Carbon Steel Pipe

3/9/2020 Carbon Steel Pipe - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Carbon Steel Pipe

Related terms:
Carbon Steel, Corrosion, Corrosion Resistance, Flanges, Steel Pipe, Corrosion-

Resistant Alloy
Oil and Gas Well Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention

Wan Renpu, in Advanced Well Completion Engineering (Third Edition), 2011
Bimetallic Combination Tubing

Carbon steel pipe is used as the base pipe of bimetallic combination tubing, which
has an internal liner made of stainless steel, titanium alloy steel, copper or
aluminum, and so on. This type of tubing has high mechanical performance, high
corrosion resistance, high weldability, high operational convenience, and high
safety. It combines a surface coating technique that has low cost and wide usable
range with a corrosion-resisting alloying technique that has complete structure and
high tightness (no blowhole) of material; thus, it has high applicability.
1. Application of bimetallic combination tubing
Bimetallic combination tubing has higher resistance to corrosion in
comparison with carbon steel pipe and has cost superiority in comparison with
diphase stainless steel and nickel-based alloy steel. Thus it is widely applied in
the oil and gas industry and has very high cost performance especially under
high chloride corrosion environment conditions. In the light of different
corrosion environments, there are SSC-resistant tubing and casing, CO2-
resistant tubing and casing, and tubing and casing that can resist SSC,
chloride, and carbon dioxide.
The studies and experience indicate that the application of nickel-based alloy
steel in high sour environments is greatly restricted due to its cost, which is 20
to 25 times the cost of corrosion-resistant steel, despite the fact that it has high
resistance to corrosion in high sour environments. The bimetallic combination
pipe that has been developed combines the high corrosion resistance of
corrosion-resistant alloy with the high mechanical performance of carbon steel
or low-alloy pipe:
a. In comparison with nickel-based alloy steel, its strength is increased, its
weight is reduced, and its cost is reduced by about 100%.
b. In comparison with carbon steel, its corrosion resistance is obviously
increased, thus solving the puzzle of the corrosion problem.
c. It has very high cost performance and involves the outstanding
performances of both carbon steel and corrosion-resistant alloy steel. Its
corrosion resistance is the same as that of corrosion-resistant alloy steel.
Its cost is reduced by 70% to 80%. Its service life is 10 to 15 times the
service life of corrosion-resistant steel.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbon-steel-pipe 1/21
Super diphase stainless steel has been applied in oil and gas field development.
For instance, UR52N plus S32520 has been used for gathering lines and
pipelines in North Sea fields, and SAF2507 steel has been used for oil and gas
well production and offshore production platform facilities and oil and gas
pipelines in Alaska, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico, and so on. It is
generally used under harsh sour environment conditions with no corrosion
inhibitor used.
The application of the diphase combination pipe technique and steel selection
technique greatly reduces the application cost of the corrosion-resistant alloy
technique and makes its use more convenient, thus promoting the application
of the corrosion-resistant alloy technique in the oil and gas industry and
enabling corrosion-resistant alloy to be widely applied.
2. Basic structure
Base pipe is seamless or welded carbon steel pipe or seamless alloy steel, while
liner pipe is common or special stainless steel pipe, titanium-aluminum-
copper alloy steel pipe, or other corrosion-resistant alloy steel pipe (Figure 11-
32).
Figure 11-32. The basic structure of bimetallic combination tubing.
Base pipe and liner, which is a thin-wall corrosion-resistant alloy steel pipe, are
coaxially assembled at first, and then a hydraulic power pipe is assembled in
the liner. The instantaneous chemical energy generated by the hydraulic power
pipe is transmitted to the liner through media in the form of detonation waves,
so that the liner generates plastic deformation and the base pipe generates
elastic deformation. In the moment of deformation, the resilience of base pipe
due to deformation is much greater than that of the liner, which makes base
pipe and liner nestle together closely and attain an overlapping state.
3. Main performance indices
a. Steel
(1) Steel for base pipe (mechanical performance). Carbon steel and alloy
steel (seamless or welded steel pipe).
(2) Steel for liner (corrosion resistance). Stainless steel, titanium alloy,
aluminum alloy, or copper alloy.
(3) Environmental temperature −35 to 300°C.
b. Size indices
(1) Total wall thickness of combination pipe ≥ 3 mm
(2) Base pipe wall thickness ≥ 2.5 mm
(3) Liner wall thickness 0.5–2 mm
(4) Combination-pipe OD Φ20–1200 mm
(5) Combination-pipe length ≤ 10 m
(6) Combination-pipe OD, wall thickness, and allowable deviations (in
accordance with international allowable deviations for base pipe)
c. Mechanical performance indices
(1) Combination-interface shearing strength ≥ 0.5 MPa
(2) Combination-pipe tensile strength slightly higher than the tensile
strength of base pipe
(3) Combination-pipe internal pressure resistance slightly higher than
the internal pressure resistance of base pipe
(4) Combination-pipe external pressure resistance equal to the external
pressure resistance of base pipe
d. Combination-layer surface performance indices
(1) Corrosion resistance equal to the corrosion resistance of the liner
(2) Combination-layer surface roughness Ra ≤ 0.07 μm
(3) Combination-layer surface hardness ≥ liner hardness
e. Connecting form
The connections are the weak links of tubing string; thus, it is required
that the connections have strengths and seals that are equal to those of
the pipe body. Under poor sealing in the J position of combination tubing
collar thread, having an external thread cross-sectional area smaller than
that of the internal thread may speed up thread corrosion and boring.
On the basis of the J value range of tubing and the tightening torque
range, a special collar seal structure appropriate for different hole
conditions has been developed. This structure includes a special adaptive
Teflon seal ring and internal corrosion-resistant alloy steel liner (Figure
11-33). The special adaptive Teflon seal ring has high abrasion resistance,
tear resistance, oilproofness, leakproofness, and corrosion resistance and
is suitable for the matching sealing of combination tubing under different
end face treatments. The internal corrosion-resistant alloy steel liner that
seals the exposed part of the collar thread can prevent galvanic corrosion
in the J position of combination tubing collar thread in combination with
the sealing of a special adaptive Teflon seal ring.
Figure 11-33. Connecting form of bimetallic combination tubing.
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Steel Pipe
Roy A. Parisher, Robert A. Rhea, in Pipe Drafting and Design (Third Edition), 2012
Manufacturing Methods
Carbon steel pipe can be manufactured using several different techniques, each of
which produces a pipe with certain characteristics. These characteristics include
strength, wall thickness, corrosion resistance, and temperature and pressure
limitations. For example, pipes having the same wall thickness but manufactured
by different methods may vary in strength and pressure limits. The pipe
manufacturing methods to be discussed include: seamless, butt-welded, and
spiral-welded.
Seamless pipe is formed by piercing a solid, near-molten, steel rod, called a billet,
with a mandrel to produce a pipe that has no seams or joints. Figure 2.1 depicts
the manufacturing process of seamless pipe.
Figure 2.1. Sizing seamless pipe.
Butt-welded pipe is formed by feeding a hot steel plate through shapers that will
roll it into a hollow circular shape. Forcibly squeezing the two ends of the plate
together will produce a fused joint or seam. Figure 2.2 shows the steel plate as it
begins the process of forming butt-welded pipe.
Figure 2.2. Shaping butt-welded pipe.
Least common of the three methods is spiral-welded pipe. Spiral-welded pipe is

formed by twisting strips of metal into a spiral shape, similar to a barber’s pole,
then welding where the edges join one another to form a seam. This type of pipe is
restricted to piping systems using low pressures due to its thin walls. Figure 2.3
shows spiral-welded pipe as it appears before welding.
Figure 2.3. Forming spiral-welded pipe.
Figure 2.4 shows the three pipes previously described in their final forms.
Figure 2.4. Manufactured carbon steel pipe.
Each of the three methods for producing pipe has its advantages and
disadvantages. Butt-welded pipe, for example, is formed from rolled plate that has
a more uniform wall thickness and can be inspected for defects prior to forming
and welding. This manufacturing method is particularly useful when thin walls and
long lengths are needed. Because of the welded seam, however, there is always the
possibility of defects that escape the numerous quality control checks performed
during the manufacturing process.
As a result, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed strict
guidelines for the manufacture of pipe. Pressure Piping Code B31 was written to
govern the manufacture of pipe. In particular, code B31.1.0 assigns a strength
factor of 85% for rolled pipe, 60% for spiral-welded pipe, and 100% efficiency for
seamless pipe.
Generally, wider wall thicknesses are produced by the seamless method. However,
for the many low-pressure uses of pipe, the continuous welded method is the most
economical. Seamless pipe is produced in single and double random lengths. Single
random lengths vary from 16′-0″ to 20′-0″. Pipes 2″ and below are found in double
random lengths measuring from 35′-0″ to 40′-0″.
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Material requirements
Maurice Stewart, in Surface Production Operations, 2016
3.2.1 Carbon steel

Carbon steel pipe is the most commonly used material for process piping. It has
the advantage of wide availability, high strength, and a large array of connection
possibilities, for example, screwed, socket-welded, and butt-welded. Steel pipe
should be selected for the required strength and durability required for the
application and the ductility and machinability required to join it and form it into
piping spools. The pipe must withstand the pressure, temperature, and corrosion
conditions of the application. These requirements are met by selecting pipe made
to an appropriate ASTM or API standard.
3.2.1.1 Applications
Carbon steel pipe is used for liquid, gas, and steam services both above- and
belowground services. It is not recommended for use in corrosive services but may
be used in caustic services.
3.2.1.2 Grades of steel used
There are many grades or strengths of carbon steel pipe and they are available in a
number of wall thicknesses. We have seen that the allowable stress is used to
determine what wall thickness is required. The allowable stress is a function of both
the metallurgy of the material and the method of manufacturer.
The various piping specifications provided by ASTM and API provide guidelines for
both the metallurgy and the method of manufacture. The most widely piping
specifications for process lines are ASTM Specifications A-53 and A-106 and API
Standard 5L. The principal wall thicknesses used are defined by schedules, for
example, Schedule 40, Schedule 80, and weights, for example, STD, XS, and XXS.
Both ASTM A53 and ASTM A106 pipe are fabricated SMLS or seamed, by electric
resistance welding, in Grades A and B. Grades B have higher tensile strength.
Three grades of ASTM A106 are available—Grades A, B, and C, in order of
increasing tensile strength.
Table 3.2 provides the specifications for a given temperature range. For years, most
pipes were made from Grade B steel, which has a minimum yield strength of
35,000 psi. Construction of high-pressure, large-diameter, cross-country
transmission lines created a need for high-strength field-weldable steel that would
allow a substantial savings in steel tonnage. API Grades X-42 through X-70 were
developed with strengths of 42,000-70,000 psi.
Table 3.2. Metal design temperature for piping
Design temperature Specification
650 to 60 °F API 5L

59 to − 20 °F A-53
− 21 to − 50 °F A-106
− 51 to − 150 °F API 5L
− 151 to − 325 °F A-106
A-333 Grade 1 or 6
A-333 Grade 304
A-312 Grade 304
A-358 Grade 304
A-312 Grade 304
A-358 Grade 308
Note: Metal design temperature shall be the design operating temperature

plus 50 F or 10%, whichever is greater, for services 60 °F and above. For
services 59 °F and below, subtract 5 °F or 10% whichever or greater from the
design operating temperature where applicable; allowance should also be
included for temperature effects due to process variation, especially at low
temperature.
Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical stress-strain diagram for steel pipe. Table 3.3
illustrates the savings that can be realized by using Grade X pipe. Care must be
taken to balance savings against corrosion allowances, special welding techniques
required, minimum wall thickness criteria of the codes, and reduction in safety for
hot-tapping operations. Some high-strength or alloyed pipe may not be suitable
for certain corrosive environments. Table 3.4 compares the relative cost of steel
pipe versus common alloys.
Figure 3.2. Stress-strain diagram for API 5LX X-46 pipe.
Table 3.3. Comparative cost of Grades B and X—grade pipe for a 4.5 in. OD
line having a maximum allowable working pressure of 3100 psi and a design
factor of 0.72 (Reference: ASME B31.8 and B31.4)
Pipe grade and Pipe wall thickness MAWP Cost Cost saving over
yield strength required (in.) (psi) ($/ft.) grade B ($/mile)
Grade B 0.337 3774 38.26

(35,000 psi)
Grade X-42 0.237 3185 30.02 43,507

(42,000 psi)
Grade X-46 0.219 3219 25.40 67,900

(46,000 psi)
Grade X-52 0.188 3120 22.70 82,156

(52,000 psi)
Note: Cost based on FOB mill price January 2015 for electric resistance-welded
pipe.
Table 3.4. Comparison of steel pipe versus other alloys
Carbon steel 1
Stainless steel 304L 3 to 5
Stainless steel 316L 4 to 6
Nickel 200 19 to 38
Monel-Inconel-Incoloy 12 to 20
Hastelloy 25 to 38
AL alloys 4
Copper 3
Lead 1
Gold 14,000
Platinum 17,000
Steel specifications in other countries may correspond with US specifications.

Some corresponding international standards for carbon steels and stainless steels
are shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5. Comparison: US and international specifications for steel pipe
USA UK W. Germany Sweden
Carbon steel ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1629

pipe
Grade HFS 22 and Si 35 SIS
ASMLS CDS 22 1233-05
Grade B HFS 27 and St 45 SIS

SMLS CDS 27 1434-05
ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1626
Grade A E ERW 22 Blatt 3St 34–2 ERW

RW
Grade B E ERW27 Blatt 3 St 37–2 ERW

RW
ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1626
FBW BW 22 Blatt 3St 34–2 FBW
ASTM BS 3602 DIN 17175a

A106
Grade A HFS 23 St 35-8 SIS

1234-05
Grade B HFS 27 St 45-8 SIS

1435-05
Grade C HFS 35
ASTM BS 3601 DIN 1626

A134
EFW Blatt 2 EFW

A135
Grade A ERW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 ERW SIS

1233-06
Grade B ERW 27 Blatt 3St 37–2 ERW SIS

1434-06

A139
Grade A EFW 22 Blatt 2 St 37
Grade B EFW 27 Blatt 2 St 42
ASTM BS 3602 DIN 1626, Blatt 3 with

A155 certification C
Class 2
C 45 St 34-2
C 50 St 37-2
C 55 EFW 28 St 42-2
KC 55 St 42–2 •
KC 60 EFW28S St 42–2 #
KC65 St 52 3
KC 70 St 52-3
API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1629
Grade A HFS 22 and St 35 SIS

SMLS CDS 22 1233-05
Grade B HFS 27 and St 45 SIS

SMLS CDS 27 1434-05
API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1625
Grade A E ERW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 ERW SIS

RW 1233-06
Grade ERW 27b Blatt 4 St 37–2 ERW SIS

BERW 1434-06b
API 51 BS 3601 Double- DIN 1626

welded
Grade A EFW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 FW

EFW
Grade EFW 27b Blatt 4 St 37–2 FW

BEFW
API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1626
FBW BW 22 Blatt 3 St 34 2 FBW
Stainless ASTM BS 3605 WSN Designation

steel pipe A312
TP 304 Grade 801 4301 × 5 CrNi 18 9 SIS

2333-02
TP 304H Grade 811
TP 304 L Grade 801 L 4306 × 2 CrNi 18 9 SIS

2352-02
TP 310 4841 × 15 CrNiSi 25 20 SIS

2361-02
TP 316 Grade 845 4401 × 5 CrNiMo 18 10 SIS

4436 2343-02
TP316H Grade 855
TP316L Grade 845L 4404 × 2 CrNiMo 18 10 SIS

2353-02
TP 317 Grade 846
TP 321 Grade 822 Ti 4541 × 10 CrNiTi 18 9 SIS

2337-02
TP 321H Grade 832 Ti
TP 347 Grade 822 Nb 4550 × 10 CrNiNb 18 9 SIS

2338-02
TP347H Grade 832 Nb
a
Specify “Si-killed.”
b
Specify API Si Crede B letting procedures for these steels.
3.2.1.3 Manufacturing processes

The manufacturing process of pipe is determined by the material, diameter, wall
thickness, and quality for a specific service. Carbon steel piping is classified
according to the manufacturing methods as follows:
• Steel and malleable iron
○ SMLS
○ Electric resistance weld (ERW)
○ Submerged arc weld (SAW)
○ Double submerged arc weld (DSAW)
○ Furnace weld, butt-welded or continuous weld
○ Spiral-welded pipe
3.2.1.3.1 SMLS pipe

SMLS pipe is produced by heating a round billet of steel and then piercing it with a
bullet-shaped piercer, over which the steel is stretched. This is followed by rolling
and drawing to produce the desired dimensions. The final product is
hydrostatically tested, inspected, coated if required, and stenciled with the
specification. SMLS pipe is used in high-pressure, most critical locations and under
most severe operating conditions. SMLS pipe is supplied according to ASTM
Specifications A53, A106, A333, A312, A358, etc., and API 5L pipe
Sizes: 1/8″ (3.175 mm) nominal to 26″ (660.4 mm) OD. Less than 2 3/8″
(60.325 mm) OD is known as pressure tubing that has different dimensional
standards (wall thickness and diameter). SMLS pipe, where available, is used in oil
and gas production facilities both onshore and offshore (other than transmission
lines) less than 26″ (660.4 mm) OD.
3.2.1.3.2 ERW pipe
ERW pipe is made from coils that are cupped longitudinally by forming rolls and a
thin-pass section of rolls that brings the ends of the coil together to form a
cylinder. The ends pass through a high-frequency welder that heats the steel to
2600 °F and squeezes the ends together to form a fusion weld. The weld is then
heat-treated to remove welding stresses and the pipe is cooled, sized to the proper
OD, and straightened. ERW pipe is produced either in individual lengths or in
continuous lengths that are then cut into individual lengths. ERW is supplied
according to ASTM A53 and A135 and API Specification 5L. It is supplied is sizes 2
3/8″ (60.325 mm) to 30″ (762 mm) OD.
ERW is the most common type of manufacturing process due to its low initial
investment for manufacturing equipment and the process' adaptability in welding
different wall thicknesses. The pipe is not fully normalized after welding, thus
producing a heat-affected zone on each side of the weld that results in
nonuniformity of hardness and grain structure, thus making the pipe more
susceptible to corrosion. Therefore, ERW pipe is not as desirable as SMLS pipe for
handling corrosive fluids. However, it is used in oil and gas production facilities
and transmission lines, after normalized or cold expanded, for 26″ (660.4 mm) OD
and larger lines.
3.2.1.3.3 SAW or DSAW pipe
SAW and DSAW pipes are produced from plate (skelp's), which are either formed
into a “U” and then an “O” and then welded along the straight seam (SS) or
twisted into a helix and then welded along the spiral seam (SW). DSAW
longitudinal butt joint uses two or more passes (one inside) shielded by granular
fusible materials where pressure is not used. DSAW is used for pipe greater than 4″
(508 mm) nominal. SAW and DSAW are mechanically or hydraulically cold
expanded and are supplied according to ASTN Specifications A53 and A135 and API
Specification 5L. It is supplied in sizes 20″ (508 mm) OD to 30″ (762 mm) OD.
3.2.1.3.4 Furnace-weld, butt-welded, or continuous weld (CW) pipe
This refers to the same process and is called furnace-butt weld. The pipe is
produced by the continuous-welding butt-welded process. Butt-welded pipe is
made from Bessemer steel, with a high phosphorus content, which offers superior
welding characteristics. The longitudinal seam is joined by mechanical pressure
after the entire steel strip from which the tube is formed has been heated to proper
welding temperature. Furnace butt-welded pipe is normally used for domestic
(United States) and firewater service only. In the butt-welded process (Figure 3.3),
the skelp, whose edges have been slightly beveled for joining, is hot-rolled and
heated in a furnace to a welding heat. The pipe is then pulled through a ring die or
bell and the pipe is welded by pressing the edges together at a high temperature.
The pipe OD is reduced and the wall thickness is achieved in a stretching mill. A
saw cuts the pipe to length and the pipe enters a sizing mill that reduces the pipe
to the final OD. The pipe is straightened, end-finished, hydro-tested, coated if
required, stenciled, and inspected.
Figure 3.3. Butt-welded manufacturing process.

(Courtesy of Kawasaki Steel Corporation)
Butt-welded pipe is supplied according to ASTM Specifications A53 and A120 and
API Specification 5L for line pipe. It is supplied in sizes from 1/8 to 4 in. in
diameter. This is a low-cost manufacturing method, and because of the quality of
the welding, it has a joint efficiency of not more than 60%. Furnace-butt weld pipe
is not recommended for use where internal corrosion is anticipated.
3.2.1.3.5 Spiral-welded pipe
Spiral-welded pipe is produced from coils of steel that are unwound and flattened.
The flattened strip is formed by angled rollers into a cylinder of the desired
diameter. Interior and exterior SAW seal the spiral seam. At the end of the coil, a
new coil is butt-welded to the trailing edge of the pipe, forming a cross seam. The
pipe is cut to length and the ends are beveled if required. Spiral-welded pipe is
primarily used for water distribution service. Spiral-welded pipe is available in sizes
from 24 in. (60 cm) to 144 in. (365 cm).
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Pipeline Design and Construction

Malcolm J. Brandt BSc, FICE, FCIWEM, MIWater, ... Don D. Ratnayaka BSc, DIC,
MSc, FIChemE, FCIWEM, in Twort's Water Supply (Seventh Edition), 2017
17.20 External and Internal Protection of Steel Pipe

Carbon steel pipes carrying water will corrode on the inside if unprotected. The
nature, extent and rapidity of corrosion depend on the aggressivity of the water,
temperature and presence of precursors (e.g. oxygen or sulphides). Corrosion may
be localized in a form such as pitting or crevice corrosion and, for water
transmission pipelines, is difficult to predict and control, even if the water is
treated to provide carbonate stability and corrosion inhibition. For structural steel
members where strength requirements predominate, it is common to add a
corrosion allowance to thickness. However, the use of an allowance for corrosion of
a steel pipeline is no longer recommended (AWWA M11). This is because the first
consideration is leakage, for example, via pinholes, but also because reliable
internal and external protection systems are available and are more economic than
adding thickness sufficient to prevent leaks during pipeline life. For these reasons
steel water pipelines are invariably lined and protected externally.
Corrosion protection may be carried out by the manufacturer at the place of
manufacture or elsewhere or by a specialist applicator. Pipe out of roundness and
straightness can affect the application of coatings and linings; both parameters
must be specified to suit the process of application of the corrosion protection.
External Protection
Principal options for external coating to water pipes are bitumen sheathing; fusion-
bonded epoxy (FBE); three layer polyethylene (3LPE) (Plate 27(b)) and liquid
coatings (paints). Higher specification systems such as FBE and 3LPE require
cleaning and preparation by grit blasting to white metal finish (SSPC-SP5/NACE
No.1 or Sa3 to SIS 05 50 00). For other coatings near white metal finish is required
(second quality to BE EN ISO 8501 (BS 7079), Sa 2.5 to SIS 05 59 00 or SSPC-
SP10/NACE No.2). Surface preparation specifications also need to cover surface
profile requirements.
Bitumen sheathing or wrapping to BS 534 consists of a hot applied bitumen with
an inert filler, reinforced if required with a woven glass cloth, to a thickness of
3 mm for small diameter pipes rising to 6 mm for diameters exceeding 350 mm.
Bitumen can biodegrade and needs protection from sunlight. As an alternative,
coal tar has been used, particularly for underwater pipelines, but has lost favour in
view of health and safety issues. Both bitumen and coal tar lose volatiles on
exposure and then crack. Alternatives such as FBE and 3LPE for buried and
exposed pipes are now preferred.
FBE has been in use since the early 1970s for external and internal coatings. The
pipe surface is prepared by grit blasting followed by an optional phosphate or
chromate pre-treatment. The FBE coating is applied (by either spraying or in a
fluidized bed) as a powder mix of resin and hardener which is fused onto the pre-
heated (to about 230°C) pipe surface and cured chemically irreversibly. Dry film
thickness (DFT) typically is 300–400 μm for pipelines onshore. This may be
increased to 500 μm for areas with high corrosion potential but thermal zoning can
be an issue for high DFT. Offshore FBE alone is not sufficient protection. FBE
coatings generally have better resistance to cathodic disbonding than brush or
spray-applied coatings when used on cathodically protected pipelines. FBE is brittle
and prone to impact damage during handling and installation; often specifications
require use of additional external wrap of flexible PE mesh (e.g. Terram
Rockshield™ or similar high impact resistance products). Protection at joints is
completed by heat shrink sleeves, tape wrap, by compatible polyurethane or epoxy
coatings. Codes of practice for FBE coating include AWWA C213, API RP 5L7 and
5L9 and BS EN ISO 21809-2.
3LPE systems have been in use since the early 1980s, and supersede the two layer
system. EN ISO 21809-1 also covers 3LPE and 3LPP (polypropylene) systems
although the latter are more suitable for higher operating temperatures and not
generally recommended for use in water supply. The three layer system is more
expensive than FBE but is considered cost effective in view of potential damage
during shipping over long distances. The system comprises the following typical
thicknesses in order of application:
fusion-bonded epoxy: 150–200 μm;
copolymer adhesive: 200–350 μm; and finally
polyethylene: 2.5 mm up to DN 750 and 3.0 mm for larger sizes.
The total thickness for the three layer system is thus between about 3 mm up to
DN 750 and 3.5 mm for larger sizes depending on Class of duty. After surface
preparation by grit blasting and phosphate or chromate pre-treatment, the pipe is
pre-heated and application of all three components takes place while the pipe is
rotated about its axis and moved forward through a specially designed booth.
Timing is vital and curing takes place before the pipe reaches supporting rollers.
Completion at joints is by heat shrink sleeves (favoured for larger pipe diameters)
or by tape wrap.
Paint options include epoxy and polyurethane and may include a zinc-rich base
layer. DFT typically is greater than that for FBE; the preferred application is by
airless spray but, due to local constraints, brush application is often accepted with
increased control on quality of application. Polyurethane coating (e.g. to AWWA
C222) would typically be about 2 mm thick. Good preparation and protection is
needed for fittings, which tend to be anodic and more prone to corrosion due to
the additional welding and working. Small diameter steel pipes are galvanized.
Other developments continue including blends of FBE, adhesive and PE and some
manufacturers may also provide a thin additional coating of concrete for
mechanical protection. Cement mortar external coating is covered by American
standards.
The continuity of the applied protection (other than cement mortar) is checked with
a ‘holiday’ detector. A scanning electrode in the form of a brush containing a high-
voltage electrical charge is passed over the coating and lining; the voltage is set so
as to produce a spark length of 10 mm or double the specified minimum thickness
of the protective material whichever is the greater. Pinholes or breakages are
disclosed by an electrical discharge to the steel of the pipe and this can be arranged
to cause a buzzer to sound.
Internal Protection
Internal surfaces of steel pipes can be protected with concrete or cement mortar
(Section 17.21), epoxy or polyurethane. Market forces and perceived quality issues
currently favour epoxy. Epoxy coatings may be hot applied FBE or airless spray
liquids and high solids systems. For FBE recommended DFT is typically about
300 μm and surface preparation is by grit blasting to a high standard. However,
success of liquid systems is very sensitive to surface preparation and application
conditions. These can be adequately controlled in the factory but with much more
difficulty inside the pipe in the field.
Bitumen was a popular and successful option but is now little used. A hot applied
bitumen with or without an inert filler is sprayed or brushed onto the pipe, after
first priming it with a compatible priming coat; the usual practice was to apply a
minimum thickness of 1.5 mm for diameters up to 300 and 6 mm for diameters
exceeding 1000 mm.
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Pipeline Design and Construction

Don D. Ratnayaka, ... K. Michael Johnson, in Water Supply (Sixth Edition), 2009
Steel Pipes
15.12 Steel Pipe Manufacture and Materials
BS 534 covers carbon steel pipes, joints and specials (bends and other fittings) but
is partly replaced by BS EN 10224 (pipe ranging from 26.9 to 2743 mm outside
diameter using steel of yield strengths 235, 275 and 355 N/mm2) and by BS EN
10311 for joints. BS EN 10312 covers stainless steel pipe. EN standards have been
published and others are under development for polyethylene, galvanized, liquid
epoxy and polyurethane coatings, mortar linings and external concrete and
insulating coatings, but reference can be made to BS 534 for coatings and linings.
BS EN 10224 uses pipe consistent with BS EN 10216-1, 10217-1 and 10220, but
pipe to ISO 3183 (API 5L) and other standards can be used. CP 2010 Part 2 for
design and construction of steel pipes on land remains current. BS EN 1295-1
covers structural design of buried pipelines for the water industry. Eurocode 3: BS
EN 1993-4-3, issued in 2007, applies to design of steel pipelines which are not
treated by other European standards covering particular applications; it can be
used as soon as its national annex is published. This code requires consideration of
5 ultimate limit states, including fatigue, and three serviceability limit states
including vibration. PD 8010-1 and -2 are intended primarily for oil and gas
pipelines but apply to and provide useful design information for the water industry.
BS EN 10224 covers four principal welding methods for manufacture: butt (BW)—
outside diameter up to 114.3 mm; electric (resistance) welded (EW)—outside
diameter up to 610 mm; seamless (S)—outside diameter up to 711 mm and
submerged arc welded (SAW)—outside diameter 168.3 to 2743 mm. In ISO 3183
the designations EW and SAW are recognized but seamless pipe is designated
SMLS and LW means laser weld.
Steel pipes are fabricated from steel plate bent to a circular form or they may be
continuously produced from a coil of steel strip bent to a spiral and butt welded
along the spiral seam. Joints between coil ends of spiral welded pipes are known as
skelp end welds. Butt welded pipes are made from rolled strip with a longitudinal
seam furnace butt welded by a continuous process. Lengths of pipe are usually in
the range of 9 to 12 m dependent on manufacture, transport and project
requirements. Weld beads must be machined flush with the pipe surface at pipe
ends to make them suitable for joint couplings. Spigot and socket ends, where
shaped, are formed by die. Weld bead height needs to be limited for coating and
lining. Electric (resistance) welding is done by passing electric current (by induction
or direct contact) across the edges which are joined under pressure, without filler
metal. Heat treatment at least of the weld zone is usual in sizes larger than DN
200. EW pipes now tend to be known as HFI (high frequency induction) pipes.
Inspection typically includes chemical and mechanical material tests, ultrasonic
inspection of plate and welds, radiography of welds and hydraulic pressure tests.
There are no standard classes for steel pipes: wall thickness above about DN 750 is
designed for handling; internal pressure; buckling under external pressure and
internal sub-atmospheric pressure; and to limit deflection when buried. External
load carrying capacity in trunk mains is mostly a function of the backfill and
compaction design. BS 534 sets out nominal wall thicknesses considered to be the
minimum for handling and typical buried installations.
Steel grades as designated in ISO 3183 and, as from 2008, the American Petroleum
Institute standard API 5L are designated by grade and by yield stress in thousands
of psi, as Table 15.3. Grades less than grade B would not normally be used. Grades
up to about X60 can normally be welded without special heat treatment. Their price
is only marginally above that for grade B and provide good economy where high
pressure or (typically for pipes above ground or installed underwater) significant
longitudinal bending resistance is required.
Table 15.3. Steel grades to API 5L / ISO 3183
Grade A25 A B X42 X46 X52 X56 X60 X65 X70 X80
Yield psi 25 30 35 42 46 52 56 60 65 70 80
strength 400 500 500 100 400 200 600 200 300 300 500
N/mm2 175 210 245 290 320 360 390 415 450 485 555
AWWA M11 gives a range of thicknesses and pressures and steels for diameters up
to 4000 mm. Sizes in M11 are designated by outside diameter below 30 inches
(762 mm), otherwise by inside diameter.
Pipe wall thickness, t (mm) for internal pressure is determined by hoop stress, as
follows:
where P is the internal pressure (N/mm2); D is the external diameter (mm); a is the
design or safety factor; σ is the minimum yield stress (N/mm2); and e is the joint
factor. The design factor, joint factor and definition of wall thickness depend on the
design code. Design factors for hoop stress typically range from 0.4 to 0.8; the joint
factor is 1.0 for SAW pipes and certain codes require the negative tolerance to be
deducted from wall thickness. ASME codes B31.4 and B31.8 quote a basic design
factor of 0.72 and state that this includes for thickness tolerance. For water supply
under normal conditions, it is suggested here that the design factor of 0.5 (as given
in AWWA M11 and the WRc pipes selection manual) is overly conservative and that,
for high pressure long distance pipelines, a factor of 0.72 is realistic (after
deducting thickness tolerance and any corrosion allowance) and up to 0.83 may be
considered in some circumstances (PD 8010, BS EN 14183). For many water supply
pipelines wall thickness is determined by handling and installation and the need to
control deflection.
Further consideration can be given where particular conditions warrant: for
example the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) code B31.8 quotes
design factors for a variety of laying conditions. Where necessary the analysis can
be elaborated to include ring bending, longitudinal bending, longitudinal stress
from temperature changes, Poisson's ratio effects on buried (and thus restrained)
pipe under hoop tension, combined (equivalent) stresses and where appropriate,
for example for underwater pipes, can include strain based design.
BS EN 10224 and BS 534 give dimensions for common fittings, for example bends
and branches. However, fittings can be made to any dimensions required, bends
being made by cutting and welding together sections of pipe. For outside
diameters up to 1016 mm, bends can be made by forming. Design of fittings and
of any reinforcement needed is described in AWWA M11.
Read full chapter

Design and Applications

A.G. Gibson, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, 2000
6.23.3.5 Lined Pipe

The purpose of lining carbon steel pipe (Medlicott and Panayotti, 1999) is to
prevent corrosion and increase the cost-effectiveness of carbon steel flowlines by
allowing them to be used for corrosive media. A major problem is liner collapse,
which can occur when the pipe is depressurized, due to the presence of pressurized
gas which has permeated the liner, to fillany void space at the interface between the
liner and the pipe inner wall.
Liners for carbon steel pipe can be unreinforced thermoplastic tube (polyethylene,
PVC, or sometimes PVDF). Filament wound thermoset liners, however, provide
lower permeability and higher modulus, both of which permit the use of a thinner
liner which leaves a greater area available for fluid flow (Medlicott and Panayotti,
1999). Thermoset liners are also less susceptible to abrasion and damage from
wire-lining operations. After the liner has been placed within the pipe the space
between the liner and the pipe wall is injected with a cementitious or polymeric
grout.
Read full chapter

Pitting corrosion
Sankara Papavinasam, in Trends in Oil and Gas Corrosion Research and
Technologies, 2017
Abstract
The penetration of the carbon steel pipe and equipment wall by pits is a process
that consists of three stages: formation of surface layer on the steel surface,
initiation of pits at localized regions on the steel surface where surface layers break
down, and pit propagation and eventual penetration of the wall. Classical and
nonclassical theories have been developed to explain the process of pitting
corrosion. Classical models, developed for corrosion-resistant alloys, assume
surface layers (commonly known as passive layers) are inherent to the metals/alloys.
Nonclassical models, developed for carbon steels, assume that the surface layers
form in situ once the carbon steels are placed in the environment. Kinetic models
have been developed to predict the rate of pitting corrosion. These kinetic models
may be classified into those based on corrosion science, electrochemical science,
and corrosion engineering principles. This chapter describes both theories and
kinetic modeling of localized pitting corrosion.
Read full chapter

MATERIALS
ByPETER SMITH, in Piping Materials Guide, 2005
Scope.
This specification covers seamless carbon steel pipe for high-temperature service
(Note: It is suggested that consideration be given to possible graphitization) in NPS
⅛-NPS 48 inclusive, with nominal (average) wall thickness as given in ANSI B
36.10. It is permissible to furnish pipe having other dimensions provided such pipe
complies with all other requirements of this specification. Pipe ordered under this
specification is suitable for bending, flanging, and similar forming operations and
for welding. When the steel is to be welded, it is presupposed that a welding
procedure suitable to the grade ofsteel and intended use or service is utilized
(Note: The purpose for which the pipe is to be used should be stated in the order.
Grade A rather than Grade B or Grade C is the preferred grade for close coiling or
cold bending. This note is not intended to prohibit the cold bending of Grade B
seamless pipe).
Read full chapter

Machinery Failure Analysis and Troubleshooting

In Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants, 1999
Case 3.
A 25% sodium hydroxide piping system was fabricated of stress relieved A106
carbon steel pipe. The system developed several leaks within months of start-up.
Figure 2-40 shows a section of the failed pipe that has stress cracked at locations of
welded-on tee bars. The pipe was steam traced and insulated and the tee bars were
used to hold the insulated pipe away from the support structure.
Figure 2-40. Stress corrosion cracking of this steel pipe in 25% NaOH service was
caused by the non-stress-relieved weld joining the external support bar.
The tee bars were welded to the stress-relieved pipe by the insulation contractor.
Nobody had told the contractor that his external welds needed to be stress relieved.
The non-stress-relieved weld areas failed by stress corrosion cracking.
Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1874694299800042
Coal-Derived Carbons
PETER G. STANSBERRY, ... ALFRED H. STILLER, in Carbon Materials for Advanced
Technologies, 1999
3.1 Preparation of green and calcined cokes

Two reactor types were used to convert coal-derived pitches into green coke. A
heavy, carbon-steel pipe (about 0.75 m long by 5 cm inside diameter) was
machined at both ends such that plugs could be inserted to seal the system. The
coking reactor was filled approximately 2/3 full with pitch, flushed with nitrogen,
and then sealed. The coking reactor was inserted into a ceramic tube furnace and
heated in two stages. In the first stage the coal pitch was heated to 400°C. In this
stage the material becomes a molten mass. The tube was kept at this condition for
12 hours. In the second stage, the tube reactor contents were then raised to 600°C
and held at this temperature for one hour, whereupon the tube was permitted to
cool to room temperature. The product was then recovered and weighed. The
green coke precursors for WVU-1, WVU-2, and WVU-3 test graphites, WVGS
13407 NMP-soluble extract, NMP-soluble extract from 350°C hydrogenated WVGS
13407, and WVGS 13421 NMP-soluble extract, respectively, were made with this
system.
All subsequent green coke operations were made in a second coker, which was
fashioned from steel pipe approximately 18 cm in diameter and 25 cm in length. A
metal plate was welded to one end and a metal collar was welded to the other end
such that a steel lid could be bolted to the system. Typically, about 250 to 500 g of
pitch were sealed under nitrogen in the coker reactor and the system placed in a
large temperature-programmable furnace. The heat treatment process was as
follows. The temperature was raised 5°C/min to 350 °C and then 1°C/min to 425°C
and the temperature held at 425°C for 90 minutes. Finally the temperature was
raised further at 3°C/min to between 500 and 600°C, and held there for 3 hours.
The coker was cooled to room temperature and the material recovered to
determine green coke yield.
The green cokes were calcined by placing a weighed amount of green coke into an
alumina tube. The tube was fitted with end caps to allow for a constant purge of
nitrogen. The alumina tube was then inserted into a high-temperature furnace and
the temperature raised to about 1000°C for a period between 30 and 60 minutes.
The furnace was turned off, cooled to room temperature, and the product
recovered to determine the calcined coke yield.
The effect of hydrogenation on the yield of green coke is shown in Table 17.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was also conducted for comparison. It can be
seen that the pitch from unhydrogenated coal results in a fairly high yield of green
coke. As the severity of hydrogenation increased the green coke yield decreased,
probably because of molecular weight reduction and loss of low-molecular weight
species during coking. Also, in general, TGA yields are lower than the yields
obtained from the green coking operation. Undoubtedly, during the green-coke
process in the sealed reactor, some reflux occurred, promoting additional
condensation and enhanced carbon yield. The TGA experiment, which involves
rapid heating under a flowing inert gas atmosphere, tends to promote enhanced
distillation of volatile species.
Table 17. Effect of hydrogenation on green coke yields
Coal Green coke yield, wt% TGA yield, wt%
WVGS 13407 71.4 71.0
EXT
HEXT350 —- 60.3
WVGS 13421
EXT 71.2 80.0
HEXT400 62.8 —-
HEXT450 57.1 51.0
WVGS 13423
EXT 70.3 61.5
HEXT450 52.3 34.0
Tables 18 and 19 show the effects of blending extracts of hydrogenated coal with
those from untreated coal for WVGS 13421 and WVGS 13423, respectively. For
both coals, the amount of hydrogenated material in the blend causes a reduction in
coke yield. Again, the TGA yields are generally lower than the yields obtained using
the coking reactor. This is particularly pronounced for the WVGS 13423 coal
following hydrogenation at 450°C, where the TGA yield is only 34 wt%. As noted
previously, the hydrogenated products from WVGS 13423 are relatively volatile.
Table 18. Effect of blending hydrogenated coal-derived pitch and coal extract
on green coke yields, WVGS 13421
Blending ratio Green coke yield, wt% TGA yield, wt%
100·0 EXT:HEXT450 71.2 80 0
75.25 EXT:HEXT450 69.6 63.5
25:75 EXT:HEXT450 62.9 52.9
0·100 EXT·HEXT450 57.1 51.0
Table 19. Effect of blending hydrogenated coal-derived pitch and coal extract
on green coke yields, WVGS 13423
Blending ratio Green coke yield, wt% TGA yield, wt%
100:0 EXT:HEXT450 70.3 61.5
75:25 EXT:HEXT450 61.7 57.7
25:75 EXT:HEXT450 47.2 40.4
0:100 EXT:HEXT450 52.3 34.0
Table 20 reports the yield of calcined cokes for several of the graphite precursors.
The high-coke yields indicate that most of the volatiles were lost during the green
coking operation. Since no visible tar or smoke occurred during calcination, most
of the weight loss is attributed to evolution of hydrogen, non-condensable
hydrocarbons, and other light gases.
Table 20. Yield of calcined coke for WVU test graphites
Calcined coke yield. wt%
WVGS 13421
HEXT400 93.8
75:25 EXT:HEXT400 96.1
60:40 EXT:HEXT350 95.5
EXT 92.8
75:25 EXT:HEXT450 91.6
25:75 EXT:HEXT450 92.7
HEXT450 94.2
WVGS 13423
EXT 87.0
75:27 EXT:HEXT450 91.1
25:75 EXT:HEXT450 93.1
HEXT450 92.0
Read full chapter

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3/9/2020 Carbon Steel Pipe - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Carbon Steel, Corrosion, Corrosion Resistance, Flanges, Steel Pipe, Corrosion-

Oil and Gas Well Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention

Bimetallic Combination Tubing

Figure 11-32. The basic structure of bimetallic combination tubing.

Figure 11-33. Connecting form of bimetallic combination tubing.

Read full chapter

Figure 2.1. Sizing seamless pipe.

Figure 2.2. Shaping butt-welded pipe.

Least common of the three methods is spiral-welded pipe. Spiral-welded pipe is

Figure 2.3. Forming spiral-welded pipe.

Figure 2.4. Manufactured carbon steel pipe.

Read full chapter

3.2.1 Carbon steel

Table 3.2. Metal design temperature for piping

Design temperature Speciﬁcation

650 to 60 °F API 5L

Note: Metal design temperature shall be the design operating temperature

Figure 3.2. Stress-strain diagram for API 5LX X-46 pipe.

Grade B 0.337 3774 38.26

Grade X-42 0.237 3185 30.02 43,507

Grade X-46 0.219 3219 25.40 67,900

Grade X-52 0.188 3120 22.70 82,156

Table 3.4. Comparison of steel pipe versus other alloys

Stainless steel 304L 3 to 5

Stainless steel 316L 4 to 6

Steel speciﬁcations in other countries may correspond with US speciﬁcations.

Table 3.5. Comparison: US and international speciﬁcations for steel pipe

USA UK W. Germany Sweden

Carbon steel ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1629

Grade B HFS 27 and St 45 SIS

ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1626

Grade A E ERW 22 Blatt 3St 34–2 ERW

Grade B E ERW27 Blatt 3 St 37–2 ERW

ASTM A53 BS 3601 DIN 1626

FBW BW 22 Blatt 3St 34–2 FBW

ASTM BS 3602 DIN 17175a

Grade A HFS 23 St 35-8 SIS

Grade B HFS 27 St 45-8 SIS

ASTM BS 3601 DIN 1626

EFW Blatt 2 EFW

ASTM BS 3601 DIN 1626

USA UK W. Germany Sweden

Grade A ERW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 ERW SIS

Grade B ERW 27 Blatt 3St 37–2 ERW SIS

ASTM BS 3601 DIN 1626

Grade A EFW 22 Blatt 2 St 37

Grade B EFW 27 Blatt 2 St 42

ASTM BS 3602 DIN 1626, Blatt 3 with

API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1629

Grade A HFS 22 and St 35 SIS

Grade B HFS 27 and St 45 SIS

API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1625

Grade A E ERW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 ERW SIS

Grade ERW 27b Blatt 4 St 37–2 ERW SIS

API 51 BS 3601 Double- DIN 1626

Grade A EFW 22 Blatt 3 St 34–2 FW

Grade EFW 27b Blatt 4 St 37–2 FW

API 5L BS 3601 DIN 1626

FBW BW 22 Blatt 3 St 34 2 FBW

Stainless ASTM BS 3605 WSN Designation

USA UK W. Germany Sweden