienceinvolvesthe recognition and inclusionof a formerly
concealed,unappreciated, and obscuredmodeofbeingand constitutes
of
Yoga's understanding immortality, a spiritualrecoverywherein
authentic identityis uncovered, disclosed.
In thelastchapterofthe YS (Kaivalya-Pada), "aloneness"(kaivalya)
is said to ensue upon the attainmentof dharmamegha-samadhi, the
"cloud of dharma" samjdhi. This samadhi followsfromthe discrimina-
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284
The high-level discriminative vision(also called prasamkhyana in the
texts)is thefruit ofsamrprajniita-samadhi butis notitselfdharmamegha-
samadhi.85 The yoginmustbe disinterested in and detachedfromvive-
kakhyiti and thesovereign powerand omniscience thatresult.86 Having
relinquished all thirst forthe "seen" and the "heard,"indeedforthe
themselves,87 theyogindiscardsall involvement withthesamsaric
realmofattachment
gu.as and pridebecauseoftheawarenessoftheundesir-
able (sorrowful) consequencesof such reentrance.88 The inclination
towardmisidentification withvrtti has ceased.Theyoginhasabandoned
any search for (or attachment to) rewardor "profit"fromhis or her
meditational A
practice. perpetual stateof discerning insight follows,89
through which is
theyogin always aware ofthefundamental distinction
betweenextrinsic identity/the worldofchangeand intrinsic identity/pure
unchanging consciousness. YS IV.29 states:"Indeed, followingfrom
[that elevated state of] meditative reflection,for the one who has dis-
criminative discernment and is at all timesnonacquisitive, therearises
the'cloud ofdharma'samadhi."90 Vyasaassertsthatbecausetheseed-
samskaraoftaintis destroyed, no further ideas rootedin ignoranceand
basedon an afflicted identity of selfcan arise.91
Dharmamegha-samJdhi, so itappears,presupposes thattheyoginhas
cultivated higherdispassion(para-vairAgya)-the meansto theenstatic
consciousness realizedin Thus,dharmamegha-
samAdhi is more or less asam.prajiiata-samJdhi.92
a synonym of and can
even be understood as the consummate asam.prajiiAta-samadhi
phase of the awakeningdis-
closedinenstasy, thefinalstepon thelongand arduousyogicjourneyto
authenticidentity and "aloneness."93A permanent identity shift-from
theperspective ofthehumanpersonality to purusa-takesplace. Now
freefromany dependenceon or subordination to knowledgeor
and detachedfromtheworldof misidentification v.rtti,
theyogin
(samyoga),
yet retainsthe purified gunic powersof virtueincludingilluminating
"knowledgeofall"94 (dueto purified non-afflicted
sattva), activity95(due
topurified rajas),anda healthy, stable,body-form (duetopurified tamas).
Fullyawakenedintothe self-effulgent natureof purusa,theyoginwit-
nesses,observes,perceivesprakrti, yetceases to be ensnaredand con-
sumedbythedramaor playofthegunaswhetherin theformof igno-
ranceor knowledge,cause or effect, or personalidentity or sense of
otherness. The autotransparent knower,knowledge, and actioncoexist
in a stateofmutualattunement.
One problemthateasilyarisesin Yoga hermeneutics is whenthe
knower and knowledge are completelysundered and the doctrineof
"aloneness" (kaivalya)becomes reifiedinto a radicallydualistic,ortho-
dox perspectivethatparalyzes the possibilityof developing freshways
to understandthe relationbetween the knowerand knowledge.Initially
theremustbe some relation,some continuum(i.e., consciousnessand its lanWhicher

285
 modes:reflected or pure),or liberation would notbe possiblebecause
one couldnevermakethetransition from delusiontoenlightenment. The
point of their distinction is that one must not to
try attempt to understand
or graspthetranscendent knowerfroma relative, empirical, and there-
foreineptperspective.
YS IV.30declares:"Fromthat[dharmamegha-samadhi] thereis the
cessationofafflicted action."96Hencethebindinginfluence ofthegunas
in theformoftheafflictions, pastactions,and misguidedrelationships
is overcome;what remainsis a "cloud of dharma"thatincludesan
"eternality of knowledge"freefromall impurecovering(avarana-mala)
(YS IV.31) orveilingaffliction andwhere"little(remains) tobe known."97
or of
The eternality endlessness knowledgeis betterunderstood meta-
phorically ratherthanliterally: itis notknowledgeexpandedto infinity
but impliespurusarealization,whichtranscends the limitations and
of
particulars knowledge(v.rtti).
The culmination oftheYoga systemis foundwhen,following from
dharmamegha-samadhi, the mind and actions are freed from misidenti-
fication and affliction andone is no longerdeluded/confused withregard
to one's truenatureand identity (svarapa). At thisstage practicethe
of
yoginis disconnected (viyoga)fromall patterns of actionmotivated by
theego. VijiianaBhiksuarguesthatwhilecognitivesamadhiabolishes
all the karmaexcepttheprarabdhakarma-thekarmathatis already
ripening inthepresent-theenstatic realization inasarmprajfAita-samadhi
hasthepotencyto destroy eventheprarabdha karma98 including all the
previoussamskaras.99 The karma of such a yogin is said to be neither
"1white" (adukla)nor"black" (akrsrna) nor"mixed."100 Thereis a com-
or
pleteexhaustion "burning up" of karmic residue, is,theafflictions
that
(kleSas)intheformof latentimpressions (samskaras). According to both
and
Vydsa101 Vijiiana Bhiksu,102 one to whom thishigh state of purifica-
tiontakesplace is designated a jrvanmukta: one who is liberated while
stillalive (i.e., embodied).The moderncommentator Ararnya H. also
assertsthatthrough freedom fromaffliction in theformofsamskara, the
yogin attains to the status of a jTvanmukta.103
By transcending the normativeconventionsand obligationsof
karmicbehavior, theyoginactsmorally notas an extrinsic responseand
outofobedienceto an external moralcode ofconduct,butas an intrin-
sic responseand as a matter ofnatural, purified inclination. Thestainless
of
luminositypure consciousness is revealed as one's fundamental nature.
The yogindoes notact samsnrically and ceases to actfromtheperspec-
tive of a delusive sense of selfconfinedwithinprak.rti'sdomain. Relin-
quishing all obsessive concern with the resultsof activity,the yogin
remainswholly detached fromthe egoic fruitsof action.104The yogin
does not,forexample, indulge in the fruitsof ritualaction, in the merit
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286
vance of traditional ritualisticreligion.By the practiceof a detached
ethic,the yoginmusttranscend thisritualistic, self-centered mentality.
Thisdoes notimplythattheyoginloses all orientation foraction.Dis-
passion (detachment) in its highestform(para-vairagya) (YS 1.16) is
definedbyVyasaas a "clarityof knowledge"(jfnina-prasida).105 Only
attachment (and compulsivedesire),notactionitself, setsin motionthe
law ofmoralcausation(karma)bywhicha personis implicated in sam-
sara.The yoginis said to be attachedto neither virtuenornon-virtue,
and is no longerorientedwithin theegologicalpatterns ofthought as in
theepistemically distorted condition ofsamyoga.Thisdoes notmean,as
some scholarshave misleadingly concluded,thatthespiritual adeptor
yoginisfreetocommitimmoral acts,106 orthattheyoginis motivated by
selfishconcerns.107
Actionsmustnotonlybe executedinthespirit ofunselfishness (i.e.,
or
sacrifice) detachment, they must also be ethically sound,reasonable,
and justifiable. Ifactionwere whollycontingent upon one's mood or
frameofmind,itwouldconstitute a legitimate pretext forimmoral con-
duct. Moreover,the yogin'sspiritual journey-far from being "a-
an
moralprocess"108-isa highlymoralprocess!Theyogin'scommitment
to thesattvification ofconsciousness, including thecultivation ofmoral
virtuessuch as compassion and nonviolence(ahipmsd),110
(karunr.)109
is notan "a-moral"enterprise, noris it an expressionof indifference,
aloofness, or an uncaring attitude to others.Moral disciplinesare
engagedas a natural outgrowth ofintelligent (sattvic)self-understanding,
insight, and commitment to self-transcendence thattakesconsciousness
outof(ec-stasis)itsidentification withtherigidstructure ofthemonadic
ego,thereby reversingthe inveterate tendency of this ego to inflateitself
at theexpenseofitsresponsibility in relation to others.
Havingdefinedthe "goal" of Yoga as "aloneness"(kaivalya), the
question must now be asked: what kind of "aloneness" was Pataiijali
talking about?"Aloneness,"I submit, is nottheisolation oftheseer
(drast.r,
purusa)separatefromtheseeable (d.irya, as is unfortunately
prak.rti), far
toooftenmaintained as thegoal ofYoga,butrefers tothe"aloneness"of
thepowerof"seeing"(YS 11.20, 25) in itsinnatepurity and claritywith-
outanyepistemological distortionand moraldefilement. The cultivation
ofnirodhauprootsthecompulsivetendency to reifytheworldand one-
self(i.e.,thatpervading senseof separateego irrevocably dividedfrom
theencompassing world)withan awarenessthatrevealsthetranscendent,
yetimmanent seer(purusa).Through clear"seeing"(d.r?i), thepurposeof
Yoga is fulfilled,
and theyogin,freefromall misidentification
and impure
karmicresidue(as in theformercontextualsphereof cittavrtti),gains full,
immediateaccess to the world. By accessing the world in such an open
and directmanner,in effect"uniting"(epistemologically)withtheworld,
the yoginceases to be encumberedby egoism (i.e., asmitAand itsegoic lanWhicher

287
 attitudesand identity patterns), which,enmeshedin conflictand con-
fusionand holdingitself as separatefromtheworld,misappropriates the
world.
Whilesucha selfishappropriation ofthe"things"oftheworldmay
achievea temporary or extrinsic sense of satisfaction, it also contains
theseed of itsown dissatisfaction (duhkha) because the onlyavenueto
intrinsic or
well-being happiness,111 according Yoga, to livenotas a
to is
mistaken identity ineluctably makingefforts at trying to fillup itsown
inner"lack" ofpermanency, butto abide as thepermanent seer
or that and (drat.r,
purusa) experiencer (bhoktr)112 "sees" "experiences"the
worldwithout anyselfish seed ofdesireor lack.
In enstasy unlikecognitive
samadhi, there (asam.prajffita-samidhi),
is no objective prop bolstering a reflected (sam.prajfiata-)
self-identity;
thereis no separatedobjector subjectbutthepurusa,noris thereany
powerof knowingexceptthatof purusa.Thisis the basis of kaivalya,
"aloneness,"notbecausethereis an opposition, separation, or conflict-
ingmodesof identity, butbecause thereis no mistaking ofprakrti for
(no of
purusa misconception purusa'sidentity). Authentic identity no
is
as
longermisperceived existing "outside" itself.Clearly,then,Yoga is
nota Cartesian-like dichotomy (ofthinker and thing).113 Norcan Yoga
be describedas a metaphysical unionof an individuated selfwiththe
objective world of nature or the more subtle realms of prakrti. Rather,
Yoga can be seen to unfold-in of
samadhi-states epistemic oneness
thatrevealthenon-separation of knower,knowing, and theknown(YS
1.41),grounding ouridentity in a non-afflicted modeofaction.Kaivalya
impliesa powerof "seeing"in whichthedualismsrootedin ourego-
centricpatterns of attachment, aversion,fear,and so forthhave been
transformed intounselfish waysofbeingwithothers.114
The psychological, ethical,and social implications of thiskindof
identitytransformation are, needless to say, immense. I am suggesting
thatYoga does notdestroyor anesthetizeour feelingsand emotions,
therebyencouragingneglectand indifference towardothers.On the
the
contrary, process of "cessation" (nirodha) steadies one fora lifeof
compassion, discernment, and service informed by "seeing"thatisable
a
to understand ("to stand among," hence "observe")-and is in touch
with-theneedsofothers. Whatseemsespeciallyrelevant forourunder-
standing of Yoga ethics is the enhanced capacity generated in Yoga for
empathic identification with the object one seeks to understand. Thisis a
farcryfromtheportrayal of theyoginas a disengagedfigure, psycho-
logicallyand physically removed from thehumanrelational sphere,who
in an obstinateand obtrusivefashionseversall tieswiththe world.Such
an image of a wise yogin merelyserves to circumscribeour vision of
humanityand, ifanythingelse, stiflethe spiritby prejudicingthe spiri-
&
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288
humanembodiment. Throughout thisessayI have been suggesting that
in Yoga philosophy, "seeing" is not a
only cognitive term but implies
purity of mind(and physicaldiscipline);thatis, it has moralcontent
and value.Noris "knowledge"(jfia~na, vidyd)intheYoga tradition to be
misconstrued as a "bloodless"or "heartless" gnosis.
Yoga involvesthe sacrificeof attachment to the limiting powerof
the "owned" (sva) (YS 11.23),whichincludesthe mind(citta),forthe
unlimited powerof the "owner"(svamin)(YS 11.23)or powerof "see-
ing,"a sacrificeof one's separated,fragmented self-withall of one's
hopes and fears, likes and dislikes, pleasures and sorrows,and ambi-
tions/successes and failures-for the purpose of the unfractured con-
sciousnessoftheseer-the one whotruly "sees." Thisentailsa sacrifice
of all mistakenidentity or misidentification withthe seeable (d.rgya) in
sampyoga for the purpose of authentic as The
identity purusa. perspective
referred to as "Patanijala Yoga darsana"culminates ina permanent state
of clear "seeing" brought aboutthrough the disciplineof Yoga. Yoga
thusincorporates bothan end stateor "goal" and a process,thatis,
beingand becoming.115
On the"path"ofYoga one places one's faith(graddha) (YS 1.20)in
thepresenceorawarenessofpurusa,whichiswithout qualities(nirguna)
or properties and yetis thespiritual foundation ofone's existence.Yoga
does notcall formereblindfaithbut stressesthe need forclarityof
mind-initially groundedinthedirectexperienceofthesattva-which,
as Vyasaasserts, "likea good mother protects a yogin.""116 Whenpurusa
is perceivedas beingdistinct from
(YS 111.49) theextrinsic (gunic)identity
ofself-howeversattvic-whichlaysclaimtotheexperienceintheform
of"myknowledge," "myreward," "myexperience," theyoginthenloses
interest in any attachment to thethingsof the mind;thepersonality is
purified and relinquishes all claimto authentic identity. Withthisshift in
identity from egoityand itslimited knowledge component (bothofwhich
are a partof the seeable) to the knowerof all knowledge, frommis-
identification withcittato identity as purusa,the obfuscations of past
conditioning (samskdras, v5sanas) are removed and theyogin finds his/
herright place inthe world "fitting in" to the world (thecosmos) at large.
A clarityof the innerself(adhyatma-prasada) or right"internal"order
is revealedinwhich"truth-bearing insight" (rtamrbhara-prajf-A),free
(.rta) traceoferroneous
from arisesintheyogin'sconscious-
any knowledge,
ness.117
We must bear in mind that in Yoga there is no bifurcation
betweenthe cosmologicaland the psychological,
or dichotomization
the macrocosmic universe and the microcosmic human being.'118
The superimposition(adhyaropa)(YB 11.18)-a projectionof changing,
impure, sorrowfulstates as real existences "in" purusa-caused by
ignorance provides the fundamentalstructureof our cosmological/ IanWhicher

289
 objectiveand psychological/subjective worldin sampyoga; the "inner"
worldof selfand "outer"worldof the universeis normally livedas a
bifurcation withinprakrti, a subject-object dualityimplying a given,
reifiedworldas referenced to a separatesense of self.In Yoga, the
structures oftheworld(prak.rti), experienceddirectly in samadhi,func-
tionheuristically as contemplative directives forthepurposeofsubtiliz-
ingand sattvifying theyogin'sconsciousness: prakrti is utilizedforthe
liberating of identity from"within"the microcosmic, psychophysical
organism.
Clearlyseen, the body-mind and prakrti in generalare no more
to
impediments purusa realization. Nor, from the perspective of Yoga
philosophy, is prakrti designated as beingeitherontologically unrealor
a mereprojectionof the mind.The processof "cessation"(nirodha),
which may be consideredan ongoingsacrificeof egoityin Yoga,
involvesa continualsurrender of perspectives or fixednotions/ideas
(pratyaya) ofselfto thepointwherethefragmented, dis-easedworldof
sampyoga ends and a healing vision of selfand world, nowbothproperly
harnessed and "putbacktogether," issuesforth. Cognition and attention,
no longerseparatedfrom theknownand theattended, cease tofunction
as bindingpatterns ofmisidentification and attachment as inthenetwork
or mentalcomplexof cittavrtti. The sacrificing (Latinsacrumfacere,"to
makesacred")ofegoic identity or misidentification withprakrti forthe
of as
purpose identifyingpurusa precisely is what renders prakrtisacred
and ultimately revealsherintrinsic significance and value. By implica-
tion,in"aloneness"(kaivalya) sacrifice becomesan effortless, automatic
(spontaneous) sanctification of the totalityof life.
Yoga, in itsprogramof purification, goes beyondthe positionof
Classical whichseemsto restcontentwitha discriminating
knowledge S.mkhya,
(viveka) leadingto a finalisolationof purusaor absolute
separation between purusaand prakrti. Attheend oftheday,prakrti's
attunement to, or alignment with,the purposeof purusaappearsto
be all fornaught.Yet,ifpurusawerefreeto startwith,whywouldcon-
sciousnessget "involved"withprakrti? Purusa's"entanglement" does
intelligize which on her own is said to be devoid of con-
sciousness prak.rti,119The end resultof "involvement" with
(YS IV.19).120 purusa's
thestateof liberated omniscience, is enriching and allowsfora
prak.rti,and of human and
verifying enlivening nature, identity, consciousness.
Froman integral perspective, one can that
argue prak.rti performs hertask
of providing experience and liberation so that consciousness-in its
reflectivemodeor capacityas themind-mayhave contentand func-
tion in an intentional,relational,and practicalway. Purusa is perceived
to shine only throughan experientialjourney into subtlerrealms of
therebydisclosingfinerinsightsintothe natureof consciousness.
East& West prak.rti,
Philosophy of Yoga thatadhere to an absolute separation,imply-
Interpretations

290
inga finalunworkable dualitybetweenspiritand matter, amountto an
impoverishment of ideas. to as
Simply foist, many have done,thisradical
dualisticperspective-onethathasbeeninherited frominterpretationsof
ClassicalSamkhya--onto systemresults
Patanijali's in a parochialization
and trivialization of ClassicalYoga, marginalizing its importance and
reducing itsoverall integrity as one of the six major orthodox Hindu
darsanas.121 In Yoga,however,knowledgecan be utilizedintheinteg-
rityofbeingand action.Thus,Vyasastatesthat"theknoweris liberated
whileyetliving."122 Thepurusais "alone" notbecause itis "at home"
in a purelyatomistic or monadicstate123 bereftof any accessibility-
anyopen "door" or "window"-to an external realmofexistenceand
thereforehavingno connection whatsoever toprakrti. Rather,thepurusa
is "alone" because it transcendsthe faultymechanismof samyoga,
which,likea brokenwheelon a cart,bringsaboutfrustration and, ifnot
properly attended to,unending dissatisfaction.124
Seen here,oursenseofselfis "tossedabout"or"whirled"within the
confining boundariesof identity implicitin the scheme or samsnric
wheel of cittavrtti. Free of such confinement, includingall formsof
obsessionand all ideasof"acquiring"and "possessing," purusais never
a productof,noris itaffected or influenced by,thegunasand karma.
Purusashinesinitsown natureand gloryonlyafter one hasovercomeall
misconceptions about reality.Havingpurified or "corrected"all
out
formsof misconception or "bad space" withinthe mind,the"wheel"
oflifethrough whichconsciousness and self-identity function can move
smoothly, unimpaired.
Can purusa'sexistenceembracestatesof actionand knowledge,
personand personality? Thetradition ofYoga answersintheaffirmative.
Vyasaassertsthathavinggone beyondsorrow,"theomniscient yogin,
whose afflictions and bondagehave been destroyed, disportshimself
[herself]as a master."125 Established in thetruenatureof purusa,the
yogin is now trulyempowered(siddhi)to radiatethelightofpurusa.In
kaivalya,126 theenstaticconsciousness and sattvaofthemind"merge,"
as itwere,ina "sameness"ofpurity resulting ina perfect attunement of
mindand bodyin relation to purusa.The karmicpowerofavidyafunc-
tioningwithinprakrti ceases to have a holdovertheyogin,thekarmic
ego of afflicted selfhoodhavingbeen discarded,itsbarriers dissolved.
The yogin'sattention is no longersuckedintothevortexoftheconflict-
ing opposites(dvandvas)in samsara,is no longerembroiledin the
of desire:the vectorsof attraction(i.e., attach-
polarizingintentionalities
mentor r~ga) and revulsion(i.e., aversionor dvesa). Emancipationdoes
not implya state of apathyor passivitybut rathera mode of comport-
mentdifferent fromthatwhich takes place accordingto the tensionsin
the oppositionbetween activityand passivity.Free fromthe egoic intru-
sions of worldlyexistence,the yoginis said to be left"alone." lanWhicher

291
 Thepurusacan be saidto expressitself inthetime-space continuum
in a particularbody and with a particular personality and mind. Yoga
does notdenytheexistenceof individuality; itallowsfora trans-egoic
development thatis notthedissolution oftheindividual personand his/
herpersonality, but,rather, thatincludestheirextensionintotherecog-
nition,moralintegrity, and celebration of the interconnectedness (be-
cause of the non-separation; thatis, prakrti is "one") of all embodied
beingsand lifeas a whole.Enstasy is livedsimultaneously withourpsy-
chophysical being. The link between the enstatic consciousness (purusa)
and theworldis thepurified sattvaofthemind.
We mustquestionassertions to the effect thathavingattainedlib-
erationthepsychicalapparatus oftheyoginisdestroyed,127 orthatinthe
enlightened statetheyogin'sbodyliveson in a stateof catalepsyuntil
death.128Whatdisappearsforthe yoginis the "failure-to-see" (adar-
sana)129-the worldviewbornof avidyi thatgeneratesthe parasitic
consciousness ofselfinsamyoga-notprakrti herself. The purified mind
and evolutesofprakrti (e.g., intellect,ego) can now be used as vehicles
foran enlightened lifeofinterrelationship, interaction, and service,such
as imparting knowledge to others: the purity cognitivepowerim-
and
personated intheguruorspiritual adeptis transformed froman end into
an availablemeans.Whenone who is accomplishedin Yoga (i.e., has
reachedthestateof nirbrTja-samidhi) opensone's eyes to theworldof
experience, theknower or experiencer (purusa)willbe one's truecenter
ofexperience. Thegunas(i.e.,vrttis) willbe subordinate totheknower1 30/
experiencer,131the"owner"ofthefieldoftheseeable.132 Once thefinal
stageofemancipation is reached,thelowerlevelsof insight previously
gained are not destroyed butare includedby meansof a nonbinding
appropriationand incorporation ofthoseinsights inthelightoffreedom.
Thisstudytherefore that the
suggests through necessary transforma-
tionofconsciousness brought about in samidhi, an authenticandfruitful
coherenceof self-identity, and
perception, activity emergesout of the
former fragmented consciousnessin samyoga.In Yoga thestateoffree-
dom does not necessitatebeingwithoutthoughts or v.rttis.
Freedom
meansto identify as theveryknower(purusa), which,whilepresent tothe
mindand itsmodifications remains
(vrttis), eternally unattached, never
enslaved,subsumed, or consumedbytherealmoftheseeable.Thislib-
eratingrealizationincludesa knowledgethatis inclusiveof all objects
(and conditions)and all times,and is nonsequential.133 The experience
oftransparency in kaivalyarevealsthesimultaneity and interconnected-
nessofall beings,conditions, andthings without abandoning, distorting,
or displacingthe sattvicrealizations-cognitiveand ethical-character-
isticof the formerstatesof clarity,insight,and understanding.What is
discarded in Yoga is notthe mindin total,but ignoranceand itscreation
East& West of misidentification
Philosophy with phenomena or mistakenidentity.When it is

292
said thatone has realizedpurusathrough"cessation"(nirodha),it is
meantthatthereis no further levelto experienceforone's liberation.
Nirodhadoes notindicatethedenialofformed reality orthenegation of
relativestatesofconsciousness. Norneed nirodhaimplybeingrootedin
a conceptionof oneselfthatabstracts fromone's identity as a social,
historical, and embodiedbeing. Nirodharefersto the expansionof
understanding necessary to perceiveeverydimension ofreality fromthe
of
perspective pure,untainted consciousness.
IfPatanijali'sperception of theworldof formsand differences had
been destroyed or discarded,how could he have had such insight into
Yoga and the intricaciesand subtle nuances of the unenlightened
state?134Ifthrough nirodhatheindividual formand thewholeworldhad
been canceledforPatanijali, he wouldmorelikelyhavespenttherestof
his days in the inactivity and isolationof transcendent oblivionrather
thanpresent Yoga philosophy to others! Rather than beinghandicapped
by the exclusionof thinking, perceiving, experiencing, or activity, the
liberated yoginactualizesthepotential to livea fullyintegrated lifeinthe
worldhavingovercomeall enslavement to avidyi.The yoginsimulta-
neously livesas itwere in two worlds: the dimension oftheunqualified
existenceof purusaand the relativedimension(saguna),yet
(nirgun.a)
two worldsthatworktogether as one.
Thereis,then,no reasonwhykaivalyacannotbe seenas a "bridge"
concept,bridging together or harnessing twoformerly undisclosedprin-
ciplesor powersby correcting a misalignment betweenthembased on
a misconception or misperception ofauthentic identity. In thiscontext,
kaivalya is an analogical term and can be understood with an epistemo-
In
logicalemphasis. Yoga, guruthe is not physically isolated oralonebut
remainsfreeeven in the midstof relationships and commitments. The
liberated yogin can exist in relation to the world not beingmorallyor
epistemologically enslaved byworldlyrelationship. yoginis in the
The
worldbutis notdefinedbyworldly existence.Theyogin'sidentity is not
of theworld,thatis, is notof a worldlynature.Havinghimself/herself
passed throughinnumerable lifetimes as a humanbeingexperiencing
variousjoys and sorrows, theguruunderstands ordinary humanlifeas
well as the plightof theaspiringyogin.To be sure,thegurudoes not
"experience"thoughts and emotionsin thesame waythatan ordinary
person does. The adept'sconsciousnesstranscends all mentalactivity
including the affectsof good (merit) and evil (demerit). However,it is
said theadept"cannotbutdo whatis perfectly consonantwithhisown
nature,cannotbutdo theright thing"135 becausetheadeptis perceived
alone butforthe spiritualbenefitof others.
to act notforself-gratification
The purifiedbody-mindof the yogin is used as an instrument
for benevolent action in the world while, at the same time, the ego-
personalityis continuallytranscended throughdispassionate acts of lanWhicher

293
 consciousself-surrender. Identity thusis nota mental,subjectivestate
thatcan indulgeand enjoyaccordingto itsown whims,but refers to
an ontologicalcategory. Transcending the affective dimension in Yoga
does notsignaltheend oftheyogin'sfeeling/emotional nature;feelings,
desires,and emotions,likecognition, are notsimplyreducibleto the
category of nor
affliction, are eithertheyortheirobjectsto be obliterated
or suppressedin Yoga.136As a fullyliberatedbeingtheyoginis now
able toengagelifespontaneously and innocently yetanimatefreely a full
of
range feelings, emotions, and passions without being overtaken by
themandwithout causingharmtoothers.Pedagogically thiswouldhave
important implications in thatthe entirespectrum of humanemotion
could be usedbytheadeptforthepurposeofinstruction.
LiketheBuddha,Patanijali regards duhkhaas thefundamental emo-
tion or affectin responseto the contingency of samrsaric existence.
Overcoming dissatisfaction(duhkha)yet-to-come (YS 11.16)is one ofthe
principal aimsofYoga,and forthisto takeplace dispassionis essential.
Butdispassion(vairAgya) is nota severing, narrowing, orflattening outof
ouraffective lives.The relationship betweensubjectand objectinYoga
is freedto transcend mundaneintention and expectation. Moreover, the
advancedyogincan experienceordinary pleasureand sorrowwithout
wavering-feeling more satisfiedor diminished-in hisor heridentity,
forall is experienced inthelightofpurusa.Forexample,theguru'spar-
ticipationin the fieldof action and simultaneous nonattachment to
the fruits of action137 are groundedin an identity thattranscends the
threegunas.Thefreedom granted to the yogin is not a
merely "negative"
freedom or "freedom from"thefetters ofworldly turbulence, misidenti-
and
fication, sorrow, but can be more positivelyconstrued to incorporate
a "freedom to,"meaning thattheyogincan embodya highly developed,
virtuous stateina manner thatdoes notdistort theyogin'sunderstanding
and identity.
I concludeherethatthereis no reasonwhytheliberated yogincan-
notbe portrayed as a vital,creative, thoughtful, empathetic, balanced,
happy, and wise an
person.Havingadopted integrative orientationtolife,
theenlightened being can endeavor to transform, enrich, and ennoble
theworld.I am therefore suggesting thatthereis a richaffective, moral,
and cognitive as well as spiritualpotential inherent intherealization of
purusa,the"aloneness"ofthepowerofconsciousness/seeing.
Traditionally inYoga itis oftenheldthatyogictechniqueultimately
succeedsonlythrough thegraceand compassionoftherealizedorfully
awakened guru.That is to say, spiritualemancipationtakes place only
for one who receives proper guidance froma liberatedbeing (jTvan-
mukta)and takesthe rightinitiativeand approach to practice.The prac-
tical and soteriologicalorientationin the YS can in no way be separated
East& West fromthe pedagogical dimensionof Yoga. The diversityand flexibility
Philosophy of

294
methodsand theactualprocessofpurification and illumination ofcon-
sciousnessare ofmuchgreater to
importance Patafijali than a metaphy-
sical systemization of reality.Patafijali,a Yoga masterand wise ped-
agogue,emphasizestheprocessesleadingup to purusarealization, and
he clearlyprefers a schemathatattempts to establishthe identity and
distinctness oftheseer(dratr,purusa)or pureconsciousnessagainstall
thatis of the natureof the seeable (drcrya) includingthe objectifiable
processes of themind that
(citta), is,the modifications (vrtti)and objec-
tivecontentorconstructs (pratyaya) of awareness.
Moreover, realizingthedistinctness and pure,non-fractured identity
of thepurusais of greaterconcernthananygrandexplanation of ulti-
mate reality, whetherthatrealitybe dualistically or non-dualistically
understood. Thisstudysuggests thatthedualityoftheseerand thesee-
able inthe YS is bestconceived,at leastinitially, as a provisional, rela-
tiveone thatis meantto servethepracticaland pedagogicalpurposeof
allowingthe yoginto distinguish, in his or her understanding, reality
as "seen" bypurusaand fromtheperspective of intrinsic identity,and
realityas "seen" by the mind and its influences and from the perspective
ofegoityorextrinsic identity.
Patanijali does notview the "discriminative discernment" (viveka-
khyati) between purusa and prakrti merely in inferredor abstract, meta-
physical terms or principles.In Classical Yoga, discriminative discern-
mentnecessitates a consciousness ofmastery overtheforcesofrajasand
tamaswhereby themindis fullysattvified, transformed, purified through
therecognition thatmind-sattva and purusaare distinct.138 Vivekakhyati
incorporates moralvalue and contentas well as cognitiveclarity.As
Vyasastates,the"streamofthemind"thatcommenceswith"discrim-
ination"(viveka)and terminates in "aloneness"flowsto the "good,"
whilethefailure to discriminate properly leadsto "evil."139Experiences
of identity inthesituation ofsamryoga are based on thefailureto distin-
guishbetweentheabsolutelyunmixedpurusaand themind(sattva),140
betweenthe "seer-consciousness" thattruly"sees" objects(including
the subtlestcontentof the mind)and the self-consciousness thathas
conformed to the changingnatureof the mind.Ordinary humancon-
sciousnessis ofthenatureofthe"seeable" and,assumingitself to be the
seer,misperceives the reality ofpurusaas well as prakrti. Thisstudyis
suggesting thatan epistemologically nuanced emphasisbe givento
the natureof discriminative discernment (vivekakhyati) in Yoga: what
is beingemphasizedis forthe yoginto distinguish betweenlevelsof
perception, understanding, and knowledge(i.e.,statesofconsciousness)
ratherthan ontologicalcategoriesalone.
Itwould not be trueto the styleor spiritof Patatijali'sthoughtto end
up reifyingkaivalya into an ultimateprincipleof existence, "all else"
fallingunder the categoryof "illusion," forsuch an interpretation can lanWhicher

295
 easilylead to a formof idealismthataccentuatesa sense of aversion
(dvesa)towardandemotional alienation from theworld.Buttowithdraw
from theworldand merely renounceone's responsibilitieswhileremain-
ingin an afflicted
conditiononeself(e.g.,self-pity,
envy,hypocriticalor
behavior,
self-righteous pride,or a plain lackof energy and confidence)
can onlygenerateegoity,forms ofspiritualmediocrity,a misappropria-
tionof yogictechnique/methods, and pseudo-liberation-all of which
are notto be equatedwithYoga.The dualisticframework thatPatanijali
adopts reflectsthe conditionof the aspiringyogin.It instillsa prag-
maticand practicalorientation thatengagesthe yoginpractitioner in
the cultivationof a spiritualdisciplinecapable of leadingthe yogin
fromstatesof ignorance,impurity, and mistakenidentity to knowl-
edge, purity,and authenticidentity.The realityofthebody,mind,na-
ture,and materiality
ingeneral-so realto one on the"path"ofYoga-
are notdenied.Idealisticinterpretationsof reality
are in factrefuted
in
Yoga.141
Kaivalyacan be saidto represent theculminating fruit
oftheyogin's
commitment to the realization of an underlying or
identity reality that
engagespurusa and both,thereby all
transcending conceptual
prak.rti
all dualisticor non-dualistic
understanding, including notions, regarding
thatidentity or reality.KoelmanarguesthatPatafijali's Yoga can adapt
itself
to different philosophical backgrounds: whether thereis a distinct
purusa for each human personality as Classical Samkhyateaches,or
whether thereis ultimately one supremeSelf(paramitman) as Sanrkara's
AdvaitaVedantamaintains is,accordingto Koelman,indifferent toYoga
technique as such.142
Yoga presupposesthe integration of knowledgeand activity; there
can be no scissionbetweentheoriaand praxis.The Yoga-Sotra isa philo-
sophical text where praxis is deemed to be essential. Without actual
the
practice theory that informs Yoga would have no authentic meaning.
Yet withoutexamination and reflection therewouldbe no meaningful
forliberation,
striving no "goal," as itwere,to setone's sighton. In an
original,inspiring,and penetrating style,Patanijalibridgesmetaphysics
and ethics,transcendence and immanence, and contributes totheHindu
folda formof philosophicalinvestigation that,to borrow JohnTaber's
descriptive phraseforanothercontext, can properly be called a "trans-
formative philosophy." Thatis to say, it is a philosophical perspective
that"does notstandas an edificeisolatedfromexperience;itexistsonly
insofaras itis realizedinexperience."143
Yoga philosophyis primarilya means fortransforming our under-
standingand perceptionof reality;it is not overly concerned with a
metaphysicalcategorization,enumeration,objectification, or systemiza-
and lead to
tion of reality,which all too easily can be misappropriated
East
Philosophy & West reifiednotionsof self and world. Grounded in a pedagogical context,

296
Yoga ontology (YS 11.19)is initiallyabstracted fromdirectexperienceand
acts as a contemplative directive forthe realizationof the underlying,
trans-conceptual realities;a "realized" ontology followsfrom Yoga epis-
temology.Patafijali'ssoteriological, practical, and transformative ap-
proachdoes notmeanthathis systemfailsto considertheontological
implications of Yoga. Rather,Yoga philosophy, like othersystemsof
Indianthought(e.g., withinBuddhismand non-dualistic Vedanta),is
representative of a form of "thought about being that is rooted in and
motivatedby a desireforabsoluteliberation, a kindof 'soteriontol-
ogy'."144 Moreover, this studysuggests that Patanijali'sYoga has pro-
foundimplications foran embodiedstateofliberation.
Havingexpoundeda central,foundational definition of Yoga (YS
1.2),Patanijalipragmatically laysoutvariousmeansto liberation through
which the pure power of "seeing"-the non-separation of knower,
knowing, and known-is revealed.In whatstate,being,or conscious-
ness maypurusabe said to dwell in kaivalya?Perhapskaivalyais a
transitionto a non-dualistic state:theunmodifiable, immutable brahman
orone indivisible realityacknowledged inschools of Vedanta. The Yoga-
Sitra,havingdone theworkof providing practicalguidancethatleads
to kaivalya,remainssilent145 and letstheexperienceor realization itself
answer.Inenstasy(asamnprajfiata-samadhi), theyoginmovesbeyondthe
"seeable," beyondall prakrtic limitations ofconsciousness and identity
and directly "experiences," or rather as
identifies, purusa.Yoga brings
about a trans-empirical or trans-worldly dimensionthat,being both
and
world-transcending world-transforming, does not negateselfand
worldbutproperly or
bridges aligns them. As purusais self-luminous,146
inkaivalya-thetelosofall knowledge-"purusastandsalone initstrue
natureas purelight."147
Purusa"knows"itself and therealmoftheseeable by itsown light
of consciousness. Thuspurusais "known"onlyby purusaand notby
the mind.148 In knowingitself purusais freeto be itself, to abide in its
inviolableidentity, nature, and glory.Through praxisa transformation of
consciousnesstakesplace involving a transformed perception of self-
identity and the world.Even"knowingpurusa"is a metaphor foran
experienceor statethatis betterdescribedas a coming-to-dwell as the
formless knowerinpureknowingness/pure seeing.Self-identity no longer
needsto knowitself reflexively, butis peacefuland immutable becauseit
needsor lacksnothing. In kaivalyatherupture fromauthentic identityis
healedand a fullness ofbeingemerges.

Conclusions
Althoughseveral valuable, contemporaryscholarlywritingshave
helped to presentPatatijali'sphilosophyto a wideracademic and popular
audience, our studysuggeststhat Patarijalihas fartoo oftenbeen mis- lanWhicher

297
 interpreted or misrepresented due to the use of inappropriate method-
ology:partialand misleadingdefinitions of Sanskrit yogictermsand
reductionistic hermeneutics leadingto an imposedradical,dualistic
finalityor closureto Patanijali'sperspective ofYoga. Manyscholarshave
repeatedly givenontologicaldefinitions and explanations fortermsthat,
thisstudymaintains, are moreappropriately understood withan epis-
the
temologicalemphasis.Consequently, specialized sense inherent in
Yoga soteriology is diminished. The soteriological intent of Yoga need
notprecludethepossibility foran integrated, embodiedstateofliberated
identity. A bias is invariably createdwithinthe languageencountered
in thetranslations and interpretations of the Yoga-Satra resulting in an
on due
overemphasis content, consideration having not been givento
form, structure, and function.
It is crucialto viewYoga contextually-asitis lived,experienced,
and embodiedbytheyogin-and notsimply to imputea content system
to thewholeprocessofYoga.The bias extendsto theontologicalprior-
itiesofpurusaoverprak.rti and by consequencethepriority ofaxiology
overepistemology. is
Purusa generally explained or understood as the
and
enlightened ultimately of
hegemonicprinciple pureconsciousness,
ourtrueidentity, whichalone has intrinsic spiritual value.Prak.rti,we are
oftentold,is the non-spiritual cosmogonicprinciplecomprisedof the
threegunas(sattva, rajas,and tamas),has a deluding,binding, yetpara-
doxically subservient nature (forthepurposeofpurusa),and eventually
disappearsfromthe yogin's(i.e., the "seer's") purview,havingbeen
granted no realvalueorplace intheliberated state.Itis notclearthatthe
language of the Yoga-Satra explanatory. could equallybe descrip-
is It
tive,in which case theaxiologicaland ontologicalpriorities wouldcol-
lapse,thereby challenging thewidelyheldscholarly viewthattherela-
tionship between purusa and prakrti,the seer and the seeable
an (drat.r)
is or
(d.rsya), exclusively definitively asymmetrical relation;thatis,
prakrti existsforthe purposeof purusa,and hervalue is seen onlyin
instrumental termsand withinthecontextof a soteriological end state
whichexcludesher.
In Patanijali'scentraldefinition ofYoga (YS 1.2)-the initialfocusof
thisstudy-nirodhahas frequently been understood as an ontological
cessation,suppression, or "deadening"ofthemind(citta)and itsmod-
ifications and thismisunderstanding
(vrtti), has led, I suggest,to some
errors.
majorinterpretative First, one can witness a reductionistic applica-
tionofpositivistic presuppositions to a trans-empirical, trans-conceptual,
mysticalsystem:scholarshave oftenconcludedthatwhen liberation
(apavarga)or "aloneness" (kaivalya)has been attained,theyoginwill no
longerbe capable of experiencingor engagingthe worldsince the body
and mind have ceased to function(at least effectively so). Second, the
East& West pedagogical contextof Yoga involvingthe oral/historical
Philosophy teaching tra-

298
ditionhas eitherbeen ignoredor else this important foundational
dynamicwithinYoga has not been sufficiently takenintoconsidera-
tionand incorporated intothe philosophy. Our hermeneutic mustin-
cludea wayofreadingthetradition ofYoga withinitscultural/religious
context.
Third,byexplaining nirodhaas an ontologicalcessationor negation
of vrttis, many scholars have givena negative, one-sided,and spurious
definition ofYoga. The resultis a volatileconceptof nirodha,one that
emphasizesYoga as beinga formof worlddenialand psychophysical
negationorsuppression. Seen here,phenomenalreality fortheliberated
the
yogin(including mind-body complex) is rendered as a meaning-
lessor purposeless existenceand "dissolves"intoor returns to its"pre-
formed"state,a kindof "nothingness" or rather"no-thing-ness" that
has no more connectionwith consciousness.Consequently,Pata~i-
jali's philosophyas a whole becomesparochialized, even trivialized,
and can be viewedas unapproachable, unintelligible, unattractive, and
impractical.
Purusaindeedhas precedenceoverprakrti in Patanijali's system, for
purusa is what is ordinarily "missing"in human lifeand is ultimately the
stateof consciousnessone mustawakento in Yoga. According to this
study, the liberatedstateof "aloneness" (kaivalya) need not denote either
an ontologicalsuperiority ofpurusaor an exclusionofprak.rti. Kaivalya
can be positively construedas an integration of bothprinciples-an
integration that,I have argued,is whatis mostimportant forYoga. The
sheerquestioning ofwhypurusa-beingbynatureeverpure,wise,and
free-would care or even botherto be involvedor integrated with
"insentient" prakrtiis itselflaced witha radicaldualisticassumption
aboutYoga thatis perhapsmoreindicative ofa spiritually elitistunder-
of
standing Patanijali's thought: conceived
prakrti, to be the "inferior,"
lessworthy, andtherefore undesirablereality of the two, is leftbehindfor
good in the enlightened state.Moreover,the callingintoquestionof
purusa's "involvement" in matterpresupposes thatthenatureofpurusa
and prakrti's "togetherness" or "union" is intrinsically rootedin igno-
ranceand can therefore onlygenerate mistaken identity, suffering, frus-
tration, and dissatisfaction (duhkha).
Butwhatifthenatureoftherelationship itself(betweenpurusaand
is transformed fromthebinding, obfuscated involvements inher-
prak.rti)
ent in the situationof samyogato the liberating mode of activity and
"seeing" inherent in Yoga? Yoga can be understood, then,as having
correcteda basic "misalignment"(i.e., "misconception")betweenpurusa
and prakrti,implyingthereforethe establishmentof a clear "alignment"
between these two principles.The problemof "self" and "identity"in
Yoga lies not in ontology-the existence of purusa and are not
prak.rti
in doubt-but in perception,self-understanding, and the activityof lanWhicher

299
 decisionmaking.How/what we perceiveand how we chooseto act is
crucialinYoga.
Admittedly, the moreintegrative approachto Patanijali's Yoga dar-
sana suggested inthisstudydoes raisesomerather provocative questions
thatI feelneed to be raisedin orderto reflect adequatelyon thepro-
fundity and emphasisofthisfoundational scriptureofYoga,the Yoga-
SCtra.Insteadofassuming an absoluteincommensurability betweenthese
two principleswe can ask: have purusaand prakrti-botheternally
existentprinciples-ever beenseparate(i.e.,absolutely disjoined)? Could
they ever be separate? Does pure consciousness in as
itself, a purelyiso-
lated,relationless state-a formless reality eternallyseparate from allform
-actuallyexist?Or,likethetermcitta,coulditbe understood as a heuris-
ticnotion, perhapsevena stagealongtheway,thatskillfully servestolead
to thefullness ofouridentity as revealedinkaivalya? Thereis no ultimate
evidencegiveninthe Yoga-Sotra to conclude,on a definitive basis,that
the unboundidentity oftheseer (drastr, purusa)does notor cannoten-
gage with, even include,the realm of the seeable (d.r~ya,
prakrti).
To breakpurusaand prakrti apart and keepone and tryto discard
the otheris an enterprise thatcreatesdisequilibrium or imbalancein-
volvingconfusednotionsof identity or "self"that,I submit, are clearly
inimicalto Yoga. Such notionsmay have a compulsiveattachment
orientation (raga)(YS 11.7)wherebywe succumbto theworldand can
become easilyenmeshedin formsof narcissism and egocentrism by
aggressively objectifyingand exploiting theworldand others.Or such
notionsmaybe stringently rootedin an aversionorientation (dvesa)(YS
an and
11.8)involving exaggerated impoverished sense of "isolation"
fromtheworld,a formofescape orflight ofselfwithan impulsetoward
self-negation. Both of these extremes-worldly entrapment and escape
fromtheworld-mustbe transcended inYoga.
Patanijali's definitionof Yoga (YS 1.2)can be seen as an effective
prescription forcorrecting the deludedor confusedstateof affairs in
samyoga.Epistemologically, the mind (citta)has two basic opposing
tendenciesor qualities:ignorance(avidya)of reality, and knowledge
(jfiana)of reality.The degreeor levelof knowledge thatexistsdepends
on the extentto whichour psychophysical beinghas undergonethe
and
purifying illuminating process of sattvification-"sattvification"
implying a processthrough whichignoranceis gradually removedand
knowledge predominates. the
Paradoxically, mind, which under thegrip
of ignorance formerly actedas a locusformisidentification in samyoga
and was burdenedand restricted in itspowerofperception, becomes-
througha transformativeprocess in Yoga-an instrument of liberating
knowledge or insight(prajfiA).
This knowledge,it has been argued, is
then incorporatedand integratedin the stateof "aloneness" (kaivalya).
East& West Viewed fromanotherangle, underthe influenceof avidyd,the reflected
Philosophy

300
consciousness ofpurusainthemindmakespurusaappearembroiledin
samsira,selfhoodbeingconceivedwithinprakrtic existenceas a mere
product or creation ofthe three
gunas(triguna).
Thus, one's identityis confinedwithinthe cittavrtti schematic,
resulting in a misidentification withand misappropriation of
the of the "cessation" of prak.rti.
Through process (nirodha) purusa'sapparent
misidentification ignorance-in the formof the samskira
with v.rtti,
of
complex personality traits or habitpatterns (visanis) entrenched in
erroneousknowledge(viparyaya-j]ifna) or misperception-is siftedout
fromthe yogin'sview. Impurity (asuddhi)dissolves,leadingto an in-
creasinglightof knowledge(jfiana-dTpti) (YS 11.28),and the mindthat
is inclinedtowarddiscriminative discernment (vivekakhyjti) thenhas a
propensity forkaivalya(YS IV.26).The resultofthistransformed stateof
is
identity nothing lessthan the "aloneness of seeing" unencumbered in
itsfullness. I haveproposedthattheYoga-SCtra does notupholda "path"
of liberation thatultimately renderspurusaand prakrtiincapableof
"cooperating"together. Rather, the Yoga-Satra seeksto "unite"these
two principleswithoutthe presenceof any defiledunderstanding, to
bringthem"together," properly aligning them in a state of balance,
harmony, and a fullnessof knowledgein the integrity of being and
action.
Byviewingthe Yoga-Sotra as havinggivena legitimate voice to the
questforan absoluteseparation and
ofpurusa prak.rti, scholars and other
writers on Yoga maywell have misreadPataiijali,portraying thegreat
masteras havingtaughta formof radicaldualism-a dualismthathas
oftenbeen at thecenterofcontroversy and mayeven be consideredan
anomalywithinHinduism.A dominantphilosophicalpositionwithin
Hinduismpriorto the Yoga-Sotra, and whichincludesUpanisadicwrit-
ings and the Mahibharataepic, has been non-dualistic orpanentheistic.
Thus,mostYogathought/schools to
leadingup Patanijali's time,orwhich
subsequently developedafter theYoga-Satra, haveadvocatedsomeform
of non-dualism or theism.Indeed,yogic(Hindu)teachingsthatarose
afterPatanijali-asrecorded, forexample,inthe YogaUpanisads,Yoga-
vsisitha,Hindutantricworks(e.g.,the Mahinirvaina-Tantra), worksin
Kashmiri Saivism,and Hatha-Yoga-canbe seen as reaffirmations of a
non-dualunderstanding of reality and are informed moreby the meta-
physicsof(Advaita) VedantathanbytheSamkhyan dualisticframework.
Are we to understand Patanijali's Yoga as a systemthat"can almost
be regardedas an interludein a tradition thatwas fromthe outset
non-dualistic"?1 49
Notwithstandingthe long-lastingand primarilypractical influence
of the Yoga-SOtraas well as the overall status granted to Classical
Yoga as one of the six orthodox philosophical schools (darianas) of
Brahmanical Hinduism, we suggest that the inappropriatelabel of lanWhicher

301
 "radicaldualism"inflicted upon Patanijali's philosophy combinedwith
a somewhatattenuated or elusiveconceptof"God" (Tivara)150 has dis-
its and
paraged integrity prevented Yoga the darsana from assuming
greaterreligious,philosophical, and culturalsignificance thanit truly
deserves.This studyhas arguedfora moreopen-endedapproachto
Patanijali'sthought, an approachthat,ithas been suggested, orientsus
towardor morecloselyalignsus withthe intentor purposeof Yoga
itself.51
Thus,Patanijali's Yoga, definedas cittav.rttinirodha, need notimply
the extinction or evaporation of our "personhood"alongwiththeob-
jective,materialworld.Rather,it seems moreaccurateto assertthat
Yoga culminates in theeradication ofspiritual ignorance(avidyi)-the
rootcause of our misidentification with,and attachment to, worldly
(orotherworldly!) existence.In thisway,Yoga removesour selfishness
and suffering (duhkha)rootedin an afflicted and mistaken self-identity
(asmitd).
Intheprocessofnirodha, twoseemingly antitheticalimpulses can be
discerned:one pressesfora deconstruction and unmasking ofa prakrtic
identityofself-itscognitions, emotivedispositions, beliefs,worldview,
and so forth-andthe otherforan integration and reconciliation of
individuality/personhood/embodimentplace and its in the world. Yoga
allows fora dynamicinterplay and creativetensionbetweenidenti-
ficationand associationwithintheempirical world(prakrti) and a trans-
empirical ortrans-worldly identity (purusa).Through thesummation and
transmutation ofall pastexperience, achievedinasamrprajiiata, Yogacan
thusbe recognized as a highly developed and integrated state ofmystical
illumination thatextendsand enhancesourself-identity. Liberated from
the pain of self-limitation and all destructive personality traits/habit
patterns (vasands), and havingincorporated an expandedand enriched
sense of personal/empirical identity embodyingvirtuessuch as non-
violence(ahimsV), compassion(karunI),and yogicinsight (prajffi),the
yogin can dwell in a stateof balance and fulfillment, serving others while
feeling/being truly at homeintheworld.Theyogincan function inrela-
tionto the worldnotbeingmorallyor epistemologically enslavedby
worldly relationship. Freedom, therefore, is notto be equatedwithliving
in an everyday worldconditioned by attachment; itis livingand acting
in the everydayworldwithpurusarealization.Nor is freedomto be
confusedwithescapefromtheworld.Freedomdenotesa transformation
of our entireway of beingor mode of actionas embodiedwithinthe
lived world itself.
Both moralityand perception (cognition) are essential channels
throughwhich human consciousness, far frombeing negated or sup-
pressed, is transformedand illuminated.Yoga combines discerning
East& West knowledgewithan emotional,affective,and moralsensibility,
Philosophy allowing

302
fora participatory epistemology thatincorporates the moralamplitude
forempathicidentification withthe objectsor personsone seeks to
understand. The enhancedperceptiongainedthroughYoga mustbe
interwoven withYoga's richaffective and moraldimensions to forma
thatdoes notbecomeentangledin a web ofantinomianism,
spirituality
butwhichretains theintegrityand vitality to transformourlivesand the
livesofothersinan effective manner.Byupholding an integrationofthe
moraland themystical, Yoga supports a reconciliation oftheprevalent
tensionwithinHinduismbetween(1) spiritualengagement and self-
identity within the world and
(pravrtti) (2) spiritual
disengagement from
worldliness whichtranscends
and self-identity, theworld(nivrtti). Yoga
discernsandteachesa balancebetweenthesetwoapparently conflicting
orientations.
This studyhas attempted to counterthe radicallydualistic,iso-
and
lationistic, ontologically oriented interpretations of Yoga presented
by manyscholars-wherethefullpotentialities ofour humanembodi-
mentare constrainedwithina radical,rigid,dualisticmetaphysical
structure-andproposeinsteadan open-ended,morallyand epistemo-
logicallyorientedhermeneutic thatfreesYoga of the long-standing
conceptionofspiritual isolation,
disembodiment, and world
self-denial,
negationandthusfromitspessimistic image.Our interpretation does not
impute that kaivalya denotes a final incommensurability between spirit
and matter. Itwas suggestedthatwhilePatafijali can be understood as
havingadopteda provisional, practical,dualisticmetaphysics, thereis
no proofthathissystem endsinduality.
As well as beingone ofthe seminaltextson yogictechniqueand
transformative/liberativeapproacheswithin Indianphilosophy, Patafijali's
Yoga-Sotra has to thisday remainedone ofthemostinfluential spiritual
guides in Hinduism. In addition to a large number of people within
India, millions ofWesterners are activelypracticing some formofYoga
influencedby Patanjali'sthought, clearlydemonstrating Yoga's rele-
vance fortodayas a disciplinethatcan transcendcultural,religious,
and philosophicalbarriers. The universaland universalizing potential
of Yoga makes it one of India'sfinestcontributions to our modern/
postmodern struggle forself-definition,moralintegrity, and spiritualre-
newal. The mainpurposeof thisessay has been to considera fresh
approachin whichto reexamine and assessClassicalYoga philosophy,
one thathelps to disclose the integrity of the Yoga dariana. There
is, I submit,nothingin whatI have arguedthatcan be provento be
incompatible withPatanijali's
thought. Thus,itis myhope thatsomeof
the suggestionspresentedin this studycan functionas a catalystfor
bringingPataijali's thoughtintoa more fruitful
dialogue and encounter
withotherreligiousand philosophicaltraditionsbothwithinand outside
India. IanWhicher

303
 NOTES

Abbreviations
are usedintheTextand Notesas follows:
RM RJja-MJrtanda
ofBhojaRaja (ca. eleventhcentury
C.E.)
SK SJmkhya-KJrikJ
ofI'vara Krsna(ca. fourth-fifth
centuryC.E.)
TV VacaspatiMigra(ca. ninthcentury
Tattva-VaiSaradTof C.E.)
YB ofVyasa(ca. fifth-sixth
Yoga-Bhjsya century C.E.)
YS ofPatafijali
Yoga-Satra (ca. second-third
century C.E.)
YSS Yoga-Sira-Samrgraha
ofVijnidna Bhiksu(ca. sixteenth C.E.)
century
YV Yoga-Varttika ofVijniana Bhiksu
1 - Due to obviouslimitations of space, thisessaycan presentonly
some of themainarguments givenin an earlier,morethorough
study(see Whicher 1992). A revised version,TheIntegrityofthe
is in
YogaDariana, presently press(Albany: StateUniversity of
New YorkPress).I have also drawnand expandedupon ideas
froman earlierarticle(1995), "Cessationand Integration in Clas-
sical Yoga," AsianPhilosophy 5 (1). I have notoffereda critical
analysisof Vyasa's commentary forthe purposeof tryingto
determine how farVyasa correctly explainsthe YS. Ratherthis
study draws upon the wealth of philosophicaland experiential
insight thatthe YB bringsto our understanding ofthe YS. Forthe
Sanskrit textoftheYSand theYBsee: Pataiijalayogadariana, with
theYoga-Bhdsya ofVyisa,theTattva-VaiSaradi ofVicaspatiMisra,
and the ofBhoja RJja,ed. KasTnatha Aga~e,
SastrT
Raja-Martan.da 47 (Poona,1904). Unlessotherwise
Anandasrama SanskritSeries
specified,all translationsare myown. See also note22 below,
whichdiscussestwoissues,textually and philosophicallyrelated,
dealtwithin previousarticles, thatinform themainargument of
thisessay.
2 - YS 1.2,p. 4: yogaslcittav.rttinirodhah. The modificationsor func-
of the mind(citta)are said to be fivefold(YS 1.6),
tions(v.rtti)
namely'valid cognition'(pramAnia, which includesperception
[pratyaksaj, inference [anumina], and validtestimony [Agama]);
'error'/'misconception' (viparyaya); 'conceptualization'(vikalpa);
'sleep' (nidrj);and 'memory'(smrti), and are describedas being
'afflicted'(klista)or 'non-afflicted' (YS 1.5). Citta is an
(aklis.ta)
umbrellatermthatincorporates'intellect'(buddhi),'sense of self'
(aharnkara),and 'mind-organ'(manas),and can be viewed as the
East& West
Philosophy aggregateof the cognitive,conative, and affectiveprocesses and

304
 functions of phenomenalconsciousness;thatis, it consistsof a
grasping,intentional,andvolitional consciousness.Foran in-depth
look at the meaningof the termscittaand vrtti, see Whicher
1997[-1998]. In thefirstfour satras ofthefirst
chapter(Samjdhi-
PRda),the subject matter of the YS is mentioned,defined,and
characterized. Thescitrasrunas follows:YS1.1: "Now [begins]the
disciplineof Yoga"; YS 1.2: "Yoga is thecessationof [themis-
with]themodifications
identification ofthemind";YS 1.3: "Then
[whenthatcessationhastakenplace]thereisabidingintheSeer's
own form[i.e.,purusaor intrinsic YS 1.4: "Otherwise
identity]";
[thereis] conformity to [i.e., misidentification
with]the modifi-
the YS
cations[of mind]." 1.1-4,pp. 1, 4, 7, and 7, respectively:
athayoginusasanam; tada drastuhsvar-
yogaslcittav.rttinirodhab;
Ope'vasthJnam; v.rttisarOpyam itaratra.
3 - Monier-Williams1899, p. 884.

4 - Aranya1963, p. 1; DvivedT1930, p. 2; and Eliade1969, p. 36.

5 - Taimni1961, p. 6; Leggett
1990, p. 60.
6 - Woods1914,p. 8; Koelman1970,p. 237; Feuerstein
1979,p. 26;
and Rukmani
1981, p. 31.
7 - Larson1987,p. 28; Varenne1976, p. 87.
8 - Tola and Dragonetti
1987, p. 5; Chappleand Viraj1990, p. 33.
9 - Arya1986, p. 93. See also ShreePurohit
(1973), who translates
nirodhaas "controlling."
10 - YB 11.18,p. 84: etenagrahanadharanohapoha tattva
jfAndbhini-
vesabuddhauvartamanih puruse'dhyaropitasad bhavjh.YS11.17,
p. 79: dras.t.rd.ryayoh
sarpyogoheyahetulh, "The conjunction be-
tweenthe seerand theseeable is thecause ofwhatis to be over-
come" (i.e.,suffering,
dissatisfaction
[duhkhal).
11 - YB 11.6,p. 96: tathicoktam-'buddhitah parampurusamAkar-
asrlavidyadibhirvibhaktam apasyan kuryJttatrd"tmabuddhimr
mohena.'VdcaspatiMigra(TV11.6,p. 64) tellsus thatthisquota-
tionusedbyVyasais bytheSamkhya teacherPanicasikha.
12 - The afflictions
(klegas)consistof:ignorance(avidyV),
egoity/I-am-
ness (asmitA),attachment(rAga),aversion (dvesa), and desire for
continuity/fearof death (abhiniveSa);see YS 11.3-9, pp. 59-65.
Ignoranceis said to be the originof the otherfourafflictions (YS
11.4)and is definedby Pataijali (YS 11.5,p. 61) as follows:"Igno-
rance is seeing the non-eternalas eternal,the impureas pure, lanWhicher

305
 dissatisfaction
as happiness,and the nonselfas self,"anityjsuci-
duhkhJnatmasu nityasucisukhitma avidyi.
khyJtir
13 - YS 1.4;see note 2 above.
14 - See note 12 above.
15 - See, for example,the worksof Swami Vivekananda(1977,
2:255-256 and 8:48), inwhicha verynegativeapproachto the
mindis oftenadopted.I do notthink theissuebeingraisedhereis
merelyone of semanticsbut ratherreflects a basic misunder-
of
standing Yoga philosophy itselfand the actual processof
thought-or mind-transcendence that takes place in Yoga. It is of
interest
to notethatthepracticeofYoga as usuallyunderstood in
modernWesterncontextsis oftenconfinedto physicalexercises
or postures(Osana)perhapsaccompaniedby breathing exercises
(prnyama) and techniques for concentration of the
mind.The deeper,moresubtlepracticeof meditation (dhiran.)
leadingto
samidhiis oftenignored,albeitforgood reasonsas, as is often
thecase, theYoga instructors are notqualifiedthemselves norare
in
theyexperienced higher meditative disciplines.Alternatively,
foran inexperienced instructorto teachmeditation to students of
Yoga would be, from the perspectiveof the tradition
of Yoga itself,
pedagogicallyunsoundand irresponsible. Moreover,if Yoga
is as
practice presented resulting in
ultimately theannihilation or
negationof themind,itwould notbe unreasonable to presume
thataspirantswouldresisttheseriousstudyand practiceofYoga,
believingthatYoga would makethemincapableof functioning
effectivelyintheworld.Inan about-turn in hisperspective, Vive-
kanandacontradicts his more negativeapproachto the mind
when(see Vivekananda 1977,8:47-48) he appearsto instruct his
listeners
to makeno effort to controltheirthoughts, butsimplyto
watchthem.In hisauthoritative book Yogaand theHinduTradi-
tion,JeanVarennequestions themeaningof"cessation"(nirodha)
inYoga and rightly concludesthat"Yoga is indeedthecessation
of agitationoftheconsciousness"(Varenne1976, pp. 6-7). But
he latergoes on to supporta moresuppressive approachto the
mindin Yoga. See, forexample,wherehe writes:"the chitta,
whoseactivity yogamakesitan aimto destroy..."(p. 114).To be
sure,Yoga does encompassmeditative stateswherethereis a
temporary suspensionofthe mentalprocessesand identification
withvrtti,whichculminates inenstasy a
(asam.prajfiata-samJdhi):
statewherethe pure experienceror knower-purusa-is "alone"
and the yoginis leftwithnothingmoreto experienceor know for
the sake of liberation.This advanced and crucial stage of yogic
East& West
Philosophy practice is forthe purpose of the finaleliminationof ignorance;

306
 butitneed notbe understoodas resulting
in a definitive
or per-
manentcessationor suspensionof the mentalprocessesof the
mindintotal.
16 - YS11.15,p. 74: parin~mat.pasamskaraduhkhair gunav.rttivirodhac
ca duhkham eva sarvamr vivekinah,"Becauseofthedissatisfaction
and sufferingsdue to changeand anxietiesand thelatentimpres-
sions,and fromtheconflict ofthemodificationsofthegunas,for
thediscerning one,all is sorrowalone."
17 - Patanijali
usesthetermpratiprasava twice,in YS 11.10and IV.34.
18 - See Chappleand Viraj1990,p. 60.
19 - Feuerstein1979a, p. 65.
20 - Cf.Leggett1990,p. 195, and Arya1986,pp. 146,471.
21 - "Subtilization"
is a termusedbyChappleand Viraj(1990,p. 4).
22 - Fora detailedstudyofvariousforms ofpracticeintheYoga-Sotra,
the
including "eight-limbed" Yoga (as.tjarga-yoga)(YS 11.29),see
Whicher1997, whereI have offered an analysisand critiqueof
varioustranslations and interpretations,frombothclassicaland
modernliterature on theYS,ofthecentraldefinition ofYogagiven
in YS 1.2.Thistakesintoconsideration thecommentaries/glosses
ofVyasa,VacaspatiMigra,BhojaRaja,Vijniana Bhiksu, and others
who havecontributed totheexegeticaltradition ofYoga;thusI do
notwantto repeatmyself here.A morethorough studyof Patani-
jali's thought thattakes intoaccount what is givenabove is given
in mylargerwork,presently in press,The Integrity of the Yoga
Darsana(Albany:StateUniversity of New YorkPress).I should
add thatthe verydetailedcommentary attributed by some to
Sanfkara (ca. 800 C.E.),the greatexponent of Advaita Vedanta,
titled Expositionon the Com-
mentary [of Vyasa] on the Yoga-Satra"-(andwhich is more
YogasQtrabhbsyavivaran.a-1"An
properly called PAtanijalayogasastravivarana)has notbeen incor-
porated into this The
study. question ofthe genuineauthorship of
thistextabove remainsunanswered forthetimebeing.Thereare,
as some have argued,severalnoteworthy reasonsto question
Sankara'sauthorshipof this text;on this,see, for example,
Rukmani 1992. One otherpointneedsto be noted(initially raised
by an anonymous reader of an earlierdraft of thisessayand for
whose commentsI am grateful)thatpertainsto the more philo-
sophical issue at hand. It is clear that Pataijali distinguishes
between (1) identityor selfhood that is of the nature of pure,
immortalconsciousness (purusa)-the "seer" (dras.tr)-and (2)
identityor selfhoodthatis of the natureof the "seeable" (d.rdya), lanWhicher

307
 thatconsistsof thethreeconstituents
thatis, prak.rti or gunias-
sattva,rajas,and tamas-and includesthe mind(citta)and its
variousmodifications (vrtti),givingriseto a volitional,grasping,
and intentional awareness.Purusais normally understood as an
unintentional consciousnessthattranscends the intentions, voli-
tions,and ideas of empiricalself-identity. sure,purecon-
To be
sciousnessis thebasisofenlightenment. However,enlightenment
in Yoga, as I go on to argue,need notexcludethe mindand
the intentional realmin thatthe liberatedyogincan act in the
worldand yetis no longermorally or epistemologically enslaved
to worldlyidentity. Priorto liberation, self-identity rooted
is
in ignoranceof authenticidentity (purusa).In the liberatedstate
of "aloneness" (kaivalya),pure consciousnessand mind(i.e.,
reflected consciousnessor "consciousness-of") can coexistand
attaina balance or harmonytogether, the mindand body of
theyogincontinuing to function, butin a mannerthatno longer
eclipses or veils authentic This integration
identity. of sortsbe-
tweenpurusaand the mindimpliesthatafflicted or mistaken
identityofselfhas ceased through thenecessary processinYoga
ofthepurification and illumination ofthemind.Butthisdoes not
meanto saythatpurusaneedthenbe classified as an intentional
consciousness. Rather, the realization
of purusa thefoundation
is
fora non-enslavement to theintentions and volitions ofempirical
identity,whichformerly definedand shaped one's identity or
sense of self.See as well Whicher1997[-1998],whichtakesa
close lookat themeaningof perception (pratyaksa) in Yoga; see
also theexamination ofthemeaningofnirodhainWhicher1997.
23 - YB 1.5,p. 10.
24 - YS 11.15and IV.9.
25 - YS IV.8 and 24.
26 - YB 11.24,p. 95.
27 - YS 1.8,p. 12.
28 - YS 111.9,
p. 122.
29 - YB 1.8,p. 13.
30 - See Whicher1997.
31 - Fora deeperanalysisof thisanalogicalunderstanding
of con-
sciousness,see Whicher1997[-1998].
32 - As is oftenthecase intheSamkhyatraditionand itsinterpretations.
East& West 33 - As outlinedin YS 11.18-19.
Philosophy

308
34 - The termkaivalyacomes fromkevala,meaning"alone." Feuer-
stein(1979a: 75) also translates
kaivalyaas "aloneness"butwith
a metaphysical or ontologicalemphasisthatimpliestheabsolute
separationofpurusaand prakrti.
35 - See Prasada 1912, p. 142.
36 - See Pensa 1969, p. 209.
37 - See Leggett1990, p. 252.
38 - See Phillips1985, p. 402.
39 - See Eliade 1969, p. 93.
40 - See Tola and Dragonetti 1987,p. xvii,and Rukmani 1989,p. 139.
Koelman(1970, p. 251) adoptstheterm"isolation"as ina solip-
sisticstate.Varenne(1976) uses the term"isolation"(p. 67) as
well as theexpression "absolutesolitude"(p. 138). Chappleand
Viraj(1990) also use theterm"isolation,"implying, however,"an
embodiedexperience[as] givenin [YS] 1:3"(p. 122) whereinthe
seerabidesinitsownform ortrueidentity.Whilenoting (p. 8) that
thepurity from
resulting Yoga "guarantees non-afflicted
action," it
does notappearto have been the intentof Chappleand Viraj
in theiranalysisand translation of the YS to explorefurther the
natureofkaivalyaas an embodiedstateofliberation.
41 - YS 11.25,p. 96: tadabhbvjtsamryogjbhjvo
hinam taddyrieh
kaivalyam.
42 - YS 11.20and IV.18.
43 - YS IV.34, p. 207: purusJrthas"OnyiJnim
guoinim pratiprasavah
kaivalyam vj
svarapapratisthi.citigaktir
iti.
44 - See note 43 above.
45 - YS 111.55, p. 174: sattvapurusayohb uddhisamyekaivalyamiti.
One mustbe carefulnotto characterize thestateofsattvaitself as
liberation forwithout
or kaivalya, thepresenceofpurusathemind
(as reflectedconsciousness)could notfunction in itsmosttrans-
parentaspectas sattva. It is notaccurate,accordingto Yoga phi-
losophy, to saythatthesattvais equivalentto liberationitself.
The
question of the natureof the gunas from the enlightened per-
spectiveis an interestingone. In the BhagavadgTtJ (11.45),Krsna
advisesArjunato become freefromthe threegunas and then
gives further to be establishedin eternalsattva(being-
instructions
ness, light,goodness, clarity,knowledge),free of dualities,free
of acquisition-and-possession,Self-possessed (nirdvandvonitya-
sattvasthoniryogaksemaatmavin). It would appear fromthese
instructionsthatthe natureofthe sattvareferredto heretranscends lanWhicher

309
 the limitationsofthe natureof sattva-guna,
whichcan stillhave
a bindingeffect intheformofattachment to joy and knowledge.
It is, however,only by firstovercomingrajas and tamasthat
liberationis possible.
46 - YS IV.5.
47 - See Chappleand Viraj1990,p. 109.
48 - YS IV.6,p. 179: tatradhyanajamaniayam.
49 - YB 111.50.
50 - YB 111.55,p. 175: nahi dagdhaklegabTjasya jiiane punar
kacidasti,"When the seeds of afflictions apeks.j
have been scorched
thereis no longeranydependenceat all on further knowledge."
-
51 SwamiHariharananda Aranyawrites(1963, p. 123) thatin the
stateof nirodhathe "do notdie out buttheirunbalanced
activitydue to gun.as
non-equilibriumthat was taking place ... only
ceases on accountofthe cessationof the cause (avidyjor nes-
cience)whichbrought abouttheircontact."
52 - YB IV.25, p. 201: purusastvasatyam
avidyjyajmSuddhas
cittadharmairaparamrta.
53 - YB1.41.
54 - See Gonda 1960, p. 312.
55 - Vyasa (YB 11.13)likensthemindand itsvisanis to a fishing
net
withitsknots.
56 - YB 11.24.
57 - YS 11.26.
58 - YS 111.49.
59 - VijnianaBhiksuinsists(YVIV.34,p. 141) thatkaivalyais a stateof
liberation
forbothpurusaandprakrti, each reachingitsrespective
or
natural intrinsic state.He then,however,citesthe Sa~mkhya-
Kirika(62),whereitis statedthatno purusais bound,liberated, or
It is
transmigrates. onlyprakrti abidingin her variousforms that
is bound,and becomesliberated.
transmigrates, Forreferences to
Viji~anaBhiksu'sYV, I haveconsultedRukmani 1981-1989.
60 - YB11.18.
61 - YS 1.51 and 111.8;
the stateof nirbtjaor "seedless" samndhican be
understoodas the liberatedstate where no "seed" of ignorance
remains,any further potentialforaffliction(i.e., as mentalimpres-
East& West
Philosophy sions or samskiras)havingbeen purifiedfromthe mind.

310
62 - RM1.1,p. 1.
63 - MUiller1899, p. 309.
64 - See, forexample,Eliade1969, Koelman1970, Feuerstein
1979a,
and Larson1987.
65 - YS11.9.
66 - I am hereechoingsomeofthepointsmadebyChapplein Chap-
pie 1983, pp. 103-119. See also Chappleand Viraj1990, p. 5,
wherethe authorsstate:"kaivalyam... is nota catatonicstatenor
does itrequiredeath."SK67 acknowledges thateventhe"potter's
wheel"continues to turnbecauseoftheforceofpastimpressions
(samskaras), but in Yoga, higherdispassionand asamrprajf"ata-
samjdhieventually exhaustall theimpressions or karmicresidue.
Through a continued program ofongoingpurification Yogaallows
forthepossibility ofan embodiedstateoffreedom utterlyunbur-
dened by the effects of past actions.As such,Yoga constitutes
an advanceoverthefatalistic perspectivein Samkhya, wherethe
"wheelof samrsara" continues(aftertheinitialexperienceof lib-
erating knowledge) until,intheeventofseparation from thebody,
prakrticeases and unending "isolation"(kaivalya) is attained
(SK
68). In anycase, theyogicstateofsupra-cognitive samrdhigoes
beyondthe liberating knowledgeof vivekain the Samkhyan
system in thatthe yoginmustdevelop dispassioneven toward
discriminative discernment itself.For more on an analysisof
in
the notionof liberation Samnkhya and Yoga, see Christopher
Chapple's chapterin Fortand Mumme'sLivingLiberationin
HinduThought (Chapple1996).
67 - Cf.SK 64.
68 - Thus,as Chapplewrites(1983,p. 112),although bothpurusaand
prakrti"are seen as separate
fulfilling and discrete
functions
...
bothare necessary and present, even intheactof'trulyseeing'."
Vyasa (YB 11.17)has also used the term"knower-of-the-field"
meaningtheseer.Cf.BG XIII.34,wheretheone who
(ksetrajfia),
sees thefield(ksetra,prakrti)as distinct
fromthe knowerof the
purusa)is said to be wise. The authorwishesto
field(ksetrajfia,
acknowledgetheworkofChapple(1983) in helpingto formulate
someoftheideasmentioned inthispartofthediscussion.
69 - Klostermaier
1994, p. 402.
70 - YS 11.29;see mydiscussionon astanhga-yoga
in Whicher1997.
71 - YB 11.28,pp. 99-101.
72 - YB 11.28,p. 101: tini ca tasya. IanWhicher
dh.rtika~ranam
SarrramindriyJn.am,

311
 mahibhOtini tni ca parasparam tairyagyau-
ca parasparirthatvat.sarves.m
sarTrjjm.,
naminusadaivatini
73 - YS 1.48.
74 - See Monier-Williams
1899,p. 856.
from
75 - Cf.BG VI.23,whereYoga is definedas the"disengagement
theunionwithsuffering"
(duhkha-samyoga-viyoga).
76 - YS 11.22.
77 - Araniya1963, p. 384.
78 - YS 111.54 (see note45 above).
(see note133 below)and YS 111.55
79 - YB1.18.
80 - YS 1.3;see note 2 above.
81 - See note 43 above.
82 - Our positionthuscounterstheoftenheldnotionthatin kaivalya
theyogincan no longeract and is ineffect
disembodied.
83 - See Klostermaier
1989,pp. 319-337.
84 - See Feuerstein 1986.
1980,pp. 98-101, and Klostermaier
85 - Thishasbeenclearlyarticulated (1980,p. 99) and is
byFeuerstein
evidentfrom statements see YB1.2,p. 15,
inVysa's commentary;
as wellas 11.2and IV.29.
86 - YS 111.49-50.
87 - YS 1.15-16 and 111.50.
88 - YS111.51.
89 - YB IV.29,p. 202: yada'yamr brahmanah prasamkhyane'pyakusr-
dastato'pina kimrcitprarthayate. tatrApi viraktasyasarvathavive-
kakhyjtireva bhavati....
90 - YS IV.29,p. 202: prasamkhyane'pyakusrdasya sarvathiviveka-
khyater dharmameghah Itis
samidhih. noteworthy thatVysa (YB
p. 78)
11.15, likens Yoga to medicine with itsfourparts:illness,the
cause of illness,thestateof good health, and the remedy.Thus
Yoga is portrayed as a "fourfold division"whose fourparts
(caturvyaha) are: (1) samsira, which (along withits sorrowful
is
states) to be discarded; (2) theconjunction (samryoga) between
purusaand prak.rti/pradhana, whichis the cause of what is to
be discarded; (3) liberation,which is the complete cessation of
the conjunction;and (4) rightknowledge,which is the means to
liberation.Vyasa declares (YB 11.15,p. 78) thatthe true nature/
East& West
Philosophy identity(svaropa)of the one who is liberatedis not somethingto

312
 be obtainedor discarded:tatrahatuhsvarQpamupideyamr va
heyamr va na bhavitamarhati. The inalienable of
identity purusa
putsitin a "category"thattranscends thedualisticcategoriesof
meansand ends,causes and effects, obtaining and discarding. In
a stimulating and incisiveessayon thistopic,WilhelmHalbfass
(1991,pp. 243-263) pointsoutthelimitations oftheapplicability
to Yoga of the medical/therapeutic paradigm.In particular he
writes:"The denialof hana ['discarding'] and upidana ['obtain-
ing'] with regardto the ultimate goal of Yoga is a denialof the
fundamental premises ofthe medical,therapeutic ina
orientation;
sense, it revokesthe 'fourfoldscheme' and the therapeuticpara-
digmitself.Indeed,it is not onlythrough the adoptionof this
paradigm, butalso through itstranscendence, thatYoga and other
schools of Indian thoughtarticulatetheirself-understanding"
(p. 253). Of coursethefundamental "disease" thatYoga seeksto
overcomeis avidyaand itsmanifestation as sampyoga.
91 - YB IV.29, p. 202: samskfrabTja
ksayinnisyapratyayintarJny
utpadyante.
92 - YB1.18.
93 - See Feuerstein1980, p. 98.
94 - YS 111.49
and 111.54.
95 - YS IV.7;see also YS IV.30(note96 below).
96 - YS IV.30,p. 202: tatahklesakarmanivrttih. Thus,itmaybe said
thatto dwell without defilement in a "cloud of dharma"is the
culminating descriptionbyPatanijaliofwhattradition laterreferred
to as livingliberation(jTvanmukti).To be sure,thereis a "brevity
of description" in the YS regarding the stateof liberation.Only
sparingly, withreservation (and, one mightadd, caution)and
mostlyin metaphorical termsdoes Patanijalispeak about the
qualitiesexhibited bythe liberatedyogin.Chapple(1996,p. 116;
see below) providesthreepossiblereasonsforthis"brevity of
description" regarding livingliberationin the context of the YS
(and Samkhya,i.e., the SK of !ivara Krsna):(1) He states:"the
genreinwhichbothtextswerewritten does notallowforthesort
of narrative and poetic embellishment foundin the epics and
(2) Perhaps,as Chapplesuggests, "a deliberate attempt
PuraIn.as."
has been made to guaranteethatthe recognitionof a liberated
being remainsin the hands of a spiritualpreceptor."What is to be
noted here is thatthe oral and highlypersonalized lineage tradi-
tion withinYoga stressesthe authorityof the guru,which guards
against false claims to spiritualattainmenton the part of others lanWhicher

313
 and thereby "helpsto ensuretheauthenticity and integrityofthe
tradition." (3) A further reasonforbrevity "could hingeon the
logicalcontradiction thatarisesdue to thefactthatthenotionof
selfis so closelyidentified withahamkira[themistaken ego sense
or afflictedidentity].Itwould be an for a
oxymoron personto say
[']1am liberated[']."The Self(purusa)is of coursenotan object
thatcan be seenbyitself, thuslayingemphasis, as Chapplepoints
out,on theineffable natureoftheliberative statethattranscends
mind-content, all marks,and activity
itself.
97 - YS IV.31, p. 203: taddsarvivaranamalipetasya jffianasyX"nan-
tyjjjfieyamalpam.
98 - See YV 1.1; YSS, p. 2, states:asarmprajiftayogasya
cakhilavrtti-
samskiradihadvari prirabdhasyapy atikrameneti.
99 - See YSS,pp. 8 and 3, respectively.
100 - YS IV.7and YBIV.7.
101 - See YB IV.30 (pp. 202-203: jTvannevavid-
vanvimukto bhavati.kasmat, klesakarmaniv.rttau
yasmadviparyayo bhavasyakaranam.
na hi kascitkenacitkvacijjatod.r~yata iti,"On
cessationofaffliction
ksT.naviparyayah
and karma, theknoweris releasedwhileyet
living.Why?Becauseerroneous cognition(viparyaya)isthecause
of rebirth[ofegoity]. When error has vanished,no one is ever
seento be bornanywhere." Hereagainthereis roomforan epis-
temological understanding of"reborn";thatis,one who is saidto
be rebornis misidentified as a body-selfthattakesbirthand will
eventually The
perish. liberated yoginmayhave a bodythatis
subjectto birth
and death,yettheyoginis no longermisidentified
as thebodyor as anyotheraspectofprak.rtic existence.
102 - YV IV.30, pp. 123-124. Elsewherein his YSS, p. 17, Vijfiana
Bhiksutellsus thattheyoginwho is "establishedin thestateof
dharmamegha-samidhi is called a jrvanmukta":
dharmameghah
samjdhih ... asyjmavasthjyajm
jrvanmukta ityucyate.Vijnidna
Bhiksuis criticalof Vedantins(i.e., Safikara'sAdvaitaVedanta
school),who, he says,associatethejrvanmukta withignorance
)-probably
('avidya-kleSa because of the liberated
being'scon-
tinuedlinkwiththebody-despiteYoga's insistence on thecom-
pleteovercoming of theafflictions.
103 - See Aranya1963,p. 433; see also p. 226.
104 - Thisis theessenceofKrsna'steachingintheBG on Karma-Yoga;
see, forexample,BG IV.20.
East& West 105 - YB 1.16.
Philosophy

314
106 - See Zaehner1974,pp. 97-98.
107 - See Scharfstein
1974,pp. 131-132.
108 - See Feuerstein
1979a, p. 81.
109 - YS 1.33,p. 38: maitrTkarunrmuditopeksJnlmsukhaduhkhapu-
Jlrm bhivanatas" cittaprasidanam,"The mindis
.yJpunyavisay
made pureand clearfromthecultivation
offriendliness,
compas-
sion,happiness,and equanimity
in conditions
or towardobjects
ofjoy,sorrow,merit,ordemerit,
respectively."
110- YS 11.35.
111 - See YS 11.5,wherePatanijali indirectlydescribespurusaas being
a joyfulstate,thatis,a stateof intrinsic
happinessor satisfaction
(sukha)that,likeotherinalienableaspectsofpurusasuchas purity
and permanency, is notto be confusedwithan emotionalstate.
To be sure,kaivalyaisnotan emotional conditionthat,beingofthe
natureofthemind,comesand goes,changes.Itwouldbe highly
misleading to suggestthatkaivalyaimplieseitheran alienation/
isolationfrom theworldora stateofloneliness, forthesearestates
of mindand afflicted statesat that.Such a misrepresentationof
Yoga only buttressesthe ill-foundednotionthatYoga is an escape
fromtheworld.
112 - See YB 11.6and IV.21, 22.
113 - As Feuerstein asserts.
(1980,p. 24) mistakenly
114 - YS 1.33;see note109 above.
115 - Thustheterm"Yoga" (liketheterms"nirodha"and "samidhi")
is ambiguousinthatitmeansboththeprocessofpurification and
illuminationand thefinalresultofliberationor "aloneness."Due
to Yoga's traditional
praxisorientation,itbecomesall too easyto
reduceYoga to a "meansonly"approachto well-being and spir-
itualenlightenment.In the lightof itspopularity in the Western
worldtoday,inwhichtechniqueand practicehavebeen empha-
sized oftento the exclusionof philosophical/theoretical under-
standingand a properpedagogicalcontext, thereis a greatdanger
in simplyreifyingpracticewherebypracticebecomessomething
theego does forthesakeofitsownsecurity. Seen here,practice-
oftenthenconceivedas a superior in
activity relation to all other
activities-becomes all importantin that throughthe activity
called "practice" the ego hopes and strivesto become "enlight-
ened." Practice thus becomes rooted in a future-oriented per-
spective largelymotivatedout of a fearof not becoming enlight-
ened; it degeneratesintoa formof selfishlyappropriatedactivity lanWhicher

315
 where"means" become ends-in-themselves. Moreover,human
relationshipsbecome instrumentsfor thegreater"good" of Self-
realization.Thus rationalized, relationships are seen as having
onlya tentative nature.The searchforenlightenment underthe
sway of thiskind of instrumentalrationality/reasoning (i.e., the
to
attempt "gain" something from one's practice,i.e., enlighten-
ment)neverreallygoes beyondthelevelofego and itscompul-
sivesearchforpermanent which,ofcourse,accordingto
security,
is an
Yogathought, inherently afflictedstateofaffairs.To be sure,
theconcernofYoga isto(re)discover purusa,to be restored totrue
thus
identity, overcomingdissatisfaction, fear,and misidentifi-
cationby uprooting and eradicating the dis-easeof ignorance
(avidyJ).Yet,as Halbfassputsit,trueidentity "cannotbe really
or
lost,forgotten newlyacquired" (Halbfass 1991, p. 252), for
liberation"is not to be producedor accomplishedin a literal
sense,but only in a figurative sense" (ibid.,p. 251). Sufficient
meansforthe sattvification of the mindare, however,bothde-
sirableand necessaryinorderto preparetheyoginfortheneces-
saryidentity shiftfromegoityto purusa.By acknowledging that
"aloneness"cannotbe an acquiredstateresulting fromorcaused
by yogic methods and techniques, and thatpurusacannotbe
known(YB 111.35), or (YB
acquired, discarded/lost 11.15), Yoga in
effecttranscends itsown result-orientationas well as thecatego-
riesofmeansand endsaltogether.
116 - YB1.20,pp. 23-24: sraddhacetasahsamprasadah.
sj hijananTva
kalyiTnr piti.
yoginam,
117 - See YS 1.47-48and YB1.47-48.
118 - Oftenyogic"science" is extendedby the principles of analogy
and isomorphism betweenthemacrocosm(theuniverseat large)
and the microcosm, which is the humanorganism.A striking
example ofthisisomorphism is to be foundin the Yoga-Dariana
Upanisad(IV.48-53),wheretheeternaltTrtha (sacredfont,holy
water,place of pilgrimage)is consideredinferior in
to the trrtha
thebody,and mountains and otherplacesofspiritualsignificance
(e.g., VaranasT)are identified
withvariouspartsof the human
body.
119 - YS IV.19,22, 23.
120 - YS IV.19, p. 194: na tatsvibhasam d.ryatvhit,
"That [cittavy.rtti,
i.e.,
mind, extrinsicidentity]has no self-luminosity, because of the
nature of the seeable [i.e., it is itselfsomethingknown, per-
East
Philosophy & West ceived]." Cf. SK 20.

316
121 - C. ChappleclaimsthatSamkhyahasalso beenmisinterpreted.
See
his chaptersin Forman,The Problemof Pure Consciousness
(Chapple 1990) and in Fortand Mumme,LivingLiberationin
HinduThought (Chapple1996).
122 - YBIV.30;see note101 above.
123 - See, forexample,Eliade(1969, pp. 32-33) and Koelman(1970,
p. 251), who bothmaintain thisunfortunate, view,that
solipsistic
of
is, purusa understood as a monadic state.
124 - See Vy5sa'sdescription ofsamsiraas a "six-spoked wheel" (YB
IV.11). The termduhkha(i.e., suffering, dissatisfaction,pain,
sorrow)is comprisedof the root dus, meaning"difficult,"
"bad," "error," pluskha,meaning"axle hole,""cavity,""cave,"
"space," and can mean"havinga bad axle hole."Sucha
literally
wheel is unableto function properlyor smoothly, leadingto an
unsteadyrideor journeyin life,perhapseven disablingcom-
pletelythevehicle(thebody-mind) itis helpingto propel.Duhkha
also has the connotation of a "bad space" or afflicted stateof
mindor identity.
125 - YB111.49, p. 168: visokanamasiddhiryaJm pripyayogTsar-
ityes.
vajifahksTnaklegabandhano vasiviharati.
126 - YS 111.55;
see note45 above.
127 - See Koelman1970, pp. 249-250.
128 - See Feuerstein
1979a, pp. 142, 144.
129 - YB 11.23.
130 - YS IV.18.
131 - YB IV.21-22.
132 - YB 111.49,pp. 167-168: sarvitmano vyavasJyavyava-
seyitmakJh svaminam ksetrajiiam.... gun.j
133 - YS 111.54,
p. 174: tirakamsarvavisayam sarvathivisayamakramam
cetivivekajamr
jifinam.
134 - Althoughthehistorical theYoga masteris not
ofPatafijali
identity
known, we are assuming Patanijali as thetradition
that was, would
haveit,an enlightened
Yoga adept.
135 - Koelman 1970, p. 258. Ethical conduct can be seen as a pre-
requisiteto and/oras a naturalconcomitantof spiritualrealiza-
tion. This is the case in non-dualisticVedanta, where, according
to thetexttitled (v. 37), thosewho have achieved
are
spiritualinsight inherently beneficial,"just as the springsea- lanWhicher
Vivekacda.ma.?i

317
 son" (vasantavad);
this,ofcourse,echoesnotions
within
Mahayana
Buddhism.
136 - See BG 111.33,
wherethewise-those who haveovercomeigno-
rance-are said to function
in a natural"conformity"or align-
mentwiththeirprakrtic constitution,
followingor "attuned to"
without
prakrti suppression.
137 - BG IV.20.
138 - YB 111.35,
pp. 154-155: buddhisattvamr samina-
prakhyJsilarm
sattvopanibandhanerajastamasT
vaSTk.rtya
see also YB11.26. sattvapurus.nyatiprat-
yayenaparinatam;
139- YB1.12.
140 - YS 111.35,
p. 154: sattvapurusayor pratyayi-
atyantJsamkmrnayob
visesobhogah....
141 - YS IV.16.
142 - See Koelman1970, p. 260. While,historically,
formsof Yoga
as
practice setout inthe YS havefound
a place within
legitimate
different
schoolsofVedantaas wellas laterschoolsofYoga,one
musttake cautionnot to evaluateYoga on the basis of mere
techniquealone.
143 - Tabor 1983, p. 26.
144 - Halbfass1992,p. 38; see also pp. 232-234.
145 - Thisis appropriate in that,fromprak.rti's purusais a
perspective,
mysterious, ineffablesilence.Itappearsthat as
Tsvara symbolized
by theprasava(thesyllableom) (YS 1.27)is theclosestapprox-
imation to thatsilence.
146 - YS IV.18-19and 22-23.
147- YB 111.55,
p. 175: tatpurusasya tada purusahsvar-
kaivalyarp,
kevalT
Qpamitrajyotiramalah bhavati.
148 - YB 11.27and 111.35.
149 - Feuerstein1990, p. 82.
150 - I have notdiscussedthemeaningand roleof rivarain Patanijali's
thought as itis notcentralto themainargument ofthisessay.For
an examination oftheterm'Trvara'in the YS,see Whicherforth-
coming and Whicher 1997.
151 - JeanVarenne (1976, p. 145) suggeststhatspecialized textswithin
the traditionof Yoga such as the Bhagavadgrtt,Yoga-Sotra,and
Yoga Upanisads should be viewed as complementaryto one
East& West
Philosophy another in orderto arriveat a syntheticunderstandingof Yoga

318
 withinHinduism.He arguesforan underlying unityas well as a
ofpossibleapproachesinYoga. One area forpotentially
diversity
researchinYoga wouldbe to explorecloselytherelation-
fruitful
ship betweenPatafijali's
Yoga and laterexpressions of Yoga as
outlined, in
forexample, the YogaUpanisadsand Kashmiri Saiva
Yoga. Further also needsto be carriedoutconcerning
research the
natureof the relationshipbetweenPatafijali'sYoga, Buddhism,
andJainism.

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