DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF PARABOLIC SOLAR COLLECTOR

AND TO STUDY THE HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF

ZnO NANOFLUID
(Funded by KSCST)

A Report Submitted to

R.I.T.

Bangalore

For Partial Requirement of Award of Degree of

Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

By

NIKHIL SINGH PUNDIR 1MS13ME108

PAVAN KUMAR A. 1MS13ME120
PAVAN PAYANI 1MS13ME121
PAVAN PRASAD H.G. 1MS13ME122

Under the guidance

of Dr.
A.T.Venkatesh
Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
R.I.T.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINERING

RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous institute, Affiliated to VTU)
Bangalore, 560054

i
 May 2017

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINERING

RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous institute, Affiliated to VTU)
Bangalore, 560054

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following Students, who were working under our guidance, have
completed their project work as per our satisfaction with the topic “ DESIGN AND
FABRICATION OF PARABOLIC SOLAR COLLECTOR AND TO
STUDY THE HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF ZnO
NANOFLUID”.
By

NIKHIL SINGH PUNDIR 1MS13ME108

PAVAN KUMAR A. 1MS13ME120
PAVAN PAYANI 1MS13ME121
PAVAN PRASAD H.G. 1MS13ME122

Under the guidance

of Dr.
A.T.Venkatesh
Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
R.I.T.

Signature of

Guide: HOD: Principle:

Dr. A.T.Venkatesh Dr. D. Ramesh Rao Dr. NVR Naidu
 RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous institute, Affiliated to VTU)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINERING
Bangalore, 560054

Project Report 2016-2017

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the entire work embodied in this project has been carried out by us at
RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY under the supervision ofDr. A.T.Venkatesh.
This report has not been submitted in part or full for the award of any diploma or degree of
this or any other university.

By

NIKHIL SINGH PUNDIR PAVAN KUMAR A.

PAVAN PAYANI PAVAN PRASAD H.G.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany a successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mention of the people who made it possible with constant guidance and
encouragement, crowned our efforts with success.

This project would not have been possible without the support of the management of our
esteemed institution, RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY for encouraging us to do
this project.

We would like to give special thanks to Dr. NVR Naidu, Principle RAMAIAH INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY and Dr. D. Ramesh Rao, Head of department, Mechanical engineering
for offering an innovative environment.

We sincerely like to thank Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology (KSCST,
IISc Bangalore) for funding and supporting our project work. This gave us the
encouragement to go ahead and complete the project successfully.

Our heartiest indebtedness to Dr. A.T.Venkatesh, Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

and Dr. Veeranna B. Nasi, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering who has
been involved in this project from day one. Their guidance has not been restricted to project
implementation alone but has offered a lot of guidance in the project. They have been
available to us whenever we needed the help and direction.

We would also like to thank K.F.Baby and Jayarame Gowda, Instructors in mechanical
engineering department for his constant support and guidance during our project.

We are extremely thankful to our parents and people who are directly and indirectly
supported us throughout the project at RIT, Bangalore.
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Our world is shrinking as we are becoming more connected but the demand of energy is
increasing exponentially. More than 80% of world’s population still depends on conventional
fuels but the problems related to conventional energy sources are, they are non-renewable and
polluting in nature. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tons of carbon-
dioxide per year but still around 1.2 billion (16% of world’s population) do not have access to
electricity and many more suffer from supply that is of poor quality. Therefore the dire need
of the situation is energy, which is renewable, sustainable, reliable, non-polluting and readily
available.

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

Many researchers have conducted extensive studies on aluminium oxide and copper oxide
nanoparticles dispersed in water or ethylene glycol base fluids to understand the effect of
these particles on the thermal conductivity of base fluid. Aluminium oxide and copper oxide
nanoparticles are less stable when compared to zinc oxide nanoparticles. Zinc oxide
nanoparticles are lighter and can be easily dispersed in base fluid.

The main objective of our project is

• To enhance the heat transfer in a parabolic trough solar collector by using Zn-O/water
as nanofluid with different volumetric concentrations and flow rates, in free and
forced convection system.

• To determine the empirical correlation for both free and forced convection
 ABSTRACT

A solar collector is a device that transforms solar radiation from the Sun into heat, which is
then transferred to working fluid. The use of solar collectors reduces energy costs over time
as they do not use fossil fuels or electricity like that as in traditional water heating. As well as
in domestic settings, a large number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used
to generate electricity in solar thermal power plants.

There are a number of different types of solar collector designs that use the energy of the sun
to heat working fluid. Each design whether a basic blackened flat panel collector or a more
advanced evacuated tube collector all have their own advantages and disadvantages.Parabolic
trough reflector provides a better alternative way in order to generate higher temperatures
with better efficiency. The parabolic trough reflector is a solar energy collector designed to
capture the sun’s direct solar radiation over a large surface area and focus or “concentrate it”
onto a small focal point area, increasing the solar energy received by more than a factor of
two.

Connecting together parabolic troughs to form collector fields requires large areas of land for
the installation. Also, parabolic troughs have a small absorber area and have efficiencies of
around 12% with smaller angle of view.

Convective heat transfer can be enhanced passively by enhancing thermal conductivity of the
fluid. Modern nanotechnology provides new possibilities to enhance heat transfer
performance compared to pure liquids.

Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspension of Nano meter sized particles called Nano
particles in a base fluid. Metals, oxides, carbides or carbon nanotubes are the general
precursors for nanoparticles. Common base fluids include water, ethylene glycol and oil.
Nanofluids exhibit enhanced thermal conductivity due to large area to volume ratio and high
turbulence properties.

Due to its novel properties nanofluidfind their applications inmany fields of heat transfer,
including microelectronics, fuel cells, pharmaceutical processes, and hybrid-powered
engines, , in grinding, machining ,engine cooling/vehicle thermal management, domestic
refrigerator, chiller, heat exchanger and in boiler flue gas temperature reduction. Knowledge
of the rheological behaviour of Nanofluids is found to be very critical in deciding their
suitability for convective heat transfer applications.
 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Fig 1: Path of parallel rays at a parabolic mirror

2. Fig 2: Parabolic trough Parameters
3. Fig 3: Aperture width / focal length vs Rim angle
4. Fig 4: Parabola with Dimensions
5. Fig 5: Final CAD model
6. Fig 6 : Hydraulic circuit
7. Fig 7: Final Setup
8. Fig 8: Parts of parabolic collector
9. Fig 9: Final assembled collector
 LIST OF TABLES

 Deionized Water Readings

Table 1: Free convection, 1st Trail

Table 2: Free convection, 2nd Trail

Table 3: Forced Convection, 2.2 lit/min

 0.4% ZnO nanofluid

Table 4: Free convection

Table 5: Forced Convection, 2.2 lit/min

Table 6: Forced Convection, 0.66 lit/min

 0.2% ZnO nanofluid

Table 7: Free convection

Table 8: Forced Convection, 2.2 lit/min

Table 9: Forced Convection, 0.66 lit/min

 Deionized Water
Table 10: Heat flux (Q) in Watt (W)

Table 11: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h) in W/m2K

 0.4% ZnO nanofluid

Table 12: Heat flux (Q) in Watt (W)

Table 13: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h) in W/m2K

Table 14: Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh number (Ra)

 0.2% ZnO nanofluid

Table 15: Heat flux (Q) in Watt (W)

Table 16: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h) in W/m2K

Table 17: Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh number(Ra)

 LIST OF GRAPHS

 Deionized Water
Graph 1: Reservoir temperature (T) vs. Time (t)

Graph 2: Heat flux (Q) vs. Time (t)

Graph 3: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)vs. Time (t)

 0.4% ZnO nanofluid

Graph 4: Reservoir temperature (T) vs. Time (t)

Graph 5: Heat flux (Q) vs. Time (t)

Graph 6: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)vs. Time (t)

Graph 7: Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh number (Ra)

 0.2% ZnO nanofluid

Graph 8: Reservoir temperature (T) vs. Time (t)

Graph 9: Heat flux (Q) vs. Time (t)

Graph 10: Heat Transfer Coefficient (h)vs. Time (t)

Graph 11: Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh number (Ra)

 Graphs comparing water and nanofluid

Graph 12: Reservoir temperature (T) vs. Time (t)

Graph 13: Heat flux (Q) vs. Time (t)

 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................1

HEAT TRANSFER.......................................................................................................................................2

SOLAR COLLECTORS................................................................................................................................4

Application of solar collectors.......................................................................................................................5

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS....................................................................................................................6

NANOFLUID................................................................................................................................................8

HEAT TRANSFER IN NANOFLUIDS........................................................................................................8

SYNTHESIS: 8

PRODUCTION OF NANOPARTICLES......................................................................................................8

APPLICATIONS:..........................................................................................................................................9

2. LITERATURE SURVEY................................................................................................................11

3. DESIGNING OF COLLECTOR.....................................................................................................13

Geometry of Parabolic Trough Solar Collector............................................................................................14

Dimensions..................................................................................................................................................16

Constructing the parabola............................................................................................................................17

Final CAD design of the setup.....................................................................................................................17

4. FABRICATION..............................................................................................................................18

5. EXPERIMENTATION METHODOLOGY....................................................................................21

Components.................................................................................................................................................22

Methodology................................................................................................................................................23

6. FORMULAE USED........................................................................................................................25

7. OBSERVATION.............................................................................................................................29

Tabulation of Deionised water.....................................................................................................................30

Tabulation of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid..............................................................................................................32

Tabulation of 0.2% ZnO Nanofluid.............................................................................................................34

 8. CALCULATION.............................................................................................................................36

Calculations of water...................................................................................................................................37

Calculations of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid............................................................................................................38

a) Nanofluid properties............................................................................................................38

b) Dimensionless numbers.......................................................................................................39

Calculations of 0.2% ZnO nanofluid............................................................................................................42

a) Nanofluid properties............................................................................................................42

b) Dimensionless numbers.......................................................................................................43

9. RESULTS........................................................................................................................................46

TABULATION OF DEIONISED WATER.................................................................................................47

TABULATION OF 0.4% ZnO NANOFLUID............................................................................................48

TABULATION OF 0.2% ZnO NANOFLUID............................................................................................50

Graphs of deionised water...........................................................................................................................52

Graphs of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid....................................................................................................................54

Graphs of 0.2% ZnO nanofluid....................................................................................................................56

Graphs comparing nanofluid and water.......................................................................................................58

PROJECT OUTCOMES AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................................59

FUTURE SCOPE................................................................................................................................60

REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................61
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1
 INTRODUCTION

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The rate of
heat transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the properties of the
intervening medium through which the heat is transferred.
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.

CONDUCTION
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer occurs from one part of a substance to another part of
within the substance itself or with another substance which is placed in physical contact. In
conduction, there is no noticeable movement of molecules. The heat transfer occurs here by
the two mechanisms:

1. By the transfer of free electrons.

2. The atoms and molecules having energy will pass that energy they have with
their adjacent atoms or molecules by means of lattice vibrations.

Fourier Law of Conduction:

𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Where: Q is the heat flow rate by conduction

K is the thermal conductivity of the material

A is the cross sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
𝑑𝑇
is the temperature gradient of the section.
𝑑𝑥

CONVECTION:
Convective heat transfer occurs due to actual movement of molecules and heat is carried out
by transfer of one fraction of the fluid to the remaining portion. Since movement of particles
constitutes convection, it is the macro form of heat transfer. Also convection is only possible
in fluids where the particles can moved easily and the rate of convective heat transfer
depends on the rate of flow to a great extent. Convection can be of two types:

1. Natural convection: In this type of convection, the movement of particles which

constitutes convection occurs by the variation in densities of the fluids. As we already
know, as temperature increases, the density decreases and this variation in density will
force the fluid to move through the volume. This cause convection to occur.
 2. Forced Convection: The difference between natural convection and forced
convection is that in forced convection, a work is done to make movement in the
fluid. This is done using a pump or blower.

Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Q = h A (Ts-T∞)

Where: Ts is the surface temperature

T∞is the fluid temperature

h is the heat transfer coefficient

RADIATION
Radiation is the third mode of heat transfer. This mode of heat transfer doesn’t require any
medium to occur. Every matter having a temperature above absolute zero will emit energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves and called radiation. It is the same way by which the
energy of the sun reaches us.

The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy, is as
follows for an object in a vacuum:

𝑄 = 𝜖𝜎(T4)

Where, Q is the heat flux, ε is the emissivity (unity for a black body), σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin or Rankin).
 SOLAR COLLECTORS

“Solar collector is a mechanical device which captures the radiant solar energy for use as a
source of energy for the heating of water or the production of electricity.”

There are 4 main categories of Solar Collectors:

● Low Temperature Unglazed ● Concentrating ● Flat Plate ● Evacuated Tube

1. Low Temperature Unglazed Collectors

Consists of black colour matting or tubes made from rubber or plastic based materials.If it is
not insulated it can't efficiently operate in cooler conditions or when hot water (showering
temperature) is required. They are often referred to as "unglazed" as they don’t have a glass
cover like flat plate or evacuated tube collectors.

2. Flat Plate Collectors

The design is very simply an insulated box with an absorber sheet welded to copper pipe
through which the heat transfer liquid circulates through. No insulation above the absorber is
an inherent disadvantage of the design and leads to high heat loss. This heat loss means flat
plates are unable to deliver hot efficiently at higher temperatures (>70oC / 160oF), and
performance is greatly reduced in cold weather.

3. Evacuated Tube Collectors

Comprised of an array of single or twin wall glass tubes with a vacuum that provides
excellent insulation against heat loss. The design is very similar to a glass hot water flask
used to keep hot water. Single wall evacuated tubes normally have a fin that has the absorber
coating, similar to that used in the flat plate collector. Twin wall evacuated tubes have
absorber coating on the inner tube and the space between the two tubes is “evacuated” to
form the vacuum.
4. Concentrating Collectors

A concentrating collector uses mirrors to concentrate the sunlight onto an absorber tube or
panel, allowing much higher temperatures to be reached. Such collectors normally require 1
or 2 axis tracking to follow the sun and ensure optimal reflection angle. Due to the size and
complexity of these systems they are primarily used for large scale projects.

Parabolic trough collectors

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a
receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned directly
above the middle of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector
follows the sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A working fluid
 (e.g. water) is heated to 150–350 °C (300–660 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then
used as a heat source for a power generation system.

Classification of solar collectors according to concentration degree

Category Example Temperature range, Efficiency, %

ºC

No concentration Flat-plate 75-200 30 – 50

Evacuated tube

Medium concentration Parabolic cylinder 150 - 500 50 – 70

High concentration 1500 and more 60 – 75

Parabodial

Application of solar collectors

Solar energy can be used by three processes chemical, electrical and thermal.

1. Chemical process, through photosynthesis, maintains life on earth by producing food

and converting CO2 to O2.
2. Electrical process, using photovoltaic converters, provides power for spacecraft and is
used in many terrestrial applications.
3. Thermal process, can be used to provide much of the thermal energy required for
solar water heating and building heating.
 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS

1. Reynolds Number:

The dimensionless number that gives the measure of the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces for a particular fluid stream.
ρUL UL
Re =
= µ V
Where:

Re = Reynolds number ρ = Density of the fluid u = mean velocity of fluid object

L = is a characteristic length or linear dimension (internal diameter for flow in pipe or sphere
moving in pipe, length or width for aircraft or ship moving in fluid, equivalent diameter for
rectangular pipe and non-spherical object in fluid)

µ = viscosity of fluid

Physical significance

1. Reynolds number gives the information, whether the flow is inertial or viscous force
dominant. It tells us whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
2. If Re is smaller, the fluid will be more viscous & less inertial forces will exist in the
fluid inverse will be true for greater value of Re.

2. Prandtl Number

The dimensionless number that gives the ratio between momentum diffusivity to thermal
diffusivity.
v cpµ
Pr =
= α k
Where:

Pr = Prandtl number ν = momentum diffusivity α = thermal diffusivity µ = viscosity

ρ = density k = thermal conductivity cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure

Physical significance

1. If a fluid has low Pr, its thermal diffusivity will be higher and momentum diffusivity
will be lower.
2. It depends on only the state of fluid and the type of fluid, it is independent of any
length dimension (as Re depends).
3. Prandtl number gives the information about the type of fluid. Also it provides
the information about the thickness of thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer.
 3. Nusselt Number

The dimensionless number which gives the ratio of convective heat transfer across (normal
to) the boundary layer of the fluid to the conductive heat transfer.

hl
Nu =
k
Where:

Nu = Nusselt number h = convective heat transfer coefficient of fluid

k = thermal conductivity of fluid

L = characteristic length (outer diameter of cylinder, length of vertical plate, diameter of

sphere, volume of fluid object per surface area for complex shapes).

Physical significance

Nusselt number gives the comparison between the conduction and convection heat
transfer rates.

4. Grashof Number

The dimensionless number which gives the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy
force to the square of viscous force.

Controls the ratio of length scale to natural convection boundary layer thickness

gρ2 βΔTL3
Gr =
µ2
Where

Gr- Grashof Number β =inverse of temperature in kelvin.

ΔT- change in temperature. ρ = Density of the fluid. µ = viscosity.

Physical significance

1. Higher Grashoff number means high buoyancy which means higher flow movement.
2. Grashoff number is significant in cases of fluid flow due to natural convection. This
means that the fluid motion is caused not due to an external source but due to the
difference in densities between two points.
3. Just as Reynolds number is used to categorize the flow (laminar, turbulent, transition)
in case of forced convection, Grashoff number is used in case of natural convection.
 NANOFLUID

A nanofluid is a fluid containing nanometer-sized particles, called nanoparticles. These fluids

are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used
in nanofluid are typically made of metals, oxides, carbides, or carbon nanotubes. Common
base fluids include water, ethylene glycol and oil.
Due to its novel properties nanofluid find their applications in many fields of heat transfer,
including microelectronics, fuel cells, pharmaceutical processes, and hybrid-powered
engines, , in grinding, machining ,engine cooling/vehicle thermal management, domestic
refrigerator, chiller, heat exchanger and in boiler flue gas temperature reduction. They have
better thermal conductivity and the convective heat transfer coefficient as that of the fluid in
which it is made of. Knowledge of the rheological behaviour of nanofluids is found to be
very critical in deciding their suitability for convective heat transfer applications

HEAT TRANSFER IN NANOFLUIDS:

Suspended nanoparticles in conventional fluids, called nanofluids, have been the subject of
intensive study worldwide since pioneering researchers recently discovered the anomalous
thermal behaviour of these fluids. Existing theories could not explain the enhanced thermal
conductivity of these fluids with small-particle concentration. Micrometre-sized particle-fluid
suspensions exhibit no such dramatic enhancement. This difference has led to studies of other
modes of heat transfer and efforts to develop a comprehensive theory.

SYNTHESIS:
Nanofluids are produced by several techniques they are,
1. Direct Evaporation (1 step)
2. Gas condensation/dispersion (2 steps)
3. Chemical vapour condensation (1 step)
4. Chemical precipitation (1 step)
Although stabilization can be a challenge, on-going research indicates that it is possible.
Nano-materials used so far in nanofluid synthesis include metallic particles, oxide particles,
carbon nanotubes, graphene nano-flakes and ceramic particles.

PRODUCTION OF NANOPARTICLES
Production of nanoparticles can be divided into two main categories, namely, physical
synthesis and chemical synthesis. The common production techniques of nanofluids as
follows.
Physical Synthesis: Mechanical grinding, inert-gas-condensation technique.
Chemical Synthesis: Chemical precipitation, chemical vapour deposition, micro-emulsions,
spray pyrolysis, thermal spraying.
 Production of Nanofluids-There is mainly two methods of nanofluid production, namely,
two-step technique and one-step technique.
In one-step technique, combines the production of nanoparticles and dispersion of
nanoparticles in the base fluid into a single step. There are some variations of this technique.
In one of the common methods, named direct evaporation one-step method, the Nano-fluid is
produced by the solidification of the nanoparticles, which are initially gas phase, inside the
base fluid. The dispersion characteristics of Nano-fluids produced with one step techniques
are better than those produced with two-step technique. The main drawback of one-step
techniques is that they are not proper for mass production, which limits their
commercialization.
In the two-step technique, the first step is the production of nanoparticles and the second step
is the dispersion of the nanoparticles in a base fluid. Two-step technique is advantageous
when mass 4 production of Nano-fluids is considered, because at present, nanoparticles can
be produced in large quantities by utilizing the technique of inert gas condensation. The main
disadvantage of the two-step technique is that the nanoparticles form clusters during the
preparation of the Nano-fluid which prevents the proper dispersion of nanoparticles inside the
base fluid.

APPLICATIONS:
Nanofluids are primarily used for their enhanced thermal properties as coolants in heat
transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, electronic cooling system (such as flat plate) and
radiators. Heat transfer over flat plate has been analysed by many researchers. However, they
are also useful for their controlled optical properties. Graphene based nanofluid has been
found to enhance polymerase chain reaction efficiency. Nanofluids in solar collectors is
another application where Nanofluids are employed for their tuneable optical properties.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
 LITERATURE SURVEY

Although the costs of solar energy have gone down and continue to fall, the levelized costs of
solar energy are still much higher than conventional energy. The levelized cost of solar
concentrated power (CSP) is four times than that of supercritical coal without carbon capture
and storage [1].

Cost is one of the major factors inhibiting development of trough collectors. Increasing the
efficiency of the solar collector systems can in part alleviate this problem. Many attempts
have been made to improve the performance of these systems [2–5].

Heat transfer can be enhanced by increasing the thermal conductivity of the heat transfer fluid
(HTF). Thermal conductivity of metallic particles, metallic oxides and nanotubes is relatively
higher than that of liquids. Addition of fine particles into heat transfer fluids (thus forming
nanofluids) can significantly increase the heat transfer rate [6–8].

Many studies have been carried out on the performances of PTCs using synthetic oils and
nanofluids as heat transfer fluid. The latter are formed by suspending nanoparticles (1nm-
100nm) in a traditional heat transfer fluid. These so-called nanofluids display good thermal
properties compared with fluids conventionally used [9]

Choi is the first who used the nanofluid term at the 1995 annual winter meeting of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers as he presented the possibility of doubling the
convection heat transfer coefficients using nano-fluids. In addition to this work, researchers
in Japan and Germany have published articles concerning similar fluids (Massuda et al 1993,
Grimm 1993) [10].

Heris et al conducted experiments with the Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles suspended in water
under laminar flow. They found that the heat transfers could increase of about 40% while the
improvement of thermal conductivity doesn’t exceed 15% [11].

Tyagi et al studied theoretically the efficiency of a low-temperature nanofluid-based direct

absorption solar collector using a mixture of water and aluminium, where the nanoparticle
volume fraction varies from 0.1 % to 5%. They found that the efficiency increases
significantly for low volume fractions of nanoparticles, whereas for values higher than 2%
the efficiency levels off. They also investigated the size of nanoparticles (1nm-20nm) at the
volume fraction of 0.8%: the efficiency increases slightly with increasing size of
nanoparticles [12].

In 2010, Otanicar et al studied both experimentally and numerically the effect of different
nanofluids (carbon nanotubes, graphite and silver) on the performances of a micro scale
direct absorption solar collector. Their results showed that the suspension of a slight amount
(less than 0.5%) of nanoparticles improves remarkably the efficiency. However, for a volume
fraction higher than 0.5%, the efficiency remains constant and even begins to decrease with
increasing volume fraction. They also found that the efficiency increases with decreasing size
of nanoparticles [13].

Khular et al investigated theoretically in 2012 thermal efficiency of a nanofluid-based direct

absorption solar parabolic trough collector. They used aluminium nanoparticles at the volume
fraction of 0.05% suspended in the base fluid Therminol-VP1. Their results showed that
thermal efficiency increases compared to a conventional PTC by 10 % at low temperatures
and by 5% at high temperatures. [14]
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGNING OF COLLECTOR
Geometry of Parabolic Trough Solar Collector
Parabolic Trough Solar Collector (PTSC) which is also called cylindrical parabolic collector
employs linear imaging concentration. These collectors are comprised of a cylindrical
concentrator of parabolic cross – sectional shape, and a circular cylindrical receiver located
along the focal line of the parabola.

Basically it consists of (i) a parabolic reflector of about 1-6 m aperture width, (ii) an absorber
tube made of steel or copper with diameter 1-5 cm and coated with selective coating, and (iii)
a concentric tubular glass cover surrounding receiver with a gap of about 1- 2 cm.The
cylindrical parabolic reflector focuses all the incident sunlight onto a metallic tubular receiver
placed along its length in the focal plane. The heat transfer fluid is allowed to flow through
the receiver.

Radiation concentration at a parabolic trough

Parabolic troughs have a focal line, which consists of the focal points of the parabolic cross-
sections. Radiation that enters in a plane parallel to the optical plane is reflected in such a
way that it passes through the focal line.

Fig 1 : Path of parallel rays at a parabolic mirror

The following four parameters are commonly used to characterize the form and size of a
parabolic trough: trough length, focal length, aperture width, i.e. the distance between
one rim and the other, and rim angle, i.e. the angle between the optical axis and the line
between the focal point and the mirror rim:
 Fig 2: Parabolic trough Parameters

The focal length, i.e. the distance between the focal point and the vertex of a parabola, is a
parameter that determines the parabola completely

The rim angle, i.e. the angle between the optical axis and the line between the focal point and
the mirror rim, has the interesting characteristics that it alone determines the shape of the
cross-section of a parabolic trough. That means that the cross-sections of parabolic troughs
with the same rim angle are geometrically similar. The cross-sections of one parabolic trough
with a given rim angle can be made congruent to the cross-section of another parabolic
trough with the same rim angle by a uniform scaling (enlarging or shrinking). If only the
shape of a collector cross-section is of interest, but not the absolute size, then it is sufficient
to indicate the rim angle. Two of the three parameters rim angle, aperture width and focal
length are sufficient to determine the cross-section of a parabolic trough completely, i.e.
shape and size. This also means that two of them are sufficient to calculate the third one.

Figure 3: Aperture width / focal length vs Rim angle

 Geometrical parameters of real parabolic troughs

We see that the rim angle should neither be too small nor too large. The rim angle is related
to the distance between the different parts of the mirrors and the focal line.

The rim angle is a very important constructive trait of collectors. For instance, it has an
effect on the concentration ratio and on the total irradiance per meter absorber tube [W/m].
Qualitatively, we can understand in the following way that there must be some ideal rim
angle range and that it should neither be too small nor too large. If the rim angle is very
small, then the mirror is very narrow and it is obvious that a broader mirror (with a larger rim
angle) would enhance the power projected onto the absorber tube. If the rim angle is very big,
then the way of the reflected radiation from the outer parts of the mirror is very long and the
beam spread is very big, hencereducingthe concentration ratio. A mirror with a smaller rim
angle and the same aperture width would permit a higher concentration ratio.

Last but not least there is an economical aspect that limits the reasonable rim angle: At high
rim angles the outer parts have a low contribution to the energy yield in relation to the mirror
area. That means a high investment is necessary, which contributes only little to the energy
yield. So, there are several criteria, which together determine the rim angle.

Dimensions:
After conducting more research on solar energy and solar collection, the decision
was made to have:
Trough Length = 1m, So that data can easily be extrapolated for multiple parabolic troughs
placed together as a single unit.
Absorber tube diameter = 1.27cm,
Parabola angle = 120deg, to obtain greater viewing area.
Aperture width = 0.7m
Focal length = 0.303221m
Equation of parabola:y2 = 1.21284 x
Concentration ratio = 55.1181
Constructing the parabola: (by tangent method)

Fig 4: Parabola with Dimensions

Final CAD design of the setup

Fig 5: Final CAD model

 CHAPTER 4

FABRICATION
The parabolic collector is a closed box composing of following principle parts

Fig 8: Parts of parabolic collector

The basic materials generally used for construction of the collector are galvanized iron sheet,
stainless steel sheet, mirrors and acrylic mirror sheet of late. The reason for choosing acrylic
mirror sheet over others were due to its ease of handling, higher reflectiveness and cost
effectiveness
To create the reflecting surface fist we fabricated the supporting structure. To fabricate the
supporting structure we used metal strips of 25mm width and 3mm thickness. The strips were
cut and hammered into required shape of the parabola.
Then the ¾ inch square pipe was cut according to the design to form the supports for the side
plates and top plate. 1 inch square pipe was cut to form the bottom support of the parabolic
trough. Edges of all the pieces were ground and welded according to the design.

The holes on the top supports were drilled to fix acrylic transparent sheet. The acrylic mirror
sheet was fixed onto the supporting structure by means of araldite. To fix the copper pipe
exactly on the focus, a mechanism was created by means of nuts, bolts and PVC pipe.
It is hard for a manually made collector to match the efficiency lifetime cost effectiveness
and water tightness standard of an industrial product.
Fig 8: Final assembled collector
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTATION METHODOLOGY
Components:

1. Parabolic trough collector

2. Nanofluid / Water tank (Reservoir)

3. Water tank (Sink)

4. Connecting tubes

5. Copper Tubes

6. Copper Fittings

7. Thermocouple

8. DigitalRead-out meter

9. Pump

10. Plastic tube (Manometer)

11. Thermometer

12. Nanofluid (Concentration - 0.2% and 0.4%)

Fig 6 : Hydraulic circuit

Methodology

Forced Convection: Forced convection occurs when the streams and currents in the fluid are
induced by external means such as fans, stirrers, and pumps creating an artificially induced
convection current.

Method:

 Different components are connected accordingly.

 The pump is switched on and any leakage is checked
 The ball valve is adjusted to required position and flow rate is measured.
 Initial temperatures of fluid in reservoir and sink tanks are measured.
 The temperature of fluids is again measured at regular interval.
 The experiment is conducted for 6-8 hrs.
 For next trail, the position of ball valve is changed to vary the flow rate.
 The experiment is repeated and observations are tabulated.

Free Convection: In this type of convection, the movement of particles which constitutes
convection occurs by the variation in density of the fluid. As we already know, as
temperature increases, the density decreases and this variation in density will force the fluid
to move through the volume. This causes convection to occur.

Method:

 Different components are connected accordingly.

 Both ball valves should be in fully open position.
 Initial temperatures of fluid in reservoir and sink tanks are measured.
 The temperatures of fluids are again measured at regular interval.
 The experiment is conducted for 6-8 hrs.
 The experiment is repeated and observations are tabulated.

Both forced and free convection is carried out for different fluids and at required flow rates.
Fig 7: Final Experimental Setup
 CHAPTER 6

FORMULAE USED
 𝑚 ∗𝐶𝑝 ∗(𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 )
1. 𝑄 = 𝑡

Where,
Q = Heat in W
m = Mass of water (5 kg)
Cp = Specific heat of water (4184 J/kg-K )
To = Outlet temperature of water
Ti = Inlet temperature of water
t = Time taken (1 hour)

2. 𝑄 = 𝑕 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏)
Where,
Q = Heat in W
h = Heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
A = πdL = Area of the receiver pipe (d = 0.5 inch; L = 1m)
Tw = Surface temperature of receiver pipe
𝑇𝑖 + 𝑇𝑜
𝑇𝑏 =
2
3. VOLUME FRACTION (𝝋𝒁𝒏𝑶)

𝑊 𝑍𝑛
𝜑 𝑂 [16]
𝜌
= 𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑊𝑍𝑛 𝑊 𝑏𝑓
𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑂
+
𝜌 𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝑏𝑓

𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ZnO = Zinc Oxide
bf = base fluid

4. DENSITY OF NANOFLUID (𝝆𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒐)

𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 = 1 − 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑏𝑓 + 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑍𝑛𝑂 [16]

 5. SPECIFIC HEAT ( 𝑪
𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝒑
)

1−𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝐶𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝑏𝑓 +𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 (𝜌 𝐶𝑝

𝐶𝑝𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
)𝑍𝑛𝑂 [16]
𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜

6. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (𝑲𝒆𝒇𝒇)

𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓
= 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 +2𝜑(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 (Maxwell’s Equation) [16]
∗
+𝐾𝑏𝑓 )
𝐾𝑏𝑓 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑜 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 −(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 − 𝐾𝑏𝑓
)𝜑

𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 = 50 𝑊 𝑚𝐾
𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.6305 𝑊 𝑚𝐾

7. DYNAMIC VISCOSITY ( 𝝁)

𝜇 = (1 + 2.5𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 )𝜇𝑏𝑓 [16] [17](𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

8. REYNOLDS NUMBER:

ρUL 𝑈𝐿
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉
µ
=
Re - Reynolds number
ρ - Density of the fluid
u - Mean velocity of fluid object
L - Characteristic length
µ - Dynamic Viscosity of fluid

9. PRANDTL NUMBER
𝑣 µ𝑐𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = =
α 𝑘
Pr - Prandtl
number
ν - Momentum diffusivity of the fluid
α - Thermal diffusivity of the fluid
µ - Dynamic Viscosity of the fluid
 ρ - Density of the fluid
k - Thermal conductivity of the fluid
Cp - specific heat capacity at constant pressure.
10. NUSSELT NUMBER

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑕𝑙
𝑘
Nu - Nusselt number
h - Convective heat transfer coefficient of fluid
k - Thermal conductivity of fluid
L - Characteristic length

11. GRASHOF NUMBER

2 3
𝐺𝑟 = 𝑔ρ βΔT𝐿
µ2
Where
Gr- Grashof Number
β - Inverse of temperature in kelvin.
ΔT -Change in temperature.
ρ - Density of the fluid.
µ -Dynamic Viscosity.
 CHAPTER 7

OBSERVATION
Tabulation of Deionised water
1. Day 1: 19 April 2017

Fluid: Deionized Water

Method: Free convection

Sl. No. Time Temperature(oC)

1 10:00 am 28
2 10:30 am 28
3 11:00 am 31
4 11:30 am 32
5 12:00 pm 34
6 12:30 pm 35
7 2:00 pm 35
8 2:40 pm 35.5
9 3:00 pm 36
10 3:30 pm 36.5
11 3:45 pm 37
12 4:00 pm 37.5

2. Day 2: 20 April 2017

Fluid: Deionized Water

Method: Free convection

Sl. No. Time Temperature(oC)

1 10:00 am 27
2 10:30 am 29
3 11:00 am 31
4 11:30 am 32
5 12:00 pm 33
6 12:30 pm 34
7 1:00 pm 35
8 1:30 pm 36
9 2:00 pm 36
10 2:30 pm 36.5
11 3:00 pm 36.5
12 3:30 pm 37
13 4:00 pm 37.5
3. Day 3: 21 April 2017

Fluid: Deionized Water

Method: Forced convection

Flow rate: 2.2 litres/min.

Sl. No. Time Temperature(oC)

1 10:15 am 28
2 11:00 am 31
3 11:20 am 34
4 11:45 am 35.5
5 12:00 pm 37
6 12:15 pm 37.5
7 12:30 pm 38
8 12:45 pm 39
9 1:00 pm 39.5
10 1:15 pm 39.5
11 1:35 pm 40
12 1:45 pm 40
13 2:00 pm 40.5
14 2:15 pm 40.5
15 2:30 pm 41
16 2:45 pm 41.5
17 3:00 pm 40.5
Tabulation of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid
4. Day 4: 22 April 2017

Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.4% conc

Method: Free convection

Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of

reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 28 29
2 10:30 am 34 39
3 11:00 am 38 45
4 11:30 am 41 51
5 12:00 pm 43 55
6 12:30 pm 44.5 59
7 1:00 pm 45.5 63
8 1:30 pm 47 67.5
9 2:00 pm 48.5 71
10 2:30 pm 49.5 73
11 3:00 pm 50 74.5
12 3:30 pm 50.5 76
13 4:00 pm 50.5 76.5
14 4:30 pm 49.5 76

5. Day 5: 24 April 2017

Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.4% conc

Method: Forced convection

Flow rate: 2.2 litres/min.

Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of

reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 29 29
2 10:30 am 34.5 39.5
3 11:00 am 38.5 45
4 11:30 am 42 51.5
5 12:00 pm 43.5 55
6 12:30 pm 45 59
7 1:00 pm 46.5 63.5
8 1:30 pm 48 67.5
9 2:00 pm 49 71
10 2:30 pm 50.5 73.5
11 3:00 pm 51 74.5
12 3:30 pm 51.5 75
13 4:00 pm 52 75.5
14 4:30 pm 51 75
6. Day 6: 27 April 2017

Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.4% conc

Method: Forced convection

Flow rate: 0.66 litres/min

Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of

reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 29 29
2 10:30 am 34.5 38.5
3 11:00 am 38.5 44
4 11:30 am 42 49.5
5 12:00 pm 43.5 54
6 12:30 pm 45 57
7 1:00 pm 46.5 60.5
8 1:30 pm 47.5 64.5
9 2:00 pm 48 69
10 2:30 pm 48.5 71.5
11 3:00 pm 49 72.5
12 3:30 pm 50 73
13 4:00 pm 50.5 73
14 4:30 pm 50.5 73
Tabulationof 0.2% ZnO Nanofluid
7. Day 7: 28 April 2017
Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.2% conc
Method: Free convection
Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of
reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 28 29
2 10:30 am 34 39
3 11:00 am 37 45
4 11:30 am 40 51
5 12:00 pm 42.5 55
6 12:30 pm 43.5 59
7 1:00 pm 44.5 63
8 1:30 pm 46 67.5
9 2:00 pm 47 71
10 2:30 pm 47.5 73
11 3:00 pm 48 74.5
12 3:30 pm 48.5 76
13 4:00 pm 49 76.5
14 4:30 pm 49.5 76

8. Day 8: 2 May 2017

Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.2% conc

Method: Forced convection

Flow rate: 2.2 litres/min

Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of

reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 27 28
2 10:30 am 32.5 38.5
3 11:00 am 36.5 45
4 11:30 am 39 52
5 12:00 pm 41.5 55.5
6 12:30 pm 43.5 58.5
7 1:00 pm 45 64.5
8 1:30 pm 46.5 66.5
9 2:00 pm 47.5 70.5
10 2:30 pm 48 73.5
11 3:00 pm 49 74.5
12 3:30 pm 49.5 74.5
13 4:00 pm 49.5 74
9. Day 9: 3 May 2017

Fluid: ZnO Nanofluid 0.2% conc

Method: Forced convection

Flow rate: 0.66 litres/min

Sl. No. Time Temperature of Temperature of

reservoir(oC) collector(oC)
1 10:00 am 27 28
2 10:30 am 32 39.5
3 11:00 am 35.5 44
4 11:30 am 38 50.5
5 12:00 pm 40.5 54
6 12:30 pm 42 58
7 1:00 pm 44 63
8 1:30 pm 45.5 65.5
9 2:00 pm 46 68
10 2:30 pm 47 71
11 3:00 pm 48.5 72.5
12 3:30 pm 49 74
13 4:00 pm 48.5 73.5
 CHAPTER 8

CALCULATION
Calculations of water

𝑉
1. 𝑚 =
𝜌

5000
𝑚 =
1000
𝒎 = 𝟓 𝒌𝒈

𝑚 ∗𝐶𝑝 ∗(𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 )

2. 𝑄 = 𝑡

5 ∗ 4187 ∗ (31 − 28)

𝑄=
3600
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟕.
𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝑾

3. 𝑄 = 𝑕 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏)
𝑄
𝑕=
𝐴 ∗ (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑏)
17.433
𝑕=
0.039898 ∗ (37 − 33)
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟒𝟗 𝑾/𝒎𝟐𝑲
Calculations of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid
a) Nanofluid properties

𝑊 𝑍𝑛𝑂
1. 𝜑 =
𝜌 𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑊𝑍𝑛 𝑊 𝑏𝑓
𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑂
+
𝜌 𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝑏𝑓

112.2

= 56104980
𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 112.2
5610+ 992.2

𝝋𝒁𝒏𝑶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟗

2. 𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 = 1 − 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑏𝑓 + 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑍𝑛𝑂

𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 = 1 − 0.00397949 992.2 + (0.00397949 ∗ 5610)
𝝆𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔𝟒𝟖𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

3. 𝐶𝑝𝑒𝑓 1−𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝐶𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝑏𝑓 +𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 (𝜌 𝐶𝑝 )𝑍𝑛𝑂

= 𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜

𝐶𝑝𝑒𝑓𝑓 1 − 0.00397949 992.2 ∗ 4187 + 0.00397949(5610 ∗

495.207667) 1010.576489
=

𝑪𝒑𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟒𝟒𝟑𝟗 𝑱/𝒌𝒈 − 𝑲

4. 𝐾𝑒𝑓
= 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 +2𝜑(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 +𝐾𝑏𝑓 )
∗ 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑜 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 −(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 − 𝐾𝑏𝑓 )𝜑
𝐾𝑏𝑓

𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.6305 50 + 2 ∗ 0.6305 + 2 ∗

∗ 0.00397949(50 + 0.6305)
50 + 2 ∗ 0.6305 − 50 − 0.6305
0.00397949
 𝑲𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝑲

5. 𝜇 = (1 + 2.5𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 )𝜇𝑏𝑓
𝜇 = 1 + 2.5 ∗ 0.00397949 6531 ∗ 10−3
𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟗𝟕 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵𝒔𝒎−𝟐
 b) Dimensionless numbers

1. 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑈𝐿
ρUL =𝑉
µ

𝑅𝑒1 = 0.46685 ∗ 0.01

6.5269 ∗ 10−7
𝑹𝒆𝟏 = 7152.7065
0.14 ∗ 0.01
𝑅𝑒2 =
6.5269 ∗ 10−7
𝑹𝒆𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝟐𝟑

𝑣 µ𝑐 𝑝
2. 𝑃𝑟 = =
α 𝑘

𝑃𝑟 = 0.659597 ∗ 10−3 ∗
4105.4439
0.63777
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟖

𝑔ρ 2 βΔ T𝐿3
3. 𝐺𝑟 = µ2
0.003187 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 26 ∗ 10−6
𝐺𝑟 =
6.5269 ∗ 10−7 2
𝑮𝒓 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝟗

4. 𝑁𝑢

m = ρ*v

m = 1010.576489 * 5000 * 10-6

m = 5.05288 kg

Cp = 4015.4439𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
Day - 1 (2.2 litres/min.)

ΔT = 52 – 29 = 23

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.05288 ∗ 4105 .4439 ∗ (52 − 29)

= 3600

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍= 133.533126 W
𝑄
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴∆𝑇
133.533126
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
0.039898 ∗ (75.5 − 52)

𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐𝒌

𝑕𝑙
𝑁𝑢
𝑘
=
141.353138 ∗
0.01
𝑁𝑢
= 0.63777
𝑵𝒖𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟔
Day – 2 (0.66 litres/min.)

ΔT = 50.5 – 29 = 21.5

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.05288 ∗ 4105 .4439 ∗ (50.5 − 29)

= 3600

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍= 123.8897 W
𝑄
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴∆𝑇
123.8897
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
0.039898 ∗ (73 − 50.5)

𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟑 𝑾/𝒎𝟐𝒌

𝑕𝑙
𝑁𝑢 =
=

𝑁𝑢
𝑘 38.00703 ∗
1 0.01
0.63777
𝑵𝒖𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟗
 𝑁𝑢 = c (𝑅𝑒)𝑚 (𝑃𝑟)1/3

2.1639 = c (2145.8323)𝑚 (4.245948)1/3

2.21636 = c(7152.7065)𝑚 (4.245948)1/3

Dividing both equations
2.216
36 7152.7065 𝑚
2145.8323
2.1639
=

1.024243 = 3.3333𝑚
Taking logarithm on both sides

log (1.024243) = m log 3.3333

0.0239538 = m * 1.20397

m = 0.019895

2.21636 = C (7152.7065)0.019895 (4.245948)1/3

c =1.17498769

𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟗
(𝑹𝒆 )𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝑷𝒓 𝟏/𝟑
Calculations of 0.2% ZnO nanofluid
a) Nanofluid properties

𝑊 𝑍𝑛𝑂
1. 𝜑 =
𝜌 𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑊𝑍𝑛 𝑊 𝑏𝑓
𝑍𝑛𝑂
𝑂
+
𝜌 𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝑏𝑓

56.1
5610
𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 =
56.1
4980
5610 +992.2

𝝋𝒁𝒏𝑶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟒𝟒𝟑

2. 𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 = 1 − 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑏𝑓 + 𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌𝑍𝑛𝑂

𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜 = 1 − 0.00198443 992.2 + (0.00198443 ∗ 5610)
𝝆𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟎𝟏 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

3. 𝐶𝑝𝑒𝑓 1−𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝜌 𝐶𝑍𝑛𝑂 𝑏𝑓 +𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 (𝜌 𝐶𝑝 )𝑍𝑛𝑂

= 𝜌𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜

1 − 0.00198443 992.2 ∗ 4187 + 0.00198443(5610 ∗

495.207667)
𝐶𝑝𝑒𝑓𝑓
1010.576489
=

𝑪𝒑𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟒𝟒𝟑𝟗 𝑱/𝒌𝒈 − 𝑲

4. 𝐾𝑒𝑓
= 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 +2𝜑(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 +𝐾𝑏𝑓 )
∗ 𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑜 +2𝐾𝑏𝑓 −(𝐾𝑍𝑛𝑂 − 𝐾𝑏𝑓 )𝜑
𝐾𝑏𝑓

𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0.6305 50 + 2 ∗ 0.6305 + 2 ∗

∗ 0.00198443(50 + 0.6305)
50 + 2 ∗ 0.6305 − 50 − 0.6305
0.00198443
 𝑲𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟗𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝑲

5. 𝜇 = (1 + 2.5𝜑𝑍𝑛𝑂 )𝜇𝑏𝑓
𝜇 = 1 + 2.5 ∗ 0.00198443 6531 ∗ 10−3
𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟑𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵𝒔𝒎−𝟐
 b) Dimensionless numbers

1. 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑈𝐿
ρUL =𝑉
µ

𝑅𝑒1 = 0.46685 ∗ 0.01

6.5269 ∗ 10−7
𝑹𝒆𝟏 = 7152.7065
0.14 ∗ 0.01
𝑅𝑒2 =
6.5269 ∗ 10−7
𝑹𝒆𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝟐𝟑

𝑣 µ𝑐 𝑝
2. 𝑃𝑟 = =
α 𝑘

𝑃𝑟 = 0.65634 ∗ 10−3 ∗
4108.160461
0.63412197
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟏

𝑔ρ 2 βΔ T𝐿3
3. 𝐺𝑟 = µ2
0.003187 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 27 ∗ 10−6
𝐺𝑟 =
(6.55446 ∗ 10−7)2

𝑮𝒓 = 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟕𝟗. 𝟗𝟖

4. 𝑁𝑢

m = ρ*v

m = 1001.363701* 5000 * 10-6

m = 5.006818 kg
Cp = 4108.160461𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
Day - 1 (2.2 litres/min.)

ΔT = 49.5 – 27 = 22.5

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.006818 ∗ 4108 .160463 ∗ (49.5−27)

= 3600

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍= 128.555 W
𝑄
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴∆𝑇
128.555
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
0.039898 ∗ (75.5 − 52)

𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟔𝑾/𝒎𝟐𝒌

𝑕𝑙
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
128.8836 ∗
𝑁𝑢 = 0.01
0.6341219
7

𝑵𝒖𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟑

Day – 2 (0.66 litres/min.)

ΔT = 49 – 27 = 22

𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 5.006818 ∗ 4108 .160463 ∗ (49− 27)

= 3600

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍= 125.69829W

𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄
𝐴∆𝑇
125.69829
𝑕𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
0.039898 ∗ (74 − 49)
 𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟒 𝑾/𝒎𝟐𝒌

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑕𝑙
𝑘
𝑁𝑢 = 126.01904 ∗
0.01
0.63412197
𝑵𝒖𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟑𝟎

𝑁𝑢 = c (𝑅𝑒)𝑚 (𝑃𝑟)1/3

2.0324733 = c (7152.7065)𝑚 (4.245948)1/3

1.98730 = c(2145.8323)𝑚 (4.245948)1/3

Dividing both equations
2.0324
733 7152.7065 𝑚
2145.8323
1.98730
=

1.024243 = 3.3333𝑚
Taking logarithm on both sides

log (1.022726) = m log 3.3333

0.02247161 = m * 1.20397

m = 0.0186647

2.0324733 = c(7152.7045)0.0186647 (4.2521)1/3

c =1.0630356

𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟔
(𝑹𝒆)𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟕𝑷𝒓𝟏/𝟑
CHAPTER 9

RESULTS
TABULATION OF DEIONISED WATER

10. Heat flux(Q) in Watt(W)

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Free Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am 17.433 23.244 17.433

12:00pm 17.433 11.622 40.677
1:00pm 11.622 14.5277
2:00pm 5.8111 5.8111 5.8111
3:00pm 5.8111 5.8111 5.8111
4:00pm 8.71667 5.8111

11. Heat Transfer Coefficient(h) in W/m2K

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Free Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am 145.649 145.649 291.298

12:00pm 45.994 36.4122 203.909

1:00pm 18.2061 20.51396

2:00pm 13.5943 6.4733 7.28246

3:00pm 8.3227 6.4733 7.6657

4:00pm 10.7888 6.77438

TABULATION OF 0.4% ZnO NANOFLUID

12. Heat flux(Q) in Watt(W)

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Forced Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am
57.62306 54.74194 54.74194
12:00pm
28.81139 28.81139 28.81139
1:00pm
14.40556 17.28667 17.28667
2:00pm
17.28667 14.40556 8.643333
3:00pm
8.643333 11.52444 5.762222
4:00pm
2.881111 5.762222 8.643333

13. Heat Transfer Coefficient(h) in W/m2K

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Forced Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am
361.0639 422.1667 422.1667
12:00pm
76.01328 80.23611 80.23611
1:00pm
24.47861 30.405 30.405
2:00pm
21.66358 18.05278 12.37861
3:00pm
9.218333 12.69639 6.490833
4:00pm
2.859889 6.145694 9.418944
14. NUSSELT NUMBER(Nu) Vs. RAYLEIGH NUMBER(Ra)

Time Nu Gr Ra=Gr*Pr

11:00am
5.661338 293560 1246441
12:00pm
1.191858 697205 2960296
1:00pm
0.383815 1082503 4596250
2:00pm
0.339676 1467800 6232203
3:00pm
0.14454 1724665 7322838
4:00pm
0.044842 1853098 7868156
TABULATION OF 0.2% ZnO NANOFLUID

15. Heat flux(Q) in Watt(W)

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Forced Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am
51.42194 54.27861 48.56528
12:00pm
31.42444 28.56778 28.56778
1:00pm
11.42694 19.99722 19.99722
2:00pm 14.28389 14.28389 11.42694
3:00pm
5.713333 8.570336 14.28389
4:00pm
5.713333 2.891778 0

16. Heat Transfer Coefficient(h) in W/m2K

Time Day 1(Free Day 2(Forced Day 3(Forced

convection) convection) convection)

11:00am
286.4078 286.4078 256.2602
12:00pm
76.83889 66.60639 65.09417
1:00pm
18.49417 29.92278 30.84403
2:00pm
16.8475 16.8475 13.97092
3:00pm
5.671111 8.857778 15.56556
4:00pm
5.303647 2.870278 -
17. Nusselt Number (Nu) Vs. Rayleigh Number (Ra)

Time Nu Gr Ra=Gr*Pr

11:00am
4.516594 327483.7 1392494
12:00pm
1.211734 745935.2 3171791
1:00pm
0.291649 1128000 4796367
2:00pm
0.265682 1546451 6575664
3:00pm
0.089432 1837548 7813437
4:00pm
0.083637 1964902 8354962
 Graphs of deionised water

1. Reservoir temperature vs. Time

45

40

35
Day 1 (Free convection)
Day 2 (Free convection) Day 3 (Forced convection)
30

25

20
10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM

2. Heat Flux (Q) vs. Time

45

40

35

30

Day 1(Free convection)

25
Day 2(Free convection) Day 3(Forced convection)
20

15
10

0
11:00am12:00pm1:00pm2:00pm3:00pm4:00pm
 3. Heat transfer Coefficient (h) vs. Time

350

300

250

200
Day 1 (Free Convection)
150 Day 2 ( Free convection) Day 3 (Forced Convection)

100

50

11:00 AM12:00 PM1:00 PM2:00 PM3:00 PM4:00 PM

 Graphs of 0.4% ZnO nanofluid

4. Reservoir temperature vs. Time

55

50

45

40

35 Day 1(Free convection)

Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection
30

25

20

5. Heat transfer coefficient (h) vs. Time

450

400

350

300
Day 1(Free convection)
250 Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection)

200

100
150

50

0
11:00am12:00pm1:00pm2:00pm3:00pm4:00pm
 6. Heat Flux (Q) vs. Time

70

60

50

40
Day 1 (Free convection)
30 Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection)

20

10

0
11:00am12:00pm1:00pm2:00pm3:00pm4:00pm

7. Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh number (Ra)

Graphs of 0.2% ZnO nanofluid
8. Reservoir temperature vs. Time

55

50

45

40
Day 1(Free convection)
35
Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection
30

25

20

9. Heat flux (Q) vs. Time

60

50

40

Day 1(Free convection)

30 Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection)

20

10

0
11:00am 12:00pm1:00pm2:00pm3:00pm4:00pm
10. Heat transfer coefficient (h) vs. Time

350

300

250

200
Day 1(Free convection)
150 Day 2(Forced convection) Day 3(Forced convection)

100

50

11:00am 12:00pm 1:00pm2:00pm3:00pm4:00pm

11. Nusselt number (Nu) vs. Rayleigh Number (Ra)

Graphs comparing nanofluid and water

12. Reservoir temperature vs. Time

55
50
45
40
35
30
Water
25
0.4 % ZnO Nanofluid 0.2% ZnO Nanofluid
20

13. Heat transfer coefficient (h) vs. Time

450

Water
400

350
0.4% ZnO nanofluid

300 0.2% ZnO nanofluid

250

200

150

100

50

0
11:00am 12:00pm 1:00pm 2:00pm 3:00pm 4:00pm
 PROJECT OUTCOMES AND CONCLUSIONS

The empirical correlations between dimensionless numbers of convection were found and are
as in the table given below:

FLUID RELATION

0.4% ZnO nanofluid Free 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 (𝑮𝒓. 𝑷𝒓)−𝟏.𝟖𝟗𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟕

Convection
0.4% ZnO nanofluid Forced 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟗 (𝑹𝒆 )𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟓 𝑷𝒓 𝟏/𝟑
Convection

0.2% ZnO nanofluid Free 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 (𝑮𝒓. 𝑷𝒓)−𝟏.𝟖𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟑𝟖

Convection
0.2% ZnO nanofluid Forced 𝑵𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟔 (𝑹𝒆)𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟕𝑷𝒓𝟏/𝟑
Convection

From the experimentation it was found that there was an increase of 34.6% in the final
temperature reached by the reservoir. By water it was seen that the maximum temperature
reached was 41.5oC but by using nanofluid temperatures up to 52oC was reached.

By the addition of nanoparticles to the base fluid the thermal conductivity value of the base
fluid is increased as shown in the calculations where as the specific heat value decreases i.e.
there is increase in heat conduction but at the same time the temperature rise and fall takes
place at a faster rate.
 FUTURE SCOPE

 Tracking Mechanism

 Graphene Coating On Collector

 Other Concentrations of ZnO nanofluid

 Different nanofluids

 Different flow rates in order to determine optimum flow rate

 Multiple Collectors

 Structural Analysis Of Nano Particles

 CFD Analysis
REFERENCES
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