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Diversity of traditional and fermented foods of the

Seven Sister states of India and their nutritional
and nutraceutical potential: a review

Gitishree Das, Jayanta Kumar Patra, Sameer K. Singdevsachan, Sushanto

Gouda & Han-Seung Shin

To cite this article: Gitishree Das, Jayanta Kumar Patra, Sameer K. Singdevsachan, Sushanto
Gouda & Han-Seung Shin (2016) Diversity of traditional and fermented foods of the Seven Sister
states of India and their nutritional and nutraceutical potential: a review, Frontiers in Life Science,
9:4, 292-312, DOI: 10.1080/21553769.2016.1249032

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FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE, 2016
VOL. 9, NO. 4, 292–312
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2016.1249032

Diversity of traditional and fermented foods of the Seven Sister states of India
and their nutritional and nutraceutical potential: a review
Gitishree Dasa , Jayanta Kumar Patraa , Sameer K. Singdevsachanb , Sushanto Goudac and Han-Seung Shind
a Research Institute of Biotechnology & Medical Converged Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang, Republic of Korea;
b Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Takatpur, India; c AMITY Institute of Wildlife Science, Noida, India; d Department of Food
Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang, Republic of Korea

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The Seven Sister states of northeast India are characterized by diverse population with different Received 5 July 2016
ethnic backgrounds. Indigenous and fermented foods are an intrinsic part of diet of these ethnic Accepted 10 October 2016
tribes. It is the oldest and most economical methods for development of a diversity of aromas, fla- KEYWORDS
vors, and textures as well as for food preservation and biological enrichment by manipulation of Fermented foods; nutritional;
different microbial populations. Wild fruits and vegetables have more nutritional value than culti- nutraceutical; Seven Sister
vated fruits and contribute to sustainable food production and security. Fermented products are states; traditional foods
region-specific and have their own unique substrates and preparation methods. Soybeans, bamboo
shoots, and locally available vegetables are commonly fermented by most tribes. Fermented alco-
holic beverages prepared in this region are unique and bear deep attachment with socio-cultural
lives of local people. These products serve as a source of income to many rural people, who pre-
pare them at home and market them locally. Detailed studies on nutritive and medicinal value of
these products can provide valuable information and would prove beneficial in guiding the use of
these products on a wider scale. Furthermore, the ethnobotanical field exploration, conservation of
indigenous knowledge, and proper documentation of wild edible bio-resources are suggested for
sustaining the livelihood of local communities.

Introduction
Northeast India, the eastern-most region of India, is
connected with east India through a narrow corri-
dor sandwiched between Nepal and Bangladesh. It
mainly consists of the so-called Seven Sister states of
India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Megha-
laya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura. Northeast
India constitutes about 8% of the total geographical
area of India, having a population of approximately 40
million, which is about 3.1% of the total Indian popu-
lation. Agriculture is the main occupation of the tribes,
which practice ‘Jhum or shifting’ cultivation in which
they grow cereals, vegetables, and fruits. The region
is characterized by the presence of diverse physiog-
raphy, hills, valleys, plains, and mountains. It has the
richest reservoir of plant diversity in India and is one
of the ‘biodiversity hotspots’ of the world, supporting
about 50% of India’s biodiversity (Mao & Hynniewta
2000; Chatterjee et al. 2006). The region is also known
as the Cradle of Flowering Plants and is a habitat of
many botanical curiosities and rarities. The northeast-
ern region has drawn attention for its high biodiver-
sity and is a priority for leading conservation agencies
across the globe. This area is inhabited largely by tribal
people, who make up 75% of the population of the
region (Agrahar-Murungkar & Subbulakshmi 2006).
Approximately 225 out of the 450 tribes of India
reside in this region, representing different ethnic
groups with distinct culture entities and rich tra-
ditional knowledge (Chatterjee et al. 2006; Mao
et al. 2009). Some of the families that are unique
to the world, such as Nepenthaceae, Liliaceae and
Clethraceae, Ruppiaceae, Siphonodontaceae, Tetra-
centraceae, and others, can be found in this region.
The region exhibits rich diversity in orchids, zingibers,
bamboo, yams, rhododendrons, canes, and wild rela-
tives of cultivated plants. The people of this region have
a very rich reserve of traditional knowledge owing to

CONTACT Jayanta Kumar Patra jkpatra@dongguk.edu, jkpatra.cet@gmail.com Research Institute of Biotechnology & Medical Converged Science,
Dongguk University-Seoul, Ilsandong-gu, Gyeonggi-do10326, Republic of Korea

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group


their livelihood in the hilly terrains. These people pos-
sess great knowledge of the environment and depend
on the forests, plants, and plant products for food
and other purposes (Jaiswal 2010). Food plays a very
important role in defining the identity of one ethnic
group from the other. It is also noteworthy that there
is still a very high demand among the urban-dwelling
ethnic people for the wild edibles because of their tra-
ditional food habits and lifestyle (Asati & Yadav 2003;
Medhi et al. 2013).
Very few outsiders have realized that northeast
India is the center of a diverse food culture comprising
fermented and non-fermented ethnic foods and alco-
holic beverages (Sathe & Mandal 2016). Most of the
people of this region bear their own methods of fer-
menting food materials for the purpose of preservation
and taste enhancement, and they have been following
these from time immemorial. Indigenous fermented
foods are an intrinsic part of diet of the ethnic tribes in
the Himalayan belt of India, being the oldest and most
economic methods for development of a diversity of
aromas, flavors, and textures, as well as food preserva-
tion and biological enrichment of food product by the
manipulation of different microbial population (Sekar
& Mariappan 2007). Ethnic fermented foods and alco-
holic beverages and drinks have been consumed by
the ethnic people of northeast India for more than
2500 years. All the fermented foods are region-specific
and have unique substrates and preparation meth-
ods. Locally available materials such as milk, vegetable,
Figure 1. Map of India showing the Seven Sister states of northeast India and their specific fermented foods.
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 293
bamboo, soybean, meat, fish, and cereal are commonly
fermented (Das & Deka 2012; Tamang et al. 2012).
More than 250 different types of familiar and
less-familiar ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic
beverages are prepared and consumed by the dif-
ferent ethnic people of northeast India (Figure 1).
Daily per capita consumption of ethnic fermented
foods and alcoholic beverages in Sikkim was 163.8 gm
in the mid-2000s, representing 12.6% of total daily
diet (Tamang et al. 2007). Ethnic fermented foods
of northeast India are classified into fermented soy-
bean and non-soybean legume foods, fermented veg-
etable (gundruk, sinki, anishi) and bamboo shoot
foods (soibum, mesu), fermented cereal and pulse
foods (kinema, bhatootu, marchu and chilra, tun-
grymbai), fermented and smoked fish products (ngari,
hentak), preserved meat products, milk beverages
(kadi, churpa and nudu), non-food mixed amylolytic
starters, and alcoholic beverages (ghanti, jann, daru)
(Tamang et al. 2012). The food-processing proce-
dure makes use of various technologies to convert
perishable, relatively bulky, and typically inedible
raw materials into more useful palatable foods or
potable beverages with increased self-life. Processing
of food contributes to the food security by minimiz-
ing the wastage and loss of various ethnic food by
increasing their availability and market value (Rolle
& Satin 2002). Though these foods have great impor-
tance, detailed studies on the nutritive and medic-
inal value of these products can provide valuable
294 G. DAS ET AL.
information and indicate their potential use on a
wider scale.
What is fermentation and why is it essential?
Fermentation is one of the oldest and most economical
methods of preserving the quality and safety of foods,
thereby enhancing the nutritional quality, flavor, and
aroma of any product by increasing the amount of
vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids, and protein sol-
ubility. The term fermentation is derived from the
Latin word fervere, meaning ‘to boil.’ It refers to the
action of yeast on extracts of fruit or malted grain dur-
ing the production of alcoholic beverages. It may be
defined as any process for the production of a prod-
uct by the mass culture of microorganisms to break
down complex compounds to produce a unique taste
and aroma (Stanbury 1999). Fermentation process not
only preserves foods, it also improves digestibility
by breaking down proteins within foods and enables
the production of organic acids, nutritional enrich-
ment, reduction of endogenous toxins, and reduction
in the duration of cooking (Sekar & Kandavel 2002).
It enriched nutrients such as vitamins, amino acids,
and fatty acids (Steinkraus 2004). Fermentation pro-
cess also preserves the food, and produces beneficial
enzymes, B-vitamins, Omega-3 fatty acids, and various
strains of probiotics (Sathe & Mandal 2016).
Indigenous fermented food is prepared utilizing dif-
ferent substrates and non-pathogenic microorganisms
as starter and processing culture to be sold at the
local markets for local consumption. Lactic acid bac-
teria (LAB) play a major role in the production of
most of the fermented foods and beverages (Mokoena
et al. 2016). Many genera of the LAB have been iso-
lated from different fermented foods and beverages
available throughout the world. These genera include
Alkalibacterium, Carnobacterium, Enterococcus, Lacto-
bacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Pedio-
coccus, Streptococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus, and
Weissella (Axelsson et al. 2012; Holzapfel & Wood
2014; Tamang et al. 2016). Indigenous fermented foods
have been prepared and consumed for thousands of
years; they are strongly linked to culture and traditions,
and they reveal the intellectual richness of indigenous
people of the country in terms of their ability to pre-
pare microbial products for varied purposes in addi-
tion to food and beverages (Sekar & Mariappan 2007).
Fermentation also increases digestibility and exerts
health-promoting benefits by improving the nutri-
tional and functional properties of food. Breakdown of
food proteins by the action of microbial or indigenous
protease enzymes resulted in the increase of various
bioactive peptides, leading to considerable increase
in the biological properties of the food (Steinkraus
2002). Furthermore, the fermented food products are
a good source of peptides and amino acids (Sathivel
et al. 2003; Rajapakse et al. 2005; Majumdar et al.
2016). LAB isolated from various fermented foods pro-
duce organic acids and various bioactive compounds
with antimicrobial potentials (Ananou et al. 2007;
O’sullivan et al. 2010), which are generally responsi-
ble for the upkeep of quality and the deliciousness of
the fermented foods (Mokoena et al. 2016). Fermen-
tation may also assist in the destruction or detoxifica-
tion of certain undesirable compounds, such as phy-
tates, polyphenols, and tannins, which may be present
in raw foods. Other health benefits include choles-
terol control, anticancer effects, immunity, longevity,
anti-hypertensive effect, and anti-diabetic effect (Sekar
& Kandavel 2002). There are numerous traditional
fermented food products abundantly available and
widely consumed by the local populace of the
northeastern region of India; these are discussed
below.
Fermented foods of northeastern states of India
During the latter part of the twentieth century, around
3500 fermented foods and beverages which are broadly
divided into about 250 groups have been available
globally throughout the world (Campbell-Platt 1987).
However, this list might have crossed 5000, in the
present world which have been consumed by billions
of people, as fermented foods and beverages (Ray et al.
2016; Tamang et al. 2016). On the Indian subconti-
nent, the fermented foods and beverages are a primary
part of traditional heritage and culture. Even today
indigenous fermented foods such as soybean products,
bamboo shoots, fish, meat, vegetables, leaf, etc. con-
tribute to the large proportion of the daily intake of
the people of the northeastern states of India (Jeyaram
et al. 2009). Their variety and mode of preparation vary
from various communities of this region. The tradi-
tional knowledge of the ethnic women of this region
plays an important role in the making of these fer-
mented food and their further marketing within and
outside of the region (Tamang et al. 2009). A few most

common fermented foods of this region with high
nutritional value is discussed below.
Types of fermented products
Food plays a very significant role in distinguishing
one ethnic group’s identification (Somishon & Thahira
Banu 2013). Fermented foods and its products are pre-
pared and consumed worldwide. These traditional fer-
mented food products consumed by the local people
of the northeastern states of India are rich in vari-
ous nutrients such as protein, vitamins, carbohydrates,
fat, and minerals (Tamang et al. 2012). Among all the
ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages con-
sumed by the different ethnic tribal people of north-
east states of India, most of them are region-specific
and have their distinctive preparation procedure uti-
lizing various specific substrates (Das & Deka 2012;
Tamang et al. 2012; Somishon & Thahira Banu 2013).
Locally available materials such as milk, vegetable,
bamboo, soybean, meat, fish, and cereal are commonly
fermented (Das & Deka 2012; Tamang et al. 2012).
The climatic condition of the region (temperate, sub-
tropical, and tropical climate) also plays an important
role in the type of fermented food produced and avail-
able in the north-east states of India (Somishon &
Thahira Banu 2013). These fermented foods have been
categorized into subcategories according to their nutri-
tional composition and are discussed subsequently in
this review (Table 1).
Fermented food made up of vegetables
A number of fermented food products have been pre-
pared and consumed by the local tribes of the north-
eastern states of India, and some of them are discussed
below. Gundruk is a common non-salted dried fer-
mented leafy vegetable food of the Gorkha tribes of
northeastern states of India. It is commonly prepared
during winter season from the leaves of cauliflowers
(Brasicca oleracea), mustard (Brasicca juncea), radish
(Raphanus sativus), rayo-sag (Brasicca rapa), and some
other locally grown vegetables (Tamang & Tamang
2009a). Sinki is a non-salted fermented radish tap root
(Raphanus sativus L.), consumed by the Nepalis tribe
in Darjeeling, Sikkim, and Nepal. It is prepared dur-
ing the months of winter when weather is least humid
and there is ample supply of this vegetable (Tamang &
Sarkar 1993; Sekar & Mariappan 2007). It is said to be a
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 295
good appetizer and is used as a remedy for indigestion
(Tamang & Sarkar 1993). Ziang-sang/ Ziang-dui is
a fermented leafy vegetable product common to the
states of Manipur and Nagaland. It is produced mainly
by the Naga women and sold in the local markets
(Tamang & Tamang 2009a). Fermented extract ziang
dui is used as a condiment. The Sherpa tribe belong-
ing to the state of Sikkim and hills of Darjeeling
prepare a type of fermented product from leaves of
the wild plant maganesaag (Cardamine macrophylla
Wild), which is called goyang in the local language
(Tamang & Tamang 2009a). Khalpi is a cucumber
product of the state of Sikkim and Darjeeling hills.
Anishi is another fermented food made from the leaves
of edible yam (Colocasia sp.). It is used as a condiment
and is usually cooked with dry meat, especially pork
(Mao & Odyuo 2007).
Fermented food made up of bamboo shoots
In India mostly in the northeastern states, dif-
ferent varieties of fermented foods and beverages
out of the bamboo shoots have been tradition-
ally prepared and consumed (Thakur et al. 2016).
These bamboo shoots are fermented by a number
of LAB including Enterococcus durans, Lactobacil-
lus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacilluscasei,
Lactobacillus coryniformis, Lactobacillus fermentum,
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostocfallax, Lacto-
coccuslactis, Streptococcus lactis, and Tetragenococcus
halophilus etc. (Thakur et al. 2016). These fermented
bamboo shoots products are rich in bioactive nutri-
ents and possess functional probiotic properties as well
as B-vitamin supplier to human body (Jeyaram et al.
2010; Thakur et al. 2016). A number of fermented
foods made up of bamboo shoots are described below.
Soibum are the fermented bamboo shoot products
and are indigenous foods of the state of Manipur. They
are consumed as an indispensable part of the Manipuri
diet and are part of the social customs of the people.
Soibum are produced exclusively from succulent bam-
boo shoots of the species Dendrocalamus hamiltonii,
Dendrocalamus sikkimensis, Dendrocalamus giganteus,
Melocana bambusoide, Bambusa tulda, and Bambusa
balcona (Bhatt et al. 2003; Jeyaram et al. 2009). When
the apical meristems of succulent bamboo shoots are
fermented, the product is known as soidon. The species
used are Teinostachyum wightii, B. tulda, Dendrocala-
mus giganteus, and M. bambusoide (Jeyaram et al.
296 G. DAS ET AL.

Table 1. Types of fermented food products and their nutritional composition and nutraceutical potential.
Sl. no. Local name Substrate Nutritional composition Nutraceutical potential References
1. Bhaati jaanr Rice Protein: 9.5%, In order to gain strength, ailing Tamang and Thapa (2006)
Fat: 2.0%, persons and post-natal women
Crude fiber: 1.5%, in the Himalayas consume
Carbohydrate: 86.9%, bhaati jaanr extract
Food value: 404.1 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 12.8 mg/100 gm,
K: 146.0 mg/100 gm,
P: 595.0 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 7.7 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 50.0 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 1.4 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 2.7 mg/100 gm
2. Chhu Milk Protein: 58.4%, Antioxidant Dewan (2002) and Dewan and
Fat: 5.8%, Tamang (2006)
Carbohydrate: 33.9%,
Ca: 111 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 4.5 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 64.3 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 3.1 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 87.6 mg/100 gm
3. Dahi Milk Protein: 22.5%, Antioxidant Dewan and Tamang (2006) and
Fat: 24.5%, Dewan (2002)
Carbohydrate: 48.2%, and
Food value: 503.6 k cal/100 gm
4. Ekung Tender Protein: 30.1%, Antioxidant, antimicrobial, Tamang and Tamang (2009a)
bamboo Fat: 3.8%, nutritional
shoot Carbohydrate: 52.1%,
Food value: 363.0 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 35.4 mg/100 gm,
Na: 10.9 mg/100 gm, and
K: 168.6 mg/100 gm
5. Eup Tender Protein: 33.6%, Antioxidant, antimicrobial, Tamang and Tamang (2009a)
bamboo Fat: 3.1%, nutritional
shoot Carbohydrate: 45.1%,
Food value: 342.7 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 76.9 mg/100 gm,
Na: 3.4 mg/100 gm, and
K: 181.5 mg/100 gm
6. Gnuchi Fish Protein: 21.3%, Thapa et al. (2007) and Thapa et al.
Fat: 14.5%, (2006)
Carbohydrate: 47.3%,
Food value: 404.9 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 37.0 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 1.1 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 8.8 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 1.1 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 7.5 mg/100 gm
7. Goyang WEPs Protein: 35.9%, Tamang and Tamang (2007)
Fat: 2.1%,
Carbohydrate: 48.9%,
Food value: 357.2 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 92.2 mg/100 gm,
Na: 6.7 mg/100 gm, and
K: 268.4 mg/100 gm
8. Gundruk Leafy Protein: 38.7%, Improves milk efficiency, good Tamang et al. (2005), Tamang and
vegetables Fat: 2.1%, appetizer, and possess higher Tamang (2006) and Tamang and
Carbohydrate: 38.3%, quantity of ascorbic acid, Tamang (2010)
Food value: 321.9 kcal/100 gm, lactic acid, and carotene with
Ca: 234.6 mg/100 gm, anticancer properties
Na: 142.2 mg/100 gm, and
K: 677.6 mg/100 gm
9. Hard-Chhurpi Milk Protein: 53.4–68.5%, Dewan (2002)
Fat: 7.7–12.3%, and
Carbohydrate: 20.4–23.2%

(continued).
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 297

Table 1. Continued.
Sl. no. Local name Substrate Nutritional composition Nutraceutical potential References
10. Hawaijar Soybean Protein: 43.9%, Organoleptic properties Jeyaram et al. (2008)
Fat: 27.9%,
Carbohydrate: 23.4%,
Food value: 521.2 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 357.8 mg/100 gm,
Na: 88.7 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 92.3 mg/100 gm,
K: 835.1 mg/100 gm and
Zn: 63.0 mg/100 gm
11. Hentak Fish Protein: 32.7%, Thapa et al. (2004) and Thapa
Fat: 13.6%, et al. (2007)
Carbohydrate: 38.7%,
Food value: 408.0 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 38.2 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 1.0 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 1.1 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 1.4 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 3.1 mg/100 gm
12. Hirring Bamboo shoot Protein: 33.0%, Antioxidant, anticancer, Tamang and Tamang (2009a)
Fat: 2.7%, anti-aging properties
Carbohydrate: 49.3%,
Food value: 353.5 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 19.3 mg/100 gm,
Na: 3.4 mg/100 gm, and
K: 272.4 mg/100 gm
13. Karati, Bordia, and Fish Protein: 24.5–35.0%, Thapa et al. (2007)
Lashim Fat: 11.8–12.4%,
Carbohydrate: 38.1–47.9%,
Food value:
400.0–407.8 kcal/100 gm
14. Kargyong Meat (yak/ Protein: 16.0%, Rai et al. (2009)
beef/pork) Fat: 49.1%,
Carbohydrate: 32.0%, and
Food value: 634.5 kcal/100 gm
15. Khalpi Cucumber Fat: 2.6%, Tamang and Tamang (2010)
Protein: 12.3%,
Carbohydrate: 70.9%,
Food value: 356.2 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 6.4 mg/100 gm,
Na: 2.2 mg/100 gm, and
K: 125.1 mg/100 gm
16. Kinema Soybean Protein: 47.7%, Cholesterol-lowering effect, Sarkar et al. (1998), Tamang
Fat: 17.0%, antioxidant activities and Nikkuni (1998) and
Carbohydrate: 28.1%, Tamang et al. (2009)
Food value: 454 kcal/100 gm,
Total amino acids:
42618.0 mg/100 gm,
Free amino acids:
5129.0 mg/100 gm, Ca:
432.0 mg/100 gm,
Na: 27.7 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 17.7 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 5.4 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 4.5 mg/100 gm
17. Kodo ko Jaanr Millets Protein: 9.3%, Thapa et al. (2006)
Fat: 2.0%,
Crude fiber: 4.7%,
Carbohydrate: 83.7%,
Food value: 389.6 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 281.0 mg/100 gm,
K: 398.0 mg/100 gm,
P: 326.0 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 24.0 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 118.0 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 9.0 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 1.2 mg/100 gm

(continued).
298 G. DAS ET AL.

Table 1. Continued.
Sl. no. Local name Substrate Nutritional composition Nutraceutical potential References
18. Mesu Young bamboo Fat: 2.6%, Tamang and Sarkar (1996)
shoots Protein: 27.0%,
Carbohydrate: 55.6%,
Food value: 352.4 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 7.9 mg/100 gm,
Na: 2.8 mg/100 gm, and
K: 282.6 mg/100 gm
19. Ngari Fish Protein: 34.1%, Thapa et al. (2004) and Thapa
Fat: 13.2%, et al. (2007)
Carbohydrate: 31.6%,
Food value: 381.6 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 41.7 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.9 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 0.8 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.6 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 1.7 mg/100 gm
20. Philu Milk (yak/cow) Protein: 52%, Nutritional Dewan and Tamang (2006) and
Fat: 32%, Dewan (2002)
Carbohydrate: 12.5%,
Ca: 34.9 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.8 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 16.9 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.9 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 27.1 mg/100 gm47.
21. Satchu Meat Fat: 4.7% Rai et al. (2009)
(yak/beef/pork) Protein: 51.0%,
Carbohydrate: 37.0%, and
Food value: 405.8 kcal/100 gm
22. Selroti Rice Protein: 5.7%, Yonzan and Tamang (2009)
Fat: 2.7%,
Carbohydrate: 91.3%,
Food value: 410.3 kcal/100 gm,
Na: 8.9 mg/100 gm,
P: 29.7 mg/100 gm,
Ca: 23.8 mg/100 gm45
23. Sidra Fish Protein: 25.5%, Thapa et al. (2007) and Thapa
Fat: 12.2%, et al. (2006)
Carbohydrate: 45.7%,
Food value: 394.6 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 25.8 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.9 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 1.6 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.8 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 2.4 mg/100 gm
24. Sinki Radish tap root Protein: 14.9%, Cure against diarrhea and Tamang and Sarkar (1993),
Fat: 1.4%, stomach disorder Tamang et al. (2005), and
Carbohydrate: 68.0%, Tamang (2010)
Food value: 344.2 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 223.9 mg/100 gm,
Na: 737.3 mg/100 gm, and
K: 2320.4 mg/100 gm
25. Soft-Chhurpi Milk Protein: 65.3%, Dewan (2002) and Tamang and
Fat: 11.8%, Tamang (2010)
Carbohydrate: 16.3%,
Ca: 44.1 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 1.2 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 16.7 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.6 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 25.1 mg/100 gm
26. Soibum Tender Fat: 3.2%, Jeyaram et al. (2010),
bamboo Protein: 36.3%, Sarangthem and Singh
shoot Carbohydrate: 47.2%, (2003), and Tamang et al.
Food value: 362.8 kcal/100 gm, (2008)
Ca: 16.0 mg/100 gm,
Na: 2.9 mg/100 gm, and
K: 212.1 mg/100 gm

(continued).
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 299

Table 1. Continued.
Sl. no. Local name Substrate Nutritional composition Nutraceutical potential References
27. Soidon Matured Fat: 3.1%, Tamang et al. (2008)
bamboo Protein: 37.2%,
shoot Carbohydrate: 46.6%,
Food value: 363.1 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 18.5 mg/100 gm,
Na: 3.7 mg/100 gm, and
K: 245.5 mg/100 gm
28. Somar Milk (yak/cow) Protein: 35%, Dewan and Tamang (2006) and
Fat: 15.4%, Dewan (2002)
Carbohydrate: 46.9%,
Ca: 31.2 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.4 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 13.7 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.5 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 17.2 mg/100 gm
29. Suka ko Maacha Fish Protein: 35.0%, Thapa et al. (2007) and Thapa
Fat: 12.0%, et al. (2006)
Carbohydrate: 36.8%,
Food value: 395.2 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 38.7 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.8 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 5.0 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 1.0 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 5.2 mg/100 gm
30. Suka Ko Masu Meat Protein: 44.8%, Rai et al. (2009)
Fat: 2.0%,
Carbohydrate: 51.4%, and
Food value: 403.1 kcal/100 gm
31. Sukuti Fish Protein: 36.8%, Thapa et al. (2007) and Thapa
Fat: 11.4%, et al. (2006)
Carbohydrate: 38.2%,
Food value: 402.6 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 17.7 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.3 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 1.4 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.2 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 1.3 mg/100 gm
32. Tuaithur Tender Fat: 3.4%, Chakrabarty (2011)
bamboo Protein: 4.6%,
shoot Carbohydrate: 87.4%, and
Food value: 398.6 kcal/100 gm
33. Tungrymbai Soybean Protein: 45.9 gm/100 gm, Acidifying capacity, degrada- Omizu et al. (2011),
Fat: 30.2 gm/100 gm, tion of antinutritive factors, Agrahar-Murungkar
Fiber: 12.8 gm/100 gm, antimicrobial activities and Subbulakshmi (2006),
Carotene: 212.7 µg/100 gm, Chettri and Tamang (2015),
and and Tamang (2015)
Folic acid: 200 µg/100 gm
34. Tungtap Fish Protein: 32.0%, Thapa et al. (2004) and Thapa
Fat: 12.0%, et al. (2007)
Carbohydrate: 37.1%,
Food value: 384.4 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 25.8 mg/100 gm,
Fe: 0.9 mg/100 gm,
Mg: 1.6 mg/100 gm,
Mn: 0.8 mg/100 gm, and
Zn: 2.4 mg/100 gm
35. Ziang-sang/ Mustard leaves Protein: 38.7%, Tamang et al. (2005)
Ziang-dui Fat: 3.2%,
Carbohydrate: 41.2%,
Food value: 348.4 kcal/100 gm,
Ca: 240.4 mg/100 gm,
Na: 133.7 mg/100 gm, and
K: 658.4 mg/100 gm
300 G. DAS ET AL.
2009; Tamang & Tamang 2009a). Mesu is another
fermented bamboo shoot product indigenous to the
people of Himalayan regions of Darjeeling hills and
Sikkim. The species of bamboo used are the locally
available choya bans (D. hamiltonii Nees and Arnott),
bhalu bans (D. sikkimensis Gamble), and karati bans
(B. tulda Roxb) (Sekar & Mariappan 2007; Tamang &
Tamang 2009a). Lung-seij, another ethnic fermented
bamboo shoot product, belongs to the state of Megha-
laya and is produced mainly by the Khasi tribe. It is pre-
pared from D. hamiltonii species of bamboo available
locally in Meghalaya (Tamang & Tamang 2009a).
Ekung/Hirring is another ethnic fermented bam-
boo shoot product of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It
is referred to as ekung by the Nyishing tribe and hirring
by the Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. It is pre-
pared from young bamboo shoot sprouts (Tamang &
Tamang 2009a, 2009b). Eup, the word derived from the
Nishi dialect, is a dry fermented bamboo tender shoot
product of Arunachal Pradesh (Tamang 2010). Miya
mikhri is produced by the Dimasa tribe of Assam from
the bamboo shoots cut into small pieces, wrapped
in banana leaf, and kept inside an earthen pot. Miya
mikhri can be taken as a pickle or even mixed with
curry (Chakrabarty et al. 2009).
Fermented foods made up of soybean
Soybean, in the Nepali language called ‘bhatmas’, is
a most common raw material for traditional prepara-
tion of various fermented and non-fermented foods in
the Eastern Himalayan regions of Nepal, India, and
Bhutan (Tamang 2015). There are a number of fer-
mented foods prepared by soybean seeds or paste by
the local people of the northeastern states of India.
Some of these food products are described below.
Kinema is a traditional fermented soybean food
prepared by the people of Nepal in the Eastern
Himalayas. It is a whole-soybean fermented food
which is very sticky with gray tan color, and is flavor-
some (Tamang 2015). Kinema production is a source
of income generation for many families in the East-
ern Himalayas. Kinema is sold by rural women in all
local periodical markets in eastern Nepal, Darjeeling
hills, Sikkim, and southern parts of Bhutan. Kinema
is eaten as curry with steamed rice. Several species
of Bacillus have been isolated from kinema including
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus cereus,
Bacillus circulans, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus
sphaericus (Sarkar et al. 2002; Tamang 2015).
Hawaijar is an indigenous traditional fermented
soybean product of Manipur with a characteristics
flavor and stickiness; it has been consumed as a reg-
ular food in every household (Premarani & Chhetry
2011). Hawaijar is known for its unique organoleptic
properties. It plays an economical, social, and cul-
tural role in the culture and tradition of the Manipur
state of India. Hawaijar making provides income to
a number of rural masses in Manipur (Premarani &
Chhetry 2011; Das & Deka 2012). It is consumed
by the local people of Manipur as a low-cost source
of high protein food (Devi & Kumar 2012). Besides,
there are reports on its medicinal potential in terms
of its anticancer, anti-osteoporosis, and hypocholes-
terolemic effects (Somishon & Thahira Banu 2013).
A special delicacy of the Manipuris called chagem-
pomba is prepared using hawaijar, rice, and other veg-
etables. Kinema is a sticky fermented soybean food
with ammonical flavor produced exclusively by Nepali
women belonging to Limboo and Rai castes of Sikkim,
Darjeeling hills, east Nepal, and Bhutan (Tamang
2001). It serves as a major source of protein in the
diet of the people of this region. Tungrymbai, an eth-
nic fermented soybean food of Meghalaya, is prepared
by Khasi women (Agrahar-Murungkar & Subbulak-
shmi 2006). Aakhone, or Axone, is an ethnic sticky
fermented soybean food of Nagaland. Cooked soy-
beans are wrapped in leaves of banana or Phrynium
pubinerve or Macaranga indica and are kept above a
fireplace to ferment for 5–7 days (Mao & Odyuo 2007).
Bekang is a fermented soybean food of Mizoram.
Small soybeans are soaked for 10–12 h, boiled, and
wrapped in leaves of Calliparpa aroria or leaves of
Phrynium sp., then kept inside a bamboo basket. It
is then kept near the earthen oven and fermented for
3–4 days. Sticky beans with ammoniacal flavor are pro-
duced to get bekang. It is consumed as curry with rice.
Peruyyan is an ethnic fermented soybean food pre-
pared by Apatani women in Arunachal Pradesh. It is
prepared from the cooked bean kept in a bamboo bas-
ket lined with ginger leaves, locally referred to as taki
yannii. It is consumed as a side dish with rice.
Fermented foods made up of rice, legumes, and
cereal
Maseura, or masyaura, is prepared from black gram
by the Gorkha. It is a cone-shaped hollow, brittle, and
friable product. Maseura is similar to North Indian
wari or dal bodi and South Indian sandige (Chettri

& Tamang 2008). Maseura can be stored in a dry
container at room temperature for a year or more.
Selroti is a popular fermented rice product, of the
Gorkha/ethnic Nepali, which is ring shaped, spongy,
pretzel-like, and deep-fried food (Yonzan & Tamang
2009).
Due to the large production of rice in the Indian
subcontinent, many varieties of fermented foods and
beverages made up of rice and the principal compo-
nent are a regular practice since ancient days (Roy
et al. 2004; Ray et al. 2016). The fermented-rice-based
products play a fundamental role in the social, rituals,
and festivals around the subcontinent. Most common
rice-based fermented food available in India are idli,
dosa, dhokla, uttapam, selroti, babru, ambeli, vada, sez,
etc. (Ray et al. 2016). Many diverse rice-based food
items locally known as ‘ki kpu’ prepared by traditional
procedures are available in the northeastern states of
India including Meghalaya (Umdor et al. 2016). The
commonly available traditional rice cakes are putharo,
pusyep, pumaloi, pusaw, etc. (Umdor et al. 2016).
Another recipe was also known as kanjika: boiled mil-
let or barley or boiled rice was used as a base material
and to them different plants and spices were added into
the fermented medium (Roy 1997).
Fermented food made up of milk
A number of fermented milk food types have been pre-
pared by the local people of the northeastern states
of India for personal consumption and economy pur-
poses, some of them are discussed subsequently. Dahi
(curd) is a popular fermented milk product for direct
consumption as well as for the preparation of various
ethnic milk products such as gheu, mohi, and chhurpi
(Tamang 2010). It is consumed directly as a refresh-
ing non-alcoholic beverage. Two types, hard chhurpi
and soft chhurpi, are popular among the ethnic peo-
ple of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Hard chhurpi
is prepared from yak milk at high-altitude mountains
(2100–4500 m) and has characteristics of gumminess
and chewiness. Soft chhurpi is a cheese-like fermented
milk product that is slightly sour in taste (Tamang
et al. 2000). Chhu, or sheden, is an ethnic fermented
milk product of the Bhutia, Khamba, Lepcha, Memba,
Monpa, Sherdukpen, and the Tibetan living in north-
east India. It is a strong-flavored traditional cheese-like
product prepared from yak milk (Dewan & Tamang
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 301
2006). Somar, a soft paste, brownish with strong fla-
vor, is an ethnic fermented milk (yak/cow) prod-
uct of Sikkim traditionally consumed by the Sherpa
(Tamang 2010). Philu is an ethnic fermented, cream-
like dairy product, with an inconsistent semi-solid tex-
ture; it is consumed by various tribes of northeast India
(Tamang 2010). The soft mass, philu, is scraped off and
stored in a dry place for consumption.
Fermented food made of fish or meat
Apart from the fermentation of various fruits, vegeta-
bles, and pulses, a number of fish and meat products
have been fermented for their increased nutritional
value and long-term edibility. Among all the types of
fermented foods, the meat and meat products play a
vital role in the human food system (Ahmad & Sri-
vastava 2007). The fermentation of meat and meat
products are done by the process of preservation using
natural microbial cultures and preservatives. In the
states of northeast India, the meat is salted, dried, and
kept for long time at very low temperature (Tamang
2013). These food products are described below.
The fermented fish product ngari is prepared from
dried Puntius sophore fish, and it forms an intrinsic
part of the diet of the people in Manipur (Jeyaram
et al. 2009). Hentak is a traditional fermented fish paste
prepared in the state of Manipur (Sarojnalini & Singh
1988). Tungtap is a fermented fish paste prepared from
P. sophore found in Meghalaya. The process of fermen-
tation enhances the palatability of the small fishes by
softening the bones and improving the flavor and tex-
ture of the meat. Gnuchi is a smoked and dried fish
product commonly eaten by the Lepcha community
of Sikkim. The fishes used for its preparation include
Schizothorax richardsonii, Labeo dero, Acrossocheilus
spp., and Channa sp. Traditionally smoked fish prod-
uct is called suka ko maacha by the Gorkha. The
hill river fish ‘dothay asala’ (Schizothorax richardsoni)
and ‘chuchay asala’ (Schizothorax progastus) are air-
dried by a specific method and consumed directly
(Thapa et al. 2006). Sidra is a sun-dried fish product
of Puntius sarana fish. Sidra pickle is a popular cui-
sine (Thapa et al. 2006). Sukuti is also a very popular
sun-dried Harpodon nehereus fish product cuisine of
the Gorkha (Thapa et al. 2006). Sukuti is consumed as
pickle, soup, or curry. Karati, bordia, and lashim are
sun dried and salted fish products of Assam. Karati
is prepared from Gudusia chapra; bordia is prepared
302 G. DAS ET AL.
from Pseudeutropius atherinoides; and lashim is pre-
pared from Cirrhinus reba (Thapa et al. 2007).
Shidal is a salt-free, solid, semi-fermented fish prod-
uct which is commonly consumed in the northeastern
states of India. Shidal is prepared from a small sized
fish mainly Puntius sp. and also known as seedal, seepa,
hidal, and shidal in different states such as Assam,
Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland whereas it is
called Ngari in Manipur (Ahmed et al. 2016). It is pre-
pared by a complex procedure including semi-drying
of Puntius sp. in the sunlight, keeping them in vats or
earthen pots for fermentation process for around 4–6
months in which the final product has a semi-solid
appearance. A chutney or sauce-like recipe, locally
called shidal bhorta, is prepared as a side dish for rice
or bread (Ahmed et al. 2016).
Kargyong is a sausage-like meat (yak/beef/pork)
product of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh (Rai et al.
2009). Kargyong is eaten after boiling for 10–15 min,
sliced, and made into curry or fried sausage. Satchu is
an ethnic dried meat (beef/yak/pork) and is consumed
by the Tibetan, the Bhutia, the Lepcha, the Sherdukpen,
and the Khamba (Rai et al. 2009). Suka ko masu is a
dried or smoked meat product prepared from buffalo
meat or chevon (goat meat) (Rai et al. 2009).
Fermented foods used as beverages
Hamei is a natural starter (dry, round-to-flattened,
solid ball-like mixed dough) similar to Ragi of Indone-
sia, Budob of the Philippines, Chu of China, Naruk
of Korea, and Marcha of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim;
it has been traditionally used for the preparation of
rice wine, Atingba in Manipur (Tamang et al. 2007;
Jeyaram et al. 2008). Marcha is a dry flattened to
round, solid ball-like mixed amylolytic starter, used
to ferment starchy materials into a number of fer-
mented beverages and alcoholic drinks confined to
the Gorkha (Tamang et al. 1996). For preparation of
Atingba, Hamei is used by crushing the flat cake then
mixing the powder with cooked, cooled glutinous rice
(5 cakes/10 kg). The most popular fermented finger
millets-based mild alcoholic beverage with a sweet-
sour and acidic taste is kodo ko jaanr, or chyang,
or chee, prepared and consumed by the Gorkha, the
Bhutia, the Lepcha, the Monpa, and many ethnic
groups of northeast India. It is an integral part of
dietary culture and religious beliefs among the ethnic
people in the Sikkim (Tamang et al. 1996; Sekar &
Mariappan 2007). Zutho or zhuchu is an ethnic alco-
holic beverage of the Mao Naga prepared from rice
(Mao 1998). Bhaati jaanr is an ethnic fermented rice
beverage, consumed as a staple food beverage by the
Gorkha in northeast India. Bhaati jaanr is made into
a thick paste by stirring the fermented mass with
the help of a hand-driven wooden or bamboo stirrer
(Tamang & Thapa 2006).
Kiad is popular local liquor prepared by the Jaintia
tribe (also known as Pnar or Synteng) of the Jaintia hills
of the state of Meghalaya. It plays an important role in
Jaintia socio-cultural life and accompanies every reli-
gious festival and ceremony (Samati & Begum 2007;
Jaiswal 2010). Bas-tenga, which means ‘sour bamboo,’
is the fermented form of bamboo shoots and pro-
duced by the Nagas of Nagaland (Mao & Odyuo 2007).
Apong is an alcoholic beverage prepared in the state
of Arunachal Pradesh and is familiar to almost all
the tribes of the state (Tiwari & Mahanta 2007). The
Ahoms of Assam prepare a kind of rice beer, which
they refer to locally as xaj-pani. It is the most important
beverage for use in religious rites and rituals practiced
among the Ahoms (Saikia et al. 2007). Another type
of rice beer prepared by the Dimasa tribe of Assam is
judima (Chakrabarty et al. 2009).
Nutraceutical potential and bioactive secondary
metabolites of the fermented foods
All types of fresh foods such as fruits, vegetables,
cereals, fish, and meat products undergo a number
of beneficial biochemical changes, nutritional enrich-
ments, and nutraceutical enrichments during the fer-
mentation process by the action of a number of
beneficial microorganism and the enzymes and sec-
ondary metabolites produced by them (Vijayendra &
Halami 2015). The process of fermentation of food
increases the shelf-life of the food with the produc-
tion of organoleptic properties with increased nutri-
tional and nutraceutical potential (Parvez et al. 2006).
The process of fermentation of foods helps to increase
a number of secondary metabolites and bioactive
compounds in the food that provide it antimicrobial
and antioxidant potential to the food (Vijayendra &
Halami 2015).
A number of fermented foods and beverages that
are abundantly consumed by the local tribes in and
around the entire northeastern region of India possess
a number of health benefits as well as nutritional

Figure 2. Chemical structure of selected bioactive compounds from various traditional fermented foods found in northeast states of
India.
and nutraceutical potential. They provide increased
nutrition such as proteins, vitamins, added minerals
and phytochemicals, phytosterols, and dietary fibers
to the consumer (Figure 2) (Vijayendra & Halami
2015). Kinema, a fermented product of the northeast-
ern region, showed increased level of total content
of amino acids, riboflavin, and niacin, which possess
cholesterol-lowering effects (Sarkar & Tamang 1995;
Sarkar et al. 1996, 1998; Tamang & Nikkuni 1998).
Kinema is rich in linoleic acid (Sarkar et al. 1996)
and contains all essential amino acids (Sarkar et al.
1997). Kinema has antioxidant activities (Tamang et al.
2009). Hentak is a traditional fermented fish paste pre-
pared in the state of Manipur. It is sometimes given to
women in the final stages of their pregnancy (confine-
ment) or patients recovering from sickness or injury
(Sarojnalini & Singh 1988). Similarly, Chyang, a fer-
mented finger millet, is given to the women post-
delivery to increase their internal strength (Thapa
& Tamang 2004). Sinki, a radish tap-root fermented
product, is used by the local tribes as a cure against
diarrhea and stomach disorders (Tamang 2010). Gun-
druk improves the milk efficiency in new mothers
(Tamang & Tamang 2010). Gundruk soup is eaten as
a good appetizer and possesses a higher quantity of
ascorbic acid, lactic acid, and carotene with anticancer
FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 303
properties (Tamang et al. 2005). The fermented bam-
boo shoots, which are rich in phenolic compounds and
tannin, possess antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-aging
properties (Tamang & Tamang 2009a). Beside this, the
fermented food products are a rich source of vitamins,
minerals, essential amino acids, and fatty acids that are
essential for the growth and development of human
health.
Fermented rice bran has been reported to possess
anticancer properties against various types of can-
cers, including colon, stomach, and bladder (Phut-
thaphadoong et al. 2009). The fermented rice beer
is rich in a number of bioactive compounds, such
as maltooligosaccharides such as maltotetrose, mal-
totriose, and maltose, which are low in calories,
inhibit the growth of intestinal pathogenic microor-
ganisms, and are very nutritious for infants and the
elderly (Ghosh et al. 2015). Apart from these, due to
the process of fermentation, a number of pyranose
derivatives such as 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-acetyl-4-O-formyl-
D-glucopyranose, b-D-mannopyranose pentaacetate,
2,3,4,5-tetra-O-acetyl-1-deoxy-b-D-glucopyranose,
and b-D-galactopyranose pentaacetate, along with
phenolic and flavanol group of compounds are
also accumulated in the rice beer. These provide
elevated antioxidant, antimutagenic, cardiovascular,
304 G. DAS ET AL.
free radical scavenging, and immune-stimulatory
activities (Das et al. 2014; Ghosh et al. 2015; Ray et al.
2016).
Traditional wild foods of northeast India and
their potential medicinal uses
The use of wild plants as food is an essential part of the
culture and tradition of many aboriginal communities
around the world (Konsam et al. 2016). A large section
of the rural population meets their dietary require-
ment by consuming various wild plants and animal
resources available around them (Konsam et al. 2016).
Wild edible plants (WEPs) constitute an indispensable
constituent in the disparity of diet and bring house-
hold food security of many traditional communities
found in different parts of the world (Schippmann
et al. 2002).
The northeast region of India is biodiversity hotspot
with a number of mountains and rich floral resources
where many ethnic communities live. WEPs are exten-
sively consumed by the local people in this region.
These WEPs play a vital and significant role for the
sustenance of the ethnic communities dwelling in this
region and also these edible plants are a source of
bread and butter for them (Konsam et al. 2016). How-
ever, study on these WEPs received very little attention
and many of them are largely ignored and remained
unexplored.
WEPs are species that are neither cultivated nor
domesticated, but available from their natural habi-
tat and used as sources of food and nutrition in the
population (Table 2, Figure 3). Various studies have
found WEPs as potential sources of nutrition, and
in many cases they are more nutritious than conven-
tionally eaten crops (Grivetti & Ogle 2000). Besides
the use of wild fruits as a source of food and nutri-
tion, they are also utilized as a coping strategy during
times of food scarcity, particularly in developing coun-
tries where food insecurity is more acute. Wild edible
fruits that are obtained from these wild plants are
important constituents of the biodiversity and they are
highly exploited for the livelihood of the tribal peo-
ple of northeastern India, especially Nagaland. Wild
fruits generally help in bringing variety in the other-
wise bland diet of the tribal people along with pro-
viding a nutritional balance to the tribal food habit.
Some of the main fruits that are generally used by
the people of Nagaland and the tribes of northeast-
ern India are discussed here. These fruits are taken
for their nutritional as well as medicinal and economic
values.
Some of the most common fruits that are used by
the tribal people for their medicinal effects against
various diseases such as stomach disorders, intestinal
worms, cough, cold, and fever are elaborated below
(Table 3). Aegle marmelos, commonly known as bael,
is generally eaten raw or ripe. Its juice is made into a
refreshing drink. On the other hand, the unripe bael
fruits are effective against diseases such as chronic
diarrhea and dysentery. Besides, the unripe green fruit
is sliced into small pieces, dried in the sun, and then
made into powder for their potential application as tra-
ditional medicine against constipation (Sharma et al.
2007). The ripened fruit of Rhus javanica is an effec-
tive cure for diarrhea and dysentery. These are some of
the wild fruits that are much used by the tribal people
for indigenous methods of cure for diseases. Eryngium
foetidium is widely used to impart flavor to traditional
curries and meat preparation. In addition, the decoc-
tion of the fruits is used for curing dysentery. The juice
obtained from the leaves is applied on the forehead for
lowering the fever, as it has a cooling effect. Another
plant used as a cure for diarrhea and dysentery is Eurya
acuminate. This is also widely eaten as a vegetable. It
also has an emetic and purgative effect, which makes
it a popular traditional medicine. Myrica nagi bark is
acrid, pungent, and bitter in taste and has applications
in the remedy for anemia, asthma, bronchitis, cough,
chronic dysentery, fever, liver complaints, piles, sores,
ulcers, and urinary discharges (Panthari et al. 2012).
On the other hand, oil extracted from Myrica esculenta
is used as a tonic and is effective for the treatment of
various diseases such as earache, headache, diarrhea,
and paralysis. These two plants are widely used among
the tribal people of northeastern India and hence they
face a threat of extinction (Panthari et al. 2012). Ben-
incasa hispida is also used by the tribal people as a
diuretic tonic. The drug is traditionally prepared by
extracting juice from the fruits (Rout et al. 2012).
Houttuynia cordata, locally known as ‘Mosandri,’ is
used by the tribal people as a regular food. The leaves
are boiled and the juice is taken as a drink for treat-
ing intestinal worms (Roy et al. 2012). Alpinia nigra
is another plant that is widely used by the tribal peo-
ple for its anti-helminthic properties. The shoot of the
plant as well as a part of the rhizome is generally used
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 305

Table 2. Plants with wild edible fruits and vegetables of northeastern states of India.
Botanical Name Local name Family Growth type
Adhatoda vasica Sorukni/vasaka Acanthaceae Shrub
Aegle marmelos Bael Rutaceae Tree
Alpinia nigra Kashapro Zingiberaceae Herb
Antidesma bunius Somkong Euphorbiaceae Tree
Ananas comosus Anarus Bromeliad Herb
Ardisia sp Dokling Myrsinaceae Large Shrub
Artocarpus chama Cham kothal Moraceae Tree
Baccuarea ramifolira Leteku Euphorbiaceae Tree
Bauhinia purpurea Levosii Caesalpiniaceae Tree
Benincasa hispida Panilou Cucurbitaceae Creeper
Begonia picta Makhrabi Begoniaceae Herb
Cinnamomum tamala Kokheisii/Tsungrung Lauraceae Tree
Cylanthera pedata Caigua Cucurbitaceae Creeper
Dillenia indica Hatitenga Dilleniaceae Tree
Diospyros kaki Khradashi Ebenaceae Tree
Dioscorea pentaphylla Kophrehro Dioscoreaceae Climber
Docynia indica Soh pho Rosaceae Tree
Docynia hookeriana Tama Rosaceae Tree
Elaeagus latifolia Soh-shang Elaeagnaceae Shrub
Elaeagus pyrformis Heiyai Elaeagnaceae Wooden shrub
Emblica officinalis Jakhethi Euphorbiaceae Tree
Eryngium foetidum Burma donia Apiaceae Herb
Eurya acuminata Moriisii/ Alumeset Theaceae Small tree
Ficus auriculata Mondimoru Moraceae Tree
Houttuynia cordata Mosondari Saururaceae Herb
Ipomoea aquatic PaniKolmou Convolvulaceae Herb
Juglans regia Walnut Juglandaceae Tree
Lagenaria pimpinellifolium Tomator Solanaceae Herb
Litsea citrata Shulongthi Lauraceae Tree
Mangifera indica Aam Anacardiaceae Tree
Mansonia dipikai Badam Creeper
Melastoma malabathricum Beyo/ Chuthuksuru Melastometaceae Shrub
Melia azadirach Ghoora-Neem Meliaceae Tree
Mucuna pruriens Bander kokua Fabaceae Climber
Musa flaviflora Kol Shrub
Myrica nagi Sohphie Myricaceae Small tree
Myrica esculenta SohPhienam Myricaceae Small tree
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nongmangkha Acanthaceae Shrub
Prunus cerasoides Pfovashi Rosaceae Tree
Pyrus pashia Naspati Rosaceae Small tree
Roydsia suaveolens Hamvuthi Capparidaceae Climber
Rhus javanica Thumpak Anacardiaceae Tree
Shorea assamica Mekai Dipterocarpaceae Shrub
Solanum kurzii Kantakari Solanaceae Shrub
Solanum torvum Ehiishikhokha Solanaceae Shrub
Stereospermum chelonoides Paroli Bignoninaceae Small Tree
Swertia chirata Chirata Gentianaceae Herb
Syzygium cuminii Khorjam Myrtaceae Tree
Terminalia bellirica Bhomura Combretaceae Tree
Ziziphus mauritiana Ber Rhamnaceae Shrub
Zanthoxylum armatum Oramomoshi Rutaceae Shrub

by the indigenous tribal people of Tripura as a veg-
etable. Medicinally, the aqueous juice of the shoots is
used for treating intestinal worms and parasites (Roy
et al. 2012). Adhatoda vasica is generally used by the
tribal people for treating intestinal worms (Sivanathan
2013). Another plant considered more or less simi-
lar to A. vasica in its medicinal properties is Phlo-
gacanthus thyrsiflorus. Fruits and leaves of this plant
are burnt and then used as a special treatment for
fever. Curry prepared from the aerial portion is given
orally with rice, once daily until cured (Kalita & Kalita
2014). Fruits and leaves are used by the Karbi tribes
of Assam in a similar way (i.e. by burning) and used
as a special treatment for fever. The flowers, on the
other hand, have proven to be effective against pox,
skin diseases like sores and scabies (Phurailatpam et al.
2014). Another plant with a decent medicinal value,
Antidesma bunius, is used by the people of Mizo-
ram. The fruits of this particular plant are effective
against gastric intestinal problems. Apart from that,
the matured leaves of this plant are used as an antidote
to snake bites, and the young leaves are boiled and used
against the disease, syphilis, and various skin disorders
(Hazarika et al. 2012).
306 G. DAS ET AL.
Figure 3. Some of the wild edible fruits found in northeast states of India.
Among the common wild herbs and vegetables are
wild banana, wild brinjal, and tomato. There are plants
or plant parts like yam, mustard leaf, and wild cabbage
that are preserved for lean and thin periods by dry-
ing. Another wild plant profusely found in the forests
of Nagaland is bamboo (Jamir et al. 2010). Its shoot
is preserved by an indigenous method and is kept in
an airtight container with water for further use. Bam-
boo shoots are among the most commonly eaten food
items, after meat. In Nagaland the wild fruits are in
great demand and hence are sold for higher prices
than fresh fruits. Some families depend entirely on
wild fruits, wild vegetables, and wild honey for their
income and livelihood (Jamir 1995). Besides these, var-
ious edible algae are also part of the traditional food
system of the tribal people of the northeastern states
of India (Das 2016). The study of WEPs is important
not only for identifying potential sources of alternative
 FRONTIERS IN LIFE SCIENCE 307

Table 3. Uses of different plants as fruit and for other medicinal purposes.
Botanical name Use of fruits as food Other medicinal uses Reference
Adhatoda vasica Fruits are eaten both in raw and cooked Removal of intestinal parasites and for Yadav and Tangpu, (2012)
form treating cold and cough
Aegle marmelos Eaten ripen or to make chutney and Unripe fruits are used to cure diarrhea Ngachan et al. (2005)
also as fruit drink and dysentery
Alpinia nigra Tender shoot and rhizomes are eaten Aqueous juice of shoots have Roy et al. (2012)
as cooked vegetable anti-helminthic properties
Antidesma bunius Fruits are eaten ripe Ripened fruits are also used against Chakraborty and Chaturvedi (2014)
gastric intestinal problems
Ananas comosus Fruits are eaten raw and as salad Fruits are known to contain active Hore (2001)
digestion properties
Ardisia sp Fruits are eaten raw Fruit eaten as an appetizer Pegu et al. (2013)
Artocarpus chama Ripe fruits are eaten Fruits are known to possesses high Jamir et al. (2010) and Jamir (1997)
nutritional value
Baccuarea ramifolira Pulp of fruit is eaten and tender shoots Fruits have high commercial value Pegu et al. (2013) and Rout et al. (2010)
are cooked and are sold in local markets for
livelihood
Bauhinia purpurea Eaten as cooked vegetable Fruits and flowers are an excellent Shankar et al. (2014)
source of essential aromatic oils
Benincasa hispida Fruits are used as a vegetable in Fruits of this plant are traditionally used Seshadri and Srivastava (2002) and
making salad as a laxative, diuretic tonic Renner and Pandey (2013)
Begonia picta The skin is peeled off and the fruit is They are a good source of vitamin C Pfoze et al. (2014)
eaten raw and is used to prevent scurvy
Cinnamomum tamala Added to curry to give more flavor Used as spices and for preservation of Jamir et al. (2010)
food
Cylanthera pedata Fruit is predominantly used as a Fruits have high commercial values Sharma et al. (2007) and Renner and
vegetable Pandey (2013)
Dillenia indica Fruit is taken raw and also as vegetables Fruit pulp is used in Indian cuisine in Gogoi and Zaman (2013)
and pickle curries, jam (ouu khatta), and jellies
Diospyros kaki Ripe fruits are eaten raw Fruit can be powdered and used as a Sarmah et al. (2006) and Deb et al.
sweetener (2013)
Dioscorea pentaphylla Roasted bulbils are used as food Fruits are used for the commercial Dutta (2015)
synthesis of cortisone
Docynia indica Fruits are eaten when half ripen Used to make local pickle Pfoze et al. (2014)
Docynia hookeriana Both fully and half-ripe fruit is edible Young shoot are used as curry and Rai et al. (2005)
pickles
Elaeagus latifolia Fresh fruit used for Jam, jelly, and Fruits are mainly used in preserves and Patel et al. (2008)
refreshing drink pies
Elaeagus pyrformis Fresh fruit used for jam, jelly, and Commercial cultivated as source of oils Seal (2011) and Khomdram et al. (2014)
refreshing drink
Emblica officinalis Fruits are eaten raw and are also used Effectively used against stomach Hore (2001)
as pickle problems and as an immune-
stimulant
Eryngium foetidum Added to meat curry to give more Paste is used for burns, earache and Sanglakpam et al. (2012)
flavor and taste; also used for fever
making chutney
Eurya acuminata Eaten as cooked vegetable Fruit and seeds are emetic and Changkija (1999) and Jamir and Rao
purgative and used in diarrhea (1990)
Ficus auriculata Ripe fruits are eaten raw Fruits are used for making various Pegu et al. (2013)
products such as squash, jam and
jelly
Houttuynia cordata Fruits are used as chutney and as curry Used as curative for intestinal worm Pegu et al. (2013)
flavor infections
Ipomoea aquatic Fruits are eaten fried Used as vegetables and cooked with Gogoi and Zaman (2013) and Jamir
dry fish and Rao (1990)
Juglans regia Nut is eaten raw Used to treat diabetes mellitus Ngachan et al. (2005)
symptoms and also have commercial
applications
Lagenaria pimpinellifolium Fruits are cooked as vegetable and as Fruits have good commercial value and Seshadri and Srivastava (2002)
chutney and pickle also used as ornaments
Litsea citrata Fruits are uses as spices and essential Used as oils to cure skin diseases Jamir et al. (2008)
oils
Mangifera indica Fruit is eaten raw when ripe; unripe Have good commercial value; fruits are Ngachan et al. (2005)
fruits are used to make pickles used in curries and as substitute for
lemon
Mansonia dipikai Nut is eaten raw, fried, and boiled Have medicinal properties against Bareh (2001)
various ailments
Melastoma malabathricum Ripened fruits are eaten raw Traditionally used to stain teeth in dark Jamir et al. (2010) and Potsangbam
and for local ink and dyeing cotton et al. (2008)
fabrics

(continued).
308 G. DAS ET AL.

Table 3. Continued.
Botanical name Use of fruits as food Other medicinal uses Reference
Melia azadirach Fruits are eaten raw Used as insecticidal agent Lokho (2012)
Mucuna pruriens Seeds are carefully removed from pods Fruits are used against bronchitis and Kalita and Kalita (2014)
and cooked pneumonia
Musa flaviflora Fruits are eaten after ripening Traditionally used in festivals and also Dey et al. (2014)
have commercial values
Myrica nagi Consumed as pickle Useful in fever, cough, and infection of Kayang (2007) and Maikhuri and
throat; oil is used against earache, Gangwar (1993)
diarrhea, and paralysis
Myrica esculenta Refreshing drink Unripe fruits are used as cure for Laloo et al. (2006)
dysentery
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Fruits and seeds are eaten raw or Stimulates nervous system, improves Shankar et al. (2014)
cooked circulation
Prunus cerasoides Ripe fruit eaten raw and seeds are uses Fruits and leaves are used as green dye Deb et al. (2013)
as ornamental
Pyrus pashia Fruits are eaten raw Ripe fruit can be used as a cure for Rehman et al. (2014)
conjunctivitis
Roydsia suaveolens Fruits are eaten when ripened and is Dried powdered are used as fragrant Jamir (1997)
also used as ornaments
Rhus javanica Fruit juice is used or fruit is boiled and Useful for treating coughs, dysentery, Mao et al. (2009)
drunk as juice and diarrhea
Shorea assamica Fruit is either eaten raw or roasted or Commercially important Bareh (2001)
cooked
Solanum kurzii Dried fruits are eaten Ripe fruits act as appetizers Mao et al. (2009) and Yadav and
Tangpu (2012)
Solanum torvum Roasted fruits are used for making Fruits have high economic value and Pegu et al. (2013) and Lokho (2012)
chutney are sold in markets
Stereospermum chelonoides Fruits are mostly eaten raw Fruit juice is given to cure dysentery Das et al. (2008) and Jamir et al. (2010)
Swertia chirata Dried fruits are taken as food source Unripe and half-ripe fruits are used to Ngachan et al. (2005)
improve appetite and digestion
Syzygium cuminii Ripe fruits are eaten raw Fruits are used in treatment of chronic Shankar et al. (2014)
diarrhea and other enteric disorders
Terminalia bellirica Raw fruits are eaten and bitter in taste The fruits are rich in tannin and are Uniyal et al. (2014)
used in the leather industry
Ziziphus mauritiana Fruits are eaten raw and are also used The fruit is a good source of carotene, Hore (2001)
as pickle vitamins A and C, and fatty oils
Zanthoxylum armatum Dried or powder fruits are used for Fruits are used in dental troubles and Kala et al. (2005) and Medhi et al.
making chutney with dried fish and their lotion for scabies (2013)
meat

food, but also for selecting promising types for of the northeastern states of India in preparation of
domestication. different types of fermented food items offers an enor-
mous opportunity for the development of various
food industries related to fermented products, quality
Conclusion improvements, and enhanced wider-scale marketing.

Traditional foods, wild fruits, and fermented fruits

and vegetables contain a diverse group of prebiotic
compounds that attract and stimulate the growth of
probiotics. Basic understanding about the relation-
ship between food, beneficial microorganisms, and
health of the human being is important to improve
the quality of food as well as prevention of sev-
eral diseases. Furthermore, concern and awareness
among the consumers about the type and quality
and the raw materials used for preparation of var-
ious types of fermented food products and their
safety is continually increasing. Although there are
a number of challenges in the processing and pro-
duction of various fermented food products, it is
clear that the traditional knowledge of the natives
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the local people of the northeastern states
of India for giving us information on various indigenous tribal
foods and their beneficial effects. This study was supported by
the Agricultural Research Center funded by the Ministry of
Food, Forestry, and Fisheries, Republic of Korea.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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