Longay, Jasper A./ Liguid, Ken Lloyd S.

12/20/19
BALCS 2A
Literature of Africa and the Middle East
Professor Teresita Sancho

ETHIOPIA: WRITTEN REPORT

FACTS AND STATISTICS

Location: Eastern Africa, west of Somalia
Capital: Addis Ababa
Climate: tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation
Population: 110+ million (2019 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Oromo 32.1%, Amara 30.1%, Tigraway 6.2%, Somalie 5.9%, Guragie 4.3%,
Sidama 3.5%, Welaita 2.4%, other 15.4% (1994 census)
Religions: Christian 60.8% (Orthodox 50.6%, Protestant 10.2%), Muslim 32.8%, traditional
4.6%, other 1.8% (1994 census)
Government: federal republic

LANGUAGE IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia has many indigenous languages (84 according to the Ethnologue, 77 according to the
1994 census), most of them Afro.

Asiatic (Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic), plus some that are Nilo-Saharan.

English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is the medium of instruction in
secondary schools and universities. Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but
has been replaced in many areas by local languages such as Oromifa and Tigrinya.

After the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, the new constitution of the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia granted all ethnic groups the right to develop their languages and to
establish mother tongue primary education systems. This is a marked change to the language
policies of previous governments in Ethiopia.

 
SOCIETY AND CULTURE

The People

Ethiopia is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country. Religion is a major influence in Ethiopian

life. Nearly half the population belongs to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church but there is a also
large Muslim population. Others adhere to an ancient form of Judaism.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is proud of its origins. The country embraced Christianity in the
4th century, long before Europe. The feast of the Epiphany ("Timkat") is the largest festival of
the year. The Orthodox Church dominates the political, cultural, and social life of the population.
It was the official religion of the imperial court and of the establishment until Haile Selassie was
deposed in 1974.

Muslims are important in the business community. They tend to live in the eastern, southern, and
western lowlands, although there are considerable numbers in Addis Ababa.

The Family

The extended family remains the focus of the social system. It includes relatives on both sides of
the family as well as close friends. Quite often the husband’s parents will live with the nuclear
family when they get older and can no longer care for themselves. When people marry, they join
their families, thus ensuring that there will always be a group to turn to in times of need.

Individuals achieve recognition or social standing through their extended family. A family's
honor is influenced by the actions of its members. Family needs are put before all other
obligations, including business.

ETHIOPIAN LITERATURE

Ethiopian literature, writings either in classical Geʿez (Ethiopic) or in Amharic, the

principal modern language of Ethiopia. The earliest extant literary works in Geʿez are
translations of Christian religious writings from Greek, which may have influenced their style
and syntax. From the 7th century to the 13th, a period marked by political disturbances, there
was no new literary activity; but, with the proclamation of the new Solomonid dynasty in
Ethiopia in 1270, there began the most productive era of Geʿez literature, again characterized by
translation, not from Greek but from Arabic, though the originals were frequently Coptic, Syriac,
or Greek. The subject matter was mostly theological or strongly flavoured by religious
considerations. The most interesting work of this period was the 14th-century Kebra
Negast (“Glory of the Kings”), a combination of mythical history, allegory, and apocalypse, the
central theme of which is the visit of the Queen of Sheba (Makeda) to Solomon and the birth of a
son, Menilek, who became the legendary founder of the Ethiopian dynasty.

Abba Salama, an Egyptian Copt who became metropolitan of Ethiopia in 1350, was not

only responsible for a revision of the text of the Bible but translated or induced others to translate
several books popular among the Ethiopian faithful. The rhapsodical Weddase Mariam (“Praise
of Mary”) is appended to the Psalter (the Psalms) and thus has almost canonical status. In a
slightly later period, about the beginning of the 15th century, various separate lives of saints
and martyrs, including St. George (the patron saint of Ethiopia), were written. At this time was
undertaken a translation of the Arabic Synaxarium, containing lives of saints—one or more for
every day in the year.

The early 15th century saw the translation of several apocalyptic books, which inspired
two original compositions. Fekkare Iyasus (“Elucidation of Jesus”) was written during the reign
of Tewodros I (1411–14); “Mystery of Heaven and Earth” was written somewhat later and is
noteworthy for a vigorous account of the struggle between the archangel Michael and Satan. This
book must not be confused with another original work of the same period, the “Book of
Mystery” by Giorgis of Sagla, a refutation of heresies. The large hymnals and antiphonaries
called Deggua, Mawaseʾet, and Meʾraf also probably dated from this time, though some of the
anthems may be older. Another type of religious poetry first composed during the 15th century
was the malkʾe (“likeness”), consisting generally of about 50 five-line rhyming stanzas, each
addressed to a different physical or moral attribute of the saint apostrophized. As a last example
of the religious literature of the “golden age” may be mentioned the “Miracles of Mary,”
translated from Arabic in 1441–42; it was enormously popular and went through several
recensions, or critical revisions.

During the Muslim incursion of 1527–43, Ethiopian literary activity ceased and many
manuscripts were destroyed; Islamization was widespread, and, even after the repulsion of the
invaders, the country never fully recovered. A Muslim merchant who had been converted to
Christianity and, as Enbaqom (Habakkuk), became prior of the monastery of Debre Libanos,
wrote Anqasʾa amin (“Gate of Faith”) to justify his conversion and to persuade apostates to
recant. Other similar works were produced, and several were written to defend the miaphysite
branch of the Christian faith. Meanwhile the arrival of Roman Catholic
missionaries constituted a further danger to the Ethiopian Orthodox church.

The ancient language of Geʿez had by now lost its vigour and became a liturgical
language in which few people were thoroughly conversant. During the 16th century, Amharic,
the principal spoken language, was beginning to be used for literary purposes, and Amharic
expressions even appeared in royal chronicles. About 1600, nevertheless, a few substantial works
in Geʿez appeared, including Hawi, an enormous theological encyclopaedia translated by Salik
of Debre Libanos; a History by Johannes Madabbar, bishop of Nikiu, containing an account of
the Arab conquest of Egypt, valuable since the Arab original has been lost; and Fetha
Negast (“Justice of the Kings”), a compilation of canon and civil law. Geʿez poetry (qene)
flourished, at Gonder particularly, in the 18th century and has since continued to be practiced at
many monasteries. Some poems of Alaqa Taye were printed in Asmara (now in Eritrea) in 1921,
and an important anthology compiled by Hiruy Walde Selassie was published at Addis Ababa in
1926.

Ethiopia’s Jewish population, known as Beta Israel (sometimes called Falasha, now

known to be pejorative), who lived mostly in regions north of Lake Tana, still used Geʿez as
their sacred language. Besides the Old Testament (including the Book of Jubilees), the Beta
Israel have a few books peculiar to themselves, notably Teʾezaza Sanbat (“Ordinance of the
Sabbath”), of uncertain date and perhaps mostly a translation from Arabic of the 14th century.
A Falasha Anthology was published by Wolf Leslau in 1951. By 1992 nearly the entirety of the
Beta Israel had migrated to Israel.

The earliest known Amharic compositions are songs celebrating the victory of Amda
Tseyon (1314–44). From the 16th century onward, theological works were produced.
A translation of the Bible was made in Cairo early in the 19th century (though probably not by a
true Ethiopian, to judge by the quality of the Amharic), and from this version missionary
societies composed their editions. Revisions were made by foreigners with an inadequate
knowledge of Amharic. A more scholarly version of the New Testament was printed in Addis
Ababa in 1955, followed by the Old Testament in 1961. The first official chronicles wholly in
Amharic were those of Tewodros II (1855–68). A translation of John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s
Progress made in 1892 pointed the way to a new popular form—the allegorical novel, often
partly in verse, with a religious bias, of which the first was Libb wallad tarik (1908; “Imaginative
Story”) by Afeworq Gabre-Eyesus. During the regency of Ras Tafari (1916–20; afterward
Emperor Haile Selassie I), Hiruy Walde Selassie (d. 1938) became the leading Amharic writer,
especially notable for allegorical compositions such as Wadaje lebbe (“My Heart as My
Friend”).

With the restoration of Ethiopian independence after the Italian occupation of 1936–41, a
great impetus was given to Amharic literature, with Emperor Haile Selassie encouraging authors
to produce many types of books, especially on moral and patriotic themes. Writers of merit
during this period were Makonnen Endalkachew (who produced allegorical novels and plays),
Kebede Mikael (verse dramas, some history and biography), and Tekle Tsodeq Makuria
(histories).
FOODS OF ETHIOPIAN PEOPLE

These are essential Ethiopian dishes:

1. Injera (sourdough flatbread)- injera is used to scoop up whatever is served, from collard
greens to lentils to nubs of meat.
2. Tibs (sautéed meat chunks)- The country’s “go-to meat dish,” as Curtis describes it, is
usually made from beef cut into small chunks and sautéed in butter or oil with onions, garlic,
hot pepper and rosemary
3. Shiro be Kibbe (legume stew)- This is Ethiopia’s peasant dish, although it’s eaten by all
classes and is the most popular dish in the country.
4.   Berbere (typical spice blend)- Berbere is the name of the chili pepper and also the name of
Ethiopia’s most prominent spice mix
5. Kitfo (Ethiopian beef tartare)- this might be your favorite new Ethiopian dish. Kitfo is
ground raw beef that’s been mixed with kibbe, the spiced clarified butter. It can be
accompanied by mitmita, another popular Ethiopian spice blend. The result melts in your
mouth and tastes great with the typical accompaniments of gomen (cooked greens) and a soft
fresh cheese.
6. Coffee- Ethiopians are super-proud of their coffee, which they grow domestically.
7. Tej (an alcoholic honey beverage)- Tej is typically served in glasses resembling a laboratory
beaker. Its yellow color comes in part from the addition of powdered gesho, a species of
buckthorn that lends a hoppy quality.
8. Fir-Fir (sautéed injera)- The most typical Ethiopian breakfast is fir-fir, shredded leftover
injera that’s stir-fried with berbere and kibbe. The spicy, carb-y morning meal might be
mixed with leftover shiro or meat stews.

RELIGION OF ETHIOPIA

Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity

Ethiopia was one of the first sub-Saharan African countries to adopt the Christian religion, and
its practice dates back to the 1st Century AD. The Ethiopian Orthodox religion is the most
widely practiced with 43.5% of the population identifying as such. In fact, the largest and oldest
Oriental Orthodox church is located here. Orthodox Christians make up the majority of the
population in the northern region of the country, specifically in Tigray and Amhara. This sect of
Christianity spread quickly after it was adopted by King Ezana the Great who proclaimed it a
state religion in 330 AD.

Islam

Islam began to enter Ethiopia as early as the foundation of the religion. In 615 AD, the prophet
Muhammad encouraged a group of Muslims to seek refuge in Ethiopia as they escaped religious
persecution in Mecca in Arabia. At that time, then-King Axum protected the religious refugees
and refused demands to send them back to Arabia. Today, 33.9% of the population practices
Islam making it the second most common religion in the nation. Eastern Ethiopia is now the
principle center for Islamic culture and most Muslims in this country are Sunni. The fourth holy
city of Islam, Harar, is located here. It is a walled town of roughly 122,000 people and holds 82
mosques, 3 of which are dated back to the 10th Century.

Protestant Christianity

Protestants are the largest group of Christians who do not belong to the Orthodox Church and are
made up of various sects, including Evangelicals and Pentecostals. These religious worshipers
are mainly concentrated in the southern regions of the country. Many of the Protestants in
Ethiopia have their roots in the American Pentecostal movement of the early 1900’s which sent
missionaries all over the world. Religious conversions have grown significantly since then and
today, Protestants make up 18.6% of the population.

Other Beliefs in Ethiopia

Other minority religions in the country include Waaq and indigenous beliefs, which are followed
by 2.6% of the Ethiopian population, Roman Catholicism (.7%), and Judaism and Baha’i (.7%
combined). The Waaq religion is a traditional, monotheistic faith followed mainly by the
Cushitic ethnic group in the far eastern regions of the country. Roman Catholicism was
reintroduced in the country between the 13th and 18th Centuries. Its follower grew during the
Italian occupation of Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941. Judaism has existed in Ethiopia since
long before Christianity and some scholars believe that Ethiopian Jews are one of the lost tribes
of Israel.

Relations Between Ethiopia's Religious Groups

Unfortunately, Ethiopia experiences significant religious tension among many of the previously
stated religions, particularly the three most prevalent ones. Disagreements between Muslims and
Orthodox Christians are widespread though not constant. Muslims have filed reports claiming
that local police are performing illegal home searches in their community in an attempt to locate
terrorists. There have also recently been occurrences of Muslims burning Christian churches.
Protestant Christians face opposition by both Orthodox Christians and Muslims and some
killings in rural areas have been reported. Some numbers suggest that these incidences have been
decreasing, others suggest that radical Islamist attacks are increasing, and still others suggest that
the Orthodox Christian government has done little to promote religious tolerance.

THE LARGEST RELIGION IN ETHIOPIA IS… The Ethiopian Orthodox religion is the most
widely practiced with 43.5% of the population identifying as such. Islam is the second largest
religion in the country at 33.9%.
ETIQUETTE AND CUSTOMS IN ETHIOPIA

Meeting Etiquette

 Ethiopian greetings are courteous and somewhat formal.

 The most common form of greeting is a handshake with direct eye contact.
 The handshake is generally much lighter than in Western cultures.
 After a close personal relationship has been established people of the same sex may kiss
three times on the cheeks.
 Across genders, men should wait to see if a woman extends her hand.
 Greetings should never be rushed. Take time to inquire about the person’s family, health,
job, etc.
 People are addressed with their honorific title and their first name.
 “Ato", "Woizero", and "Woizrity" are used to address a man, married woman, and
unmarried woman respectively.
 Elders should be greeted first.
 It is customary to bow when introduced to someone who is obviously older or has a more
senior position. Children will often be seen doing so.

 
Gift Giving Etiquette

 Gifts may be given to celebrate events of significance or religious occasions.

 Since Ethiopia is an extremely poor country, expensive gifts are not the norm.
 In fact, giving a gift that is too expensive may be viewed negatively. It may be seen as an
attempt to garner influence or it may embarrass the recipient as they will not be able to match
it in kind.
 If you are invited to an Ethiopian’s home, bring pastries, fruit, or flowers to the host.
 A small gift for the children is always appreciated.
 Do not bring alcohol unless you know that your host drinks. Most Muslims and Amharic
people do not.
 Gifts are not opened when received.
 Gifts are given with two hands or the right hand only; never the left hand.

 
Dining Etiquette

 Ethiopians are hospitable and like to entertain friends in their homes.

 An invitation to a private home should be considered an honour.
 Punctuality is not strictly adhered to although considerable lateness is also unacceptable.
 You may have to remove your shoes at the door.
 Dress well.
 Shake hands with each guest individually.
 A woman should offer to help the hostess with the preparation or clearing up after a meal
is served.
 You will always be offered a cup of coffee. It is considered impolite to refuse.
 Ethiopians are relatively formal and believe table manners are a sign of respect.
 Do not presume that because food is eaten with the hands, there is a lack of decorum.
 Expect to be urged to take more food. Providing an abundance of food is a sign of
hospitality.
 The meal ends with ritual hand-washing and coffee.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

Meeting Etiquette

 Greetings are formal and courteous.

 Handshakes are somewhat prolonged and not especially firm.
 They are always combined with strong, direct eye contact.
 There is generally no touching between the sexes; however, if a foreign businesswoman
extends her hand, a cosmopolitan Ethiopian may accept it to avoid causing her offense.
 Never rush greeting; inquire about people’s families, health and work.

Communication Style

 Ethiopians can be very sensitive when it comes to communication. Since they have only
recently begun working with foreigners in business situations they are still getting used to
new ways of doing business and communicating.
 As a general rule, they are humble and respect that quality in others. They generally
speak in soft tones. Loud voices are seen as too aggressive. Ethiopians pride themselves on
their eloquent speaking style and expect others to speak clearly and use metaphor, allusion,
and witty innuendos. They often use exaggerated phrases to emphasize a point.
 As a rule, Ethiopians tend to be non-confrontational and offer what they believe is the
expected response rather than say something that might embarrass another. Honour and
dignity are crucial to Ethiopians and they will go out of their way to keep from doing
something that could bring shame to another person. Therefore, it is important to treat your
 Ethiopian business colleagues with utmost professionalism and never do anything that
would make them lose dignity and respect.

 
 WORKS CITED

Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd. Ethiopia - Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette.

www.commisceo-global.com. 1 Jan. 2019 https://commisceo-global.com/resources/country-
guides/ethiopia-guide

Miller, Jenny. “Ethiopian Food Primer: 10 Essential Dishes And Drinks.” Food Republic,
October 14, 2015, foodrepublic.com/2015/10/14/ethiopian-food-primer-10-essential-dishes/

Pariona, Ameber. "Religious Beliefs In Ethiopia." World Atlas, Apr. 25, 2017,
worldatlas.com/articles/religious-beliefs-in-ethiopia.html.

Wright, Stephen. Ethiopian Literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. July 11, 2019,

https://www.britannica.com/art/Ethiopian-literature