UNIT 3

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

As the ship continue to sail around the earth’s surface, it travels distances
long enough that the effects of the earth’s shape must be considered to eliminate
the errors due to curvature.

The concept of measuring the sides and angles of triangle in plane

trigonometry is extended to consider the geometry of three-dimensional space. In
the study of spherical trigonometry, we try to measure the parts of the terrestrial
triangle and celestial triangle in witch the sides of the triangles are arcs of great
circle and their angles are the intersection of the planes of their corresponding
great circles.

Since the shape of the earth is a geoid (earth shape), assumptions has to be
made such that the earth is a perfect sphere in order to apply the concept of
spherical trigonometry to the fields of astronomy, surveying, and navigation.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. familiarize the concept of solid geometry to understand spherical
trigonometry;
2. enumerate various kinds of spherical triangle;
3. use Napier’s rules to solve for the missing sides and/or angles of a
right spherical triangle;
4. use the concept of polar triangle to solve for the missing parts of a
quadrantal spherical triangle;
5. solve the missing parts of an isosceles and oblique spherical triangle;
and
6. apply the concept of spherical trigonometry to solve problems in
terrestrial and celestial navigation.
 CHAPTER 8
INTRODUCTION TO SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

Like in plane trigonometry, the study of spherical trigonometry deals with

the relations connecting the sides and angles of a spherical triangle.

In general, there are two spheres wherein spherical trigonometry is of great

importance; the terrestrial sphere (connecting various points at the surface of the
earth) and the celestial sphere (connecting various heavenly bodies like sun, moon,
planets, and stars). Thus, spherical trigonometry is a must to astronomy, surveying,
and navigation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. familiarize with the concept of solid geometry to understand in detail
spherical triangle;
2. define spherical triangle and polar triangle;
3. discuss various theorems relating to spherical triangle; and
4. introduce to the basics of navigation.

Introduction

A circle is form when a plane intersects a sphere in any direction. A great

circle is form when the plane of intersection passes through the center of the
sphere, otherwise, an intersection will form a small circle.

Figure 8.1 Great circle and small circle

 Figure 8.1 shows EF and GH are examples of a great circle while LM and

OP are examples of small circles.

At the surface of the sphere, the shortest distance between two points is
define by an arc of the great circle. The length of this arc, commonly termed as arc
length of a great circle, is equal to the angle subtended by the arc at the center of
the sphere. Thus, any distance at the surface of the sphere is expressed in angular
measurement.

Figure 8.2 The Arc Length

In figure 8.2, the arc length AB is equal to  measured in degrees. The arc
length NS is equal to 180° which is equal to one-half of the great circle.

An arc of 1’ (one minute) is equal to one nautical mile distance on the

surface of the terrestrial sphere (earth surface), which is approximately equal to
6080 feet. Since 1 degree is equal to 60 minutes, it follows that each degree of
angular measure is equal to 60 nautical miles. An arc NS in figure 8.2 is equal to
180° is also equal to 180 x 60 = 10, 800 nautical miles in length.

A point through the center of a sphere perpendicular to the plane of the

circle, on the surface of the sphere is called pole of the circle. In figure 8.3, line
NS is perpendicular to the plane of the great circle EW, thus points N and S are
pole of great circle EW.
 Figure 8.3 Poles and Polar distance

The polar distance of a circle refers to the shortest distance on the surface
of the sphere, from a point on the circle to its pole. It follows that the polar
distance of a great circle is 90° and the polar distance of a small circle LM is equal
to arc LS.

The Spherical triangle

A spherical triangle is a triangle form on the sphere bounded by three arcs

of great circles, like the plane triangle, it consist of six parts; The three sides and
the angles. The three angles are normally labeled as A, B, and C and the opposite
sides are respectively labeled as a, b, and c.

Each spherical triangle has a corresponding trihedral angle (three-faced

angle) whose vortex is at the center of the sphere. Figure 8.4 shows a spherical
triangle with a corresponding trihedral angle.

Figure 8.4 Spherical Triangle

The sides of the spherical triangle are the distance along at the center of
the sphere, between two radial segment that join the ends of the arc. From figure
8.4. The measure of side a is equal to the measure of angle BOC, similarly, the
measure of side b is equal to angle AOC and side c is equal to the angle AOB.

The angle of a spherical is equal to the angle of intersection of the plane of

their corresponding great circles. This is measured by the dihedral angle (two-
faced angle) made by the plane of its side. In doing so, draw tangent lines E and F
to the arcs of b and c, from angle A perpendicular to the radial segment AO as
shown in figure 8.5. The plane angle EAF is the angle A of the spherical triangle
ABC.

Figure 8.5 of Spherical triangle ABC

The size of the angles and sides of a spherical triangle varies such that it
may exceed more than 180°. However, in this book, we shall only consider
spherical triangle with sides and angles measuring less than 180°.

With this limitation, the following statements hold true: (Kells, Kern &
Bland, 1978)

1. If two angles of a spherical triangle are equal, the side opposite

are also equal; and conversely.
2. If two angles of a spherical triangle are unequal, the side
opposite are unequal, and the greater side lies opposite the
greater angle; and conversely.
3. The sum of two sides of a spherical triangle is greater than the
third side.
a+b>c
4. The sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is less than 360°
a + b + c < 360°
5. The sum of the angle of a spherical triangle is greater than
180° and less than 540°
180° < A + B + C < 540°
6. The sum of any two angles of a spherical triangle is less than
180° plus the third angle.
A + B < 180° + C

Kinds of Spherical Triangle

 Since the sides and angle of the spherical triangle varies in sizes, it is
possible to form various spherical triangles. Some special spherical triangle and
their special features are listed below:
1. Right Spherical Triangle – spherical triangle with one angle
measuring 90°.
2. Birectangular Triangle – spherical triangle with two right
angles.
3. Trirectangular Triangle – spherical triangle with three right
angles.
4. Quadrantal Triangle – spherical triangle with one side
measuring 90°.
5. Isosceles Spherical triangle – spherical triangle with two side
equal.
6. Oblique Spherical Triangle – Spherical triangle with no right
angle.

Polar Triangle

Consider a spherical triangle bounded by three great circles with vertices

A, B and C.

From vertices A and B as poles, construct two great circle that will
intersect each other at two points on the opposite side of arc AB. Denote the point
of intersection of the arcs which lies on the same side of vertex C as C’. From C as
pole, construct the third great circle that will intersect with the first two great
circles at B’ and C’. The spherical triangle ABC. Similarly, the spherical triangle
ABC is a polar triangle of the spherical triangle A’B’C’ as shown in figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6 Polar Triangle

 Any angle of s spherical triangle is supplement of the corresponding side
in the polar triangle. Analytically, the spherical triangles are related as follows:

a + A’ = 180° A + a’ = 180°
b + B’ = 180° B + b’ = 180°
c + C’ = 180° C + c’ = 180°

Problem Set 8.1

Application to Navigation

The surface of the earth is considered as a huge sphere having an average

radius of 3,957 miles. The earth is also called terrestrial sphere as shown in figure
8.7, rotates about its axis that connects the north and south poles through the center
of the earth.

The earth’s equator is a great circle that divides the earth into northern and
southern hemisphere. The plane of the equation is perpendicular to the earth’s axis
though its center. From the equator, it takes 90° towards the north pole and another
90° towards the south pole. This angular distance measured along the meridian
from the equator towards the north pole and south pole is called latitude of a place,
latitude are small circle whose planes are parallel to that of the equator. The north
latitude is considered positive while the south latitude negative.
A colatitude is an angular distance measured from the north pole. It is
equal to 90° minus the latitude when the latitude is towards north and it is equal to
90° plus the latitude when the latitude is measured towards the south.

Colatitude = 90° - latitude (towards north)

Colatitude = 90° - (- latitude) (towards south)
= 90° + latitude

Figure 8.7 The Spherical Sphere

 The meridian is half a great circle that terminates at the north pole and
south pole. An earth’s prime meridian passes through the old Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, England, that divides the earth into eastern and western hemisphere.
The longitude is an angular distance from zero at the earth’s prime meridian
towards east or west. An international date line is a meridian located directly
opposite the prime meridian. It takes 180° E or 180° W longitude to travel from
prime meridian to the international date line.

At the equator, the longitude can also be expressed in forms of time

interval. Each hour of travel is equal to 15° of angular distance.

Outside the earth surface lies another imaginary sphere of indefinite radius
called the celestial sphere. On that sphere, the heavenly bodies like sun, moon,
planets and stars are projected as points at the surface and the earth being the
center.

The north celestial pole represented by the point Pn as shown on figure

8.8, connects with the south celestial pole Ps through the earth’s north and south
pole. On the same way, the plane that cuts the earth’s equator extends to cut the
celestial sphere forming the celestial equator.

Figure 8.8 The Celestial Sphere

Great circles that passes through the celestial poles are called hour circles.
These are equivalent to the earth’s meridian. Furthermore, the hour circle of the
observer represented by arc PnZPs in figure 8.8 is also called observer’s celestial
meridian.

The point Z on the celestial sphere directly above the observer’s position
on earth is called the zenith of the observer. Diametrically opposite point Z on the
celestial sphere is point Z’ called the nadir.
 The great circle WE is called the observer’s horizon in which the zenith
and nadir are its poles.

Consider a point M on figure 8.9 as a projected heavenly body on the

celestial sphere. The angular distance of point M from north and south of the
celestial equator is called the declination of the heavenly body. Declination and
the codeclination of a heavenly body. are analogous to the latitude and colatitude
of a point on the terrestrial sphere. Nevertheless, declination and codeclination are
specifically used describe the position of a heavenly body on the celestial sphere as
observed on earth.

Figure 8.9 Celestial Sphere

From the figure, the following represent;

Pn, Ps North an south celestial poles

SYLT Celestial equator
Z, Z’ Zenith and nadir (directly above an observer)
W°NE Horizon of an observer
PnMLPs, PnZYPs Example of hour circle
PnZYPs Observer meridian
M Heavenly body or star
LM Declination
PnM Codeclination (complement of declination)
YZ Latitude of observer on earth
 PnZ Colatitude (complement of latitude)

Words to remember

small circle arc length polar triangle

great circle pole dihedral angle
terrestrial circle polar distance trihedral angle
celestial circle spherical triangle latitude
right spherical triangle polar triangle longitude
birectangular triangle equator colatitude
trirectangular triangle meridian declination
quadrantal triangle prime meridian altitude
isosceles spherical triangle hour circle azimuth
oblique spherical triangle hour angle nadir
celestial meridian zenith codeclination
nautical mile horizon

Summary

Limitation 1-6

In any other spherical triangle its angle is supplement of the corresponding

side of a polar triangle such that;

a + A’ = 180° A + a’ = 180°
b + B’ = 180° B + b’ = 180°
c + C’ = 180° C + c’ = 180°

Problem set 8.1

PROBLEM SET

I. Identify the following statements.

1. Consists of three arcs of great circle that forms a triangle at the surface
of the sphere.
2. A circle cut from a sphere by a plane through the center of the plane.
3. A unit of measuring arc length at the surface of the earth equal to an
angle of 1 minute subtended at the center of the earth.
4. A spherical triangle with one of its angle measures 90 0.
5. A spherical triangle with two sides equal.
6. Great circles of the celestial sphere, passing through the celestial poles.
7. An angular distance of a star projection to the north or south of the
celestial equator.
8. An angle at the pole between the celestial meridian and the hour circle
through the body.
9. A great circle whose poles are the zenith and nadir.
10. An angle at the zenith between the celestial meridian and the great
circle through the zenith and the body.

II. Answer the following problems.

1. A right spherical triangle have angles A = 59012’, B = 48021’, and C =

900 and sides 39019’, 46045’, and 58000’. Identify which of the given
sides is side a, side b, and side c?

2. The zenith is moving along the great circle of the celestial equator.
Where does the celestial poles lie?