CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Background of the Study

The Kto12 curriculum has included the ‘21 st Century Literature from the

Philippines and the World’ to the core subjects of the senior high school students. Based

on the curriculum guide, the said covers literary texts from the pre-colonial up to

contemporary literature. A lot of materials and strategies exist in study of the pre-

colonial, regional and canonical works published before the twenty first century, but there

is still an existing doubt in what should be included in (Cruz, 2017) and how should it be

taught (Cabrera, 2017) in the study of the contemporary literature. This is because 21 st

literature is often disparaged as inferior in quality and content as compared to their social

realist predecessor (Cruz, 2017; Michael, 2018, Rawson, 2018) for the former’s

involvement of scientific extrapolations, magic, horror and fantastic adventures in

alternative worlds (Howze, 2017; Hunter,2013; Krake,2017; Lilly, 2002; Nacino, 2015;

Shimkus, 2012; The Speculative Fiction Foundation, 2004). Thusly, the 21st in the

subject 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World is often neglected in

senior high school classrooms. Though the said social realist predecessors are considered

the best specimen of Philippine literature and symptomatic of Filipino identity, they may

not suffice in encapsulating the experiences, views, sentiments and responses of the

Filipinos in the context of the 21st century world. Hence, there is a need for the inclusion

of 21st century Philippine fiction in the study of literature in the senior high school

classroom.

Subversive extrapolation of alternate worlds is the backbone of the 21 st century

literary trend, speculative fiction. Robert Heinlein used the term speculative to refer to

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texts that speculate on possibilities that oppose established rules in the real world. Stories

lend human beings a sense of control over the world (Delistraty, 2014) as it allows them

to “envision possibilities outside immediate reality” (Zaidi, 2019). This allows human

beings to escape a space of discontent for a locus that could either be completely detached

from or merely a reinvention of an existing order—an alternative world where the

nameless absences are named and fulfilled, and the nameless unconquerable presence can

be defied if not defeated.

By re-presenting human conditions in the natural world through its invented

fantastic worlds (Alfar & Alfar, 2013), speculative fiction attempts to: name the nameless

lacks that encumber association of identity; and, give a name and body to the system that

instigates the lacks or gaps in the society. By naming what is missing or deprived from

whom by who, the texts examine established systems in a new light and allow the readers

to question the validity of such systems (social commentary) thereby spawning resistance

against existing unjust social systems (insurrectionary tool). Moreover, departing from

the mimicry of a single accepted reality (Howze, 2017; Hunter, 2013; Lord, 2016;

Oziewicz, 2017), speculative texts present the natural as unnatural, and the strange as

normal, evoking in the readers a cognitive estrangement. To Cabrera (2017), cognitive

estrangement is a momentary mental disconnection—similar to the combined effects of

shock and awe—that counters the numbing effect of habit resulting from long exposure to

unquestioned and unexamined orders. Hence, speculative stories’ fictionality and

fantastic elements allow them to present subjects deemed problematic like race, religion,

gender and sexuality (Obeso, 2014; Howze, 2017; Cabrera, 2017), and challenge societal

values (Zaidi, 2019) that encumber the said subjects without risking censorship. Because

of this, from a category that used to refer only to the convergence of people and science,

eventually, speculative fiction became an overarching category for texts that illustrate

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human beings’ discontent of the world, altered relationship with reality, impulse for

invention, and the evolving literary scene. Literary forms under speculative fiction

include science fiction, fantasy, horror, dystopia, and magic realism (Howze, 2017;

Hunter, 2013; Krake,2017; Lilly, 2002; Nacino, 2015; Shimkus, 2012; The Speculative

Fiction Foundation, 2004;).

Philippine Speculative fiction as a 21st century literary form has not yet been

thoroughly explored and examined in the classrooms for the reservations about its

literariness. Although often prejudiced to be shallow and unrefined compared to its social

realist predecessor (Michael, 2018), speculative fiction are literature of resistance (Suvin,

1979) and social commentary (Cabrera, 2017; Shimkus, 2012) as through their

inventedness and inventiveness, they bend and reinvent existing established orders from

the real world into the imagined world (Hunter, 2013; Neugebauer, 2014; Oziewicz,

2017; Suvin, 1979).

The inclusion of speculative stories in the literature education, specifically in the

senior high school’s core subject, 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the

World may help improve students’ literary skills and understanding of the present world

they live in. Speculative stories, being an extrapolation of alternative worlds with

alternative social orders, may help the students see the established rules in the society in a

new light thereby motivating them to examine, evaluate and question the system

surrounding them. Moreover, as speculative fiction serves as a locus for naming the

absent if not the deprived from the human beings’ existence, studying these texts may

help the readers identify the object that could fill in the lack thereby opening a possibility

for an actual pursuit of this object in the real world. The mentioned merits of the

Philippine Speculative fiction cater to the Philippine educational goal of producing

holistically empowered graduates whose education is grounded on creativity, critical

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thinking, collaboration, lifelong learning, and productivity (Partnership for 21 st Century

Skills, 2008; Rosario, 2017; Department of Education Primer, 2011; Senior High School

Manual of Operations, n.d). Cabrera’s (2017) emphasized that reading quality speculative

stories “trains the mind in creative thinking” as these texts present “alternative futures,

and unconventional problem-solving particularly in the critical analysis of realities”.

Also, since speculative stories raise disturbing questions about the systems in the natural

world (Shimkus, 2012; Tully, n. d.) it counters the numbing effect of habit that creates

unquestioning automatons out of humanity. These implicate that the study of speculative

fiction may help the students improve their creative and critical thinking skills, two

important competencies to survive the challenges of the 21 st century world. Additionally,

speculative stories give voice to the marginalized in the society showing to the readers

that the stories of the people in the periphery matter and are part of the society (Brown in

Obeso, 2014). This may help students develop empathy and tolerance for diversity which

are also, essential to attain harmony and collaboration in the school, the workplace, the

community and the world at large.

The overlooking of the merits of the said literary category could be addressed by

refocusing the surface of the text to the implicit system of the narratives to bring out not

just what the texts mean, but also how they mean what they mean. The given assertion

implies two things: (1) in the subject, 21st Century Philippine Literature from the

Philippines and the World, the texts that must be read are texts written and published in

the 21st century; and, (2) these texts must be read using a method designed to reveal their

narrative structure and patterns.

To provide a systematized accounting of the characteristics of these fictions, the

study uses the structuralist method of literary analysis. In the structuralist perspective,

literary texts are not the meanings themselves but the mode of communication of

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 meanings. Structuralist method aims not in extracting an interpretation, but in examining

literary significations through description of the implicit literary operations responsible

for the different interpretations (Culler, 1981). By unravelling implicit structures and

rules that create a piece of literature (Malik, et al, 2014), the study may reveal the

recurrent patterns and motifs in the texts responsible for how literature means.

The structuralist analyses with which the present study is concerned is Roland

Barthes’ narrative analysis. In his analytical method, a text is sectioned into segments of

varying lengths called “lexias” (Barthes, 1974,) which are examined individually then

grouped and regrouped to track and articulate processes involved in the meaning-making

of a text (ibid, pp. 14-15). Subsequently, Barthes identify the codes that operate in the

different segments and groups of segments in a text. In S/Z (1974), Barthes identified five

narrative codes: the hermeneutic, proairetic, semantic, symbolic and cultural. These

narrative codes determine the system—features and their structural relations– responsible

for how a literary work means. Banking on this, the present study uses Barthes’ five

narrative codes to unravel the features of the selected Philippine speculative fiction and

the network in which these features operate.

In this light, the present study has been conceived. The study described the

structure of the Philippine Speculative Fiction in English as basis for the design of a

pedagogical model.

Literature Review

Speculative fiction is one of the emerging trends in contemporary Philippine

literature, and due to its newness, there are still no standards and tools for critical reading,

instruction and discussion for these texts. Thusly, this study examined Philippine speculative

5
stories to discover the structure of the said texts which served as basis for the development of

a pedagogical model.

Conceptual Literature

Speculative Fiction

The origin of speculative fiction is still contested by scholars and critics.

Some scholars believed that speculative texts can be traced to ancient Latin

works (Roberts, 2000 in Boogaerdt, 2013) while others pointed out Plato's

Republic, one of the first utopian texts, and Lucian's True Histories which

features travels to the moon (Stableford, in Boogaerdt,2013). Others identified

Thomas More’s Utopia (1516), John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667), and Jonathan

Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels (1726) as speculative literary precursors (Stableford,

ibid.,).

Boogaerdt (2013) implied that speculative fiction started with Jules Verne

and H. G. Wells. Verne’s works include Journey to the Centre of the Earth

(1863), Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea (1870) and Around the Moon

(1870). These texts according to Stableford in Boogaerdt (2013) were "carefully

constrained extrapolations of contemporary technology". On the other hand, H.

G. Wells worked on "a broader speculative genre, which journalists and

reviewers labelled 'scientific romance'" (Stableford in Boogaerdt, 2013).

Another writer who explored of storytelling was Edgar Rice Burroughs who

published his Under the Moon of Stars in 1912 (Scholes and Rabkin, in

Boogaerdt, 2013). Burrough’s novels were imaginative but didn’t have literary

merit as his works weren’t technologically plausible and merely used outer space

as a background for romance and drama (Scholes & Rabkin in Boogaerdt, 2013).

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 Some accounts reflect speculative stories to have started to develop in pulp

magazines that cater to action-based escapism that followed Burrough’s mode of

writing (Boogaerdt, 2013). These pulp fictions began taking shape as a genre

when in 1926, Hugo Gernsback launched his magazine, Amazing Stories (ibid.,

p.8).

Conversely, in Britain and the rest of Europe, speculative fiction underwent a

different development as more writers wrote “emotionally powerful, demanding

and socially aware" fiction (Scholes and Rabkin in Boogaerdt). European writers

like Aldous Huxley, Olaf Stapledon, Karl Capek and Yevgeni Zamyatin turned

scientific romance into a literary form that “could be taken seriously even by

literary critics” (James, 1994 in Boogaerdt, 2013). These writers were followed by

North American authors like Theodore Sturgeon, Isaac Asimov, A.E. van Vogt

and Robert A. Heinlein between 1940 and 1960 and of bestselling works like

J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings (1954-1955), Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange

Land (1961), and Frank Herbert’s Dune (1965) (Cabrera, 2017; Boogaerdt, 2013).

As more stories appeared on the fringe of other literary categories, publishers

and bookstores began clumping in the science fiction rack, stories that speculate

about the past and the future without a stronghold of science or without having

awareness of science at all. Many emergent stories in the 20th and 21st century are

in this periphery since they are not exactly sci-fi, or fantasy, or romance or

supernatural. Sterling (1989) in Atwood (2014) called them slipstreams which

hints their slippery hold on categories.

Fiction in this storytelling mode deals with extrapolating imaginary

worlds based on scientific rules. The term “speculative fiction” which was used

7
to call this literary current is attributed to sci-fi writer, Robert A. Heinlein in

1947. It was first used to describe fiction which deals with speculating the

possible effects of the convergence of people and technology but eventually

became an umbrella category for science fiction, fantasy, horror, dystopia, and

magic realism (Howze, 2017; Hunter,2013; Krake,2017; Lilly, 2002; Nacino,

2015; Shimkus, 2012; The Speculative Fiction Foundation, 2004). To Zero

(2013) however, speculative fiction aren’t just collections of sci-fi, fantasy and

horror as for him it does more than speculate. All fictions speculate and imagine

(Shimkus, 2012; Zero, 2013), but for them to be considered speculative, they

must be about events that contrast everyday human experience (Shimkus, 2012;

Zero, 2013; Krake, 2017).

Speculative stories answer the question “what if?” not by merely giving

extraordinary characters or plots but by proposing a space and a time

(Neugebauer, 2014; Shimkus, 2012, Lilly, 2002) that insist the possibility of

scenarios that defy a universal truth and allow multiple truths to exist. It

speculates on the possible effects of altering the established rules (Neugebauer,

2014) of the empirical world through the fantastic or the scientific which evoke

wonder, desire and estrangement. Bowlin (n.d.) of Shadowkeep Magazine added

that the world of speculative stories is one where anything can happen as it is

beyond reality pushing “the traditional limits of genre” and exaggerating “the

unusual in order to get something truthful about human experience” (The Review

Review, n.d.).

Many critics listed the subcategories of speculative fiction as the fantasy,

horror, hard and soft science fiction, dystopic, cyberpunk, magic realism and

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alternate histories (Hunter, 2013; Hunter, 2008; Oziewics,2017; Howze, 2017;

Shimkus, 2012; Wolfe, 2005; Lilly, 2002). The following genre are the

subcategories of speculative fiction:

A. Science fiction

Science fiction extrapolates on possible futures, places and

entities based on real scientific theories and scientific facts. Science

fiction continues to evolve as more scientific discoveries are made and

new laws and theories alter or extend previous extrapolations.

1. Hard science fiction

Hard science fiction is given the descriptive word “hard”

because it uses the rules of the world and known scientific

principles in speculating a new situation (Howze, 2017; Wolfe,

2005).

2. Soft science fiction

It is called soft because it isn’t strictly bound to scientific

laws (Wolfe, 2005; Howze, 2017); and because it is based on so

called soft sciences like anthropology, sociology and others

(Wolfe, 2005; Howze, 2017).

B. Space Opera

Space opera may be confused with soft science fiction due to

its quasi scientific laws, however, space operas unlike soft science

fiction may focus only on space adventures with or without any

science on its plot (Wolfe, 2005).

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C. Fantasy

Fantasy is a storytelling where the empirical laws of the

everyday world are replaced by the magical or the strange (Howze,

2017; Swinfen, 1984). Though the story operates on the unreal it is still

cognitive since it follows logical reasoning—logical not in the

naturalistic world, but logical in the locus invented by the author.

1. High fantasy are tales about kingdoms, supernatural or

mythical animals, and multiple forces competing for power or

world dominion using magic or any fantastic means.

2. Low fantasy also tells stories that deal with kingdoms,

magic and supernatural beings, but what differentiates it from

high fantasy is that the former focuses on individual lives of the

protagonists. The conflicts in low fantasy though sometimes

seem grand do not concern the whole kingdom or the whole

magical world (Howze, 2017).

D. Horror

Horror fiction may be considered the middle ground of fantasy

and horror (Howze, 2017) since its terrifying element is a result of

speculated situations based based on following the empirical rules of

the naturalistic world or the rational processes as dictated by the

invented imaginative world.

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E. Magic Realism

Magic realism is “the middle ground between two extremes”

magic and reality (Roh, 1995). The speculativeness of magic realism

lies in its imaginative setting—resembling the naturalistic world—

where magic and ordinary everyday experiences co-exist.

F. Steampunk

Steampunk stories are about characters who question or revolt

against the status quo (Howze, 2017) usually set in the period of steam

technology and mechanical equipment that branches out onto an

alternative development in the future.

G. Dystopic

Dystopic fiction are stories that revolve around undesirable

conditions in the society. It examines the ‘utopian premises” where

political and social systems are based thereby warning against the

negative effects of totalitarian utopianism (Booker, 1994 in Beulen,

2017).

H. Militia

Militia or what Howze (2017) calls wuxia are stories about war

and military experiences. Though wuxia seems to focus on soldiers

and warriors (Howze, 2017), the speculativeness of this type of story is

accounted for by its speculations on military tactics, extraordinary

heroes and adversaries.

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 I. Alternative history

Alternative history attempts to speculate on the blind spots of history

by questioning what would have happened if a particular detail in

history is reversed, changed, or replaced (Leib, 2013 in Cabrera,

2017).

J. Other Sub-genres of speculative fiction

Other subcategories of speculative fiction include superhero stories,

speculative humor, apocalyptic stories and post-apocalyptic stories.

Superhero stories centers on characters with extraordinary abilities

who fight against evil forces. On the other hand, speculative humor or

speculative comedy spans from light humor to absurd comedy to

complex socioeconomic satires (Cabrera, 2017). On the other hand,

apocalyptic stories and movies are also speculative since they deal

with stories the speculate on the possible causes and experiences of

world destruction. Lastly, post-apocalyptic stories, speculates on what

comes after worldwide disaster; hence, predicting outcomes of

speculated phenomena.

Connect what you found out in the general speculative fiction and the

development of PSF.

Is there a specific type that suppptrs filipino thinking or connected to filipino

thoughts? And why may this be the reason for the speculative fiction?

Development of Philippine Speculative Fiction

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 The spread of mass media technology, digital media, and electronic

information networks change the way people think, communicate and interact

(Cabrera, 2017). As life becomes more technologically advanced and societal

norms change, the type of fiction written, published and read by the Filipinos

change also. Cabrera (2017) believed that the infusion of the traditional tropes

of short story, the present Philippine context, and the narrative speculations of

the future gave birth to Philippine Speculative fiction.

It may seem that Filipino speculative stories emerge when Alfar came

out with first volume of Philippine Speculative fiction in 2005, however,

speculative stories have been before that (Nacino, 2015). Ocampo (2017)

asserted that there have been speculative stories in the Philippines for 70

years.

The earliest Filipino science fiction story was 1945’s Mateo Cruz

Cornelio’s Doktor Satan, a novel that speculates on the possibility of

inventing a serum that could bring back the dead to life (ibid., para. 10). On

the other hand, Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo pointed out that Nick Joaquin’s 1947

“Mayday Eve” already used magic realism, and Gilda Cordero-Fernando’s

1965 “Horgle and the King’s Soup” used fairy tale trope (Nacino, 2015). In

1959, Nemesio E. Caravan wrote The Heart of Mathilda (Ang Puso ni

Matilde) another speculative novel that explored the possibility of cross-

species heart transplant (Ocampo, 2017, para. 9, Nacino, 2015). These texts

weren’t labeled as speculative fiction in the past and may not have been

recognized by the past literary standards and conventions.

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 Nacino (2015) asserted that in the 1970s-1990s, Filipino speculative

stories were either printed in local comic books in pulp variety or put on

movie screen. During those times Philippine literature geared towards social

realism as a vehicle for showing social commentaries during the Marcos years

(ibid., para. 11). Though the dominant literary form in those times were

realism, Ocampo (2014) relates that non-realist stories were also published.

There was Jose E. Yap’s Tantaroo in 1971 (Nacino, 2015), and Gregorio

Brillantes’s “Apollo Centennial” in 1981, a dystopic and alternative history

where the Marcos regime never fell (Ocampo, 2017; Nacino, 2015). In 1988,

Alfred A. Yuson published the novel, The Great Philippine Jungle Energy

Café which used magic realism (Nacino, 2015). In 1992 Eric Gamalinda and

Joy Dayrit, and in 1995 Arnel Salgado published short stories which are

speculative in nature (ibid., para. 13).

According to Nacino (2015), the inclusion of “Future Fiction” to the

literary categories in the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards led to the

emergence of more speculative stories. Some of the stories awarded in this

category were Alfar’s “Hollow girl: Romance”, Hontiveros’ “Kaming Mga

Seroks”, and De la Cruz’s “Pamilyang Kumakain ng Lupa” and others (ibid.,

para. 16). In the same decade, Neil Gaiman’s visit to the country led to short-

lived Fully Booked/ Philippine Graphic Fiction Awards which recognized

Casocot’s “A Strange Map in Time” and Co’s “The God Equation” (ibid.,

para. 17).

Avenues opened for Philippine Speculative fiction in an all-fiction

magazine Story Philippines, online website Rocket Kapre, Philippine Graphic

and The Philippine Free Press (ibid., para. 18). These printed and online

14
platforms published F.H. Batacan’s “Keeping Time” and Rochita Loenen-

Ruiz’s “The Song of the Body Cartographer” (ibid., para. 19). University

presses, independent publishers, publishing houses, and ebook publishers

began coming out with speculative fiction titles as well (ibid., para. 20)

Filipino contemporary writer explored writing in different genres

under speculative fiction spanning from scientific, fantasy and horror. In

2003, Alfar’s “Kite of Stars” was published in Strange Horizons, an

international website while in 2005, his novel Salamanca won Palanca Award

for best novel. For fantasy category, Cristina Pantoja-Hidalgo published

speculative fiction anthology, Tales of Fantasy and enchantment in 2008, and

in 2009, Vincent Michael Simbulan published “A Time of Dragons”. Other

fictions under fantasy is Karen Francisco’s 2010 novel, Naermyth, and short

story collections like Casocot’s Heartbreak and Magic (2011) and

Cimafranca’s Unusual Treatment (2011). Horror stories are also rising in the

speculative realm, and some examples were Karl de Mesa’s short story

collection, Damaged People: Tales of Gothic Punk, and Yvette Tan’s Waking

the Dead and Other Horror Stories (2009) (Nacino, 2015).

Other of 21st century fiction about speculative technologies in the

Philippine context were James Dimacali’s “Sky Gypsies” (2007), Charles

Tan’s “A Retrospective Diseases for Sale” (2009), John Philip Corpuz’s

“Prisoner 2501” (2011), Victor Fernando Ocampo’s “Panopticon” (2014),

Isabel Yap’s “Milagroso” (2015), Eliza Victoria’s “Fortitude” (2016) and

Raymond P. Reyes’s “The Romeo Robot” (2016) (Ocampo, 2017).

The readership of Philippine Speculative fiction reaches local and

international audiences and are accepted and taught in universities (Nacino,

15
2015). This reinforces Ocampo’s (2014) claims that the golden age of

Philippine Speculative fiction is now and on-going.

Features of Filipino ??? Speculative fiction

The dominant features of speculative fiction include cognitive

estrangement, novum, extrapolation, sehnsucht (a psychological term

borrowed from a German word sehnen to refer to desire for the nameless),

wonder, and heterotopia (Cabrera, 2017; Wolfe, 2005; James, 2000).

A. Cognitive estrangement

Cognitive estrangement is a term coined by Suvin (1979) to

describe the effect of speculative stories to readers. Estrangement is

derived from Russian formalism’s ostranenie – the act of making

strange that of which is familiar and Bertolt Brecht’s estrangement-

effect – the moment in a work of art when something natural suddenly

is made to appear phenomenal in order to show that established ways

and rules can be changed (Oxford’s A Dictionary of Literary Theory,

2018). Cabrera (2017) described it as a “momentary mental

disconnection” when a person beholds a familiar phenomenon in a

“new, different or alienized” view as well as when a person must look

at an unfamiliar phenomenon in a familiar perspective. On the other

hand, “cognitiveness” in speculative fiction refers to their critical

grounding on reality. Nodelman (1981) pointed out that cognitiveness

and reasoning is a domain of reality while imagination an area of

fiction. Having said this, it is difficult to marry cognitiveness and

estrangement, however, Suvin (1979) sees this illustrated by the

16
awareness and application of the rules of the real world in the weaving

of an imaginative world.

B. Novum

A novum refers to anything that opposes the naturalistic world

(Suvin, 1979). To other researchers, a novum is a familiar object,

character, person or behavior made to appear strange (Cabrera, 2017;

Turan, 2006; Riviere et al, 1986) or something strange depicted as

ordinary which causes readers to experience cognitive estrangement

(Cabrera, 2017). A narrative novum obliges the readers to look at

things differently, thus, breaking what Bertolt Brecht describes as the

paralyzing effect of habit.

C. Extrapolation

Extrapolation, one of the most distinct features of science fiction

and speculative fiction is derived from the term interpolation which

pertains to the process of forming new data based on the distinct set of

known information. Statisticians used this term to refer to the method

of concluding something by studying the patterns within a series of

data (Wolfe, 2005). In the study of fiction, extrapolation is used to

refer to the technique or style of speculating on the possible past or

future. However, extrapolation is not just a simple presentation of an

imaginative world, but as Wolfe (2005) claimed, it is the use of

“cognitive or rational means” to create an “imaginary world or

situation”. Heinlein (1947) in Wolfe (2005) claimed that in speculative

17
science fiction story, established rules of science and facts are

extrapolated to create a framework for new situations. Though

extrapolation has been first associated with predicting the future,

Wolfe (2005) noted that many critics adapted the word to mean

speculations of both the past (cf. alternative history) and the future.

F. Sehnsucht (or desire)

Sehnsucht is a psychological term originated from two German

terms, Sehnen—which means desiring—and Sucht—which means

insatiable craving (Scheibe, 2005 in Gerdin, 2013). Sehnsucht refers to

the intense desires for utopian state of existence—alternative realities

of life—(Gerdin, 2013) which is difficult if not impossible to attain.

The impossibility of attaining this yearning is rooted from the very

namelessness of this longing thereby resulting to human beings’ sense

of incompleteness (cf. Lacan’s psychoanalytic concept of desire).

In the study of fiction, it is used to refer to the “wish-fulfillment”

element of the fantasy stories (Wolfe, 2005) and science fiction.

Bersani (1976) in Wolfe (2005) explains that in fantasy, it refers to the

longing for things which cannot be provided by reality. On the other

hand, in science fiction it refers to what Eizykman (1974) in Wolfe

(2005) describes as the subversion of prevalent systems in the society

through the “idealization of the possible”.

G. Wonder

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 A sense of wonder is one of the effects of speculative fiction on

its readers. In science fiction, wonder gears towards awe of scientific

discoveries or curiosity of the possible effects of these scientific

milestones to human beings and the world. Conversely, in fantasy, it

doesn’t deal with awe of the natural world but the desire (cf.

psychological term sehnsucht) to be transported to a different world

(Wolfe, 2005).

H. Heterotopia

Heterotopia, according to Wolfe (2005) originated from a

medical term which means a dis-placement of an organ or an organism.

In 1968, Robert Plank used heterotopia to describe stories that invent

time and places (Wolfe, 2005). Speculative fiction exhibits heterotopia

as it detaches its narration from the naturalistic world and bring its

readers to a locus—time and place—that operates on alternative

systems.

What about the filipino speculative fiction? Or is that our study?

I am not sure about this part up to 21.

Maybe have them under one sub topic? What are they referring ti? Focus of SF?

Speculative fiction in education what doe sthis mean? Maybe features?

Speculative fiction both entertains and educates readers by its reflection

of and reflection on reality. The defamiliarizing effect of the texts’ novum

create a sense of awe and leaves a strong impact on the teaching of many

values—courage, loyalty, unity and many more— which have already been

taken for granted by humanity.

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 Aside from the impact on values formation, these stories help improve

intellectual inquiry and citizenship (The Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century

Fiction in Shimkus, 2012). These stories open disturbing questions (Tully,

n.d.) that alert readers’ critical thinking and attitude towards the real world

around them. The very speculativeness of these stories give them the freedom

to discuss controversial subjects and issues as well as challenge the status quo

(Howze, 2017; Shimkus, 2012) without the censorship of the political and

social forces in the society (Cabrera, 2017). Through its social commentary

veiled in the fantastic, speculative fiction counters the paralyzing effect of

habit and excites a sense of revolt against the unacceptable rules in the

empirical world.

Speculative Fiction and Resistance what is this?

Science fiction and fantasy are speculative fictions of resistance that

challenge received realities and provide voice to the silenced and the

marginalized members of the society.

Science fiction as a literature of revolt (Suvin, 1979 in Nodelman,

1981) extrapolates futures by speculating effects of altering or extending

received realities. In a similar manner, fantasy as a literature of resistance

comments on real world issues by presenting them in imagined time, place

and situation. Both science fiction and fantasy, through their alternative locus,

estrange people from their assumptions of reality forcing them to see things in

a different angle. The estrangement caused by these speculative narrations

counters what Brecht described as the paralyzing effect of habit. As science

fiction and fantasy forces people to look at familiar as unfamiliar, and normal

20
as strange, they also make people question prevailing systems in real life

hence, leaving wonder and desire amongst people to create change.

Resistance can be observed in speculative texts from and about the

marginalized and the oppressed groups. The texts may not be directly telling

tales of revolution, but by putting marginalized characters at the center as

heroes of the narratives or by presenting real life situations in imagined

worlds, these texts resist and revolt against the hegemony. Speculative

narratives written by and about colored people, women, members of LGBT

community, and disabled individuals exemplify resistance against the

dominant stories in the society.

Afro-futurism and Black arts resist the white supremacist mentality by

speculating alternative worlds and futures where black who are usually in the

periphery are presented as central figures (Asim, 2016). Examples of these are

Douglass’s The Heroic Slave, Martin Delaney’s Blake, DuBois’s Princess

Steel, and “The Comet” (ibid., p. 25).

Speculative fictions do not only create spaces for the excluded but also

examines issues of power struggle. Rape may be represented in speculative

stories differently and may not intentionally be written as a form of revolt, yet

the mere existence of rape in the story provide spaces where the survivors

could speak and where the subjugating use of power can be examined (Davis,

n.d.). Charlaine Harris's The Southern Vampire series of Sookie Stackhouse

novels, Elizabeth Moon's The Deed of Parksenarrion (1992), and Paladin's

Legacy, and David Weber's Honor Harrington series are only a few of the

speculative stories that deal with rape and attempted rape.

21
 Speculative fictions, by situating the empirical world’s problems and

issues in alternative worlds resist against the former’s beliefs and process, and

provide voices to the ones oppressed by those beliefs and processes.

Diversity in Speculative fiction

Science fiction and fantasy challenge boundaries and established

realities (Obeso, 2014; Armitt, 1991) to give voice to the marginalized groups.

Through their speculative quality and fantastic elements, they tell stories

“unconstrained by an expectation to reflect a single view of the world”

(Norton, 2016). They present alternative worlds where diversity is addressed

and multiple voices—the colored, the queer, the women and the disabled—are

represented.

Mainstream publications focus on narratives about and written by

“straight white men” (Obeso, 2014) pushing the colored, the women and the

queer narratives in the periphery of both the literary and the popular realm.

Stories with a black woman or a queer Asian or a disabled hero are rare if not

unheard of and are deemed unmarketable. This longstanding publishing

tradition is problematic as Brown (in Obeso, 2014) noted, it dictates to the

readers what and whose story matters and who plays important role in the

society. The author Beth Cato (in Obeso, 2014) pointed out that the real world

is colorful, hence, the secondary fantasy worlds must be just as colorful.

Thusly, Speculative fiction challenges the norm by attempting to create worlds

with diverse representations.

To represent new voices outside of the mainstream, SF/F publishers

supported emerging authors from marginalized groups and works that

22
illustrate diverse worlds. Examples of publishers and organizations that

support multiculturalism and diversity are Tu Publishing which promotes

multicultural children’s fantasy, and the Speculative Literature Foundation

which supports diverse representations amongst authors and subjects in fiction

(ibid., p. 26). Embracing multiculturalism is not limited to presenting works

about marginalized groups, but as well as presenting cultures from different

countries narrated in translated speculative stories. Examples of translated

speculative stories are Cixin Lu’s The Three Body Problem which sold 1.2

million copies in China, and Ken Liu’s “Paper Menagerie” which won the

Hugo, Nebula, and World Fantasy awards (ibid., p. 30).

Women writers of speculative stories challenge the norms winning in

literary award giving bodies that rarely even recognizes women. Julie Dillon

won Best Professional Artist Award, Kameron Hurley won two Hugos, Sofia

Samatar won the Campbell Award for Best New Writer (ibid., p.30) and Ann

Leckie whose novel Ancillary Justice became the first to win three awards, the

Hugo, the Nebula, and the Arthur C. Clarke (Maher, 2017).

Diversity in speculative fiction is not only about race, gender, and

culture, but as well as ability. Speculative fiction writers and publishers

became bolder in presenting protagonist with mental or physical disabilities

(see Miles Vorkosigan’s hard SF novels featuring disabled protagonists in

1986) intersecting with race, class, gender, and sexuality (ibid., p. 30).

Structuralism is this review

Structuralism is a methodology that seeks to reveal the hidden codes

that propel human emotions and actions. Structuralists likened human culture

23
to language where the former may be understood by unlocking how the

relationships of individual human experiences (Blackburn, 2008; Sturrock,

2003; Hawkes, 2003; Chandler, 2002) create an order, or a system.

Structuralism rooted from Ferdinand Saussure’s works on structural

linguistics, particularly on semiology, the general science of signs. He

proposed a science that could analyze through objective methods all human

sign systems (Allen, 2003). To Saussure, language system is divided into two,

the general rules or conventions that make up the language and the individual

utterances and variations that are derived from the former. Like language,

culture consist of an overarching structure and individual derivations of the

larger system. Saussurean semiology contends that language is made up of

signs which consist of a signified and a signifier where a signifier is the sound

image while the signified is the concept. Saussure pointed out that there is no

specific reason for how one signifier is used to mean a signified, so a meaning

is not achieved on examining an individual sign but on studying the relations

between and amongst them (Saussure, 1959). This contention propels the

structuralist theme that true meanings aren’t inherent in the things themselves,

but in the relations assigned to them or found between them.

Clarke (1981) identified different variations and developments of the

structuralist approach: Levi-Strauss’s examination of symbolic systems,

Barthes’s narratology, Althusser’s structural marxism, Lacan’s “linguistic

idealist reinterpretation” of psychoanalysis and Foucault’s “relativist critique

of the ideological pretensions of the contemporary society”.

24
 Levi-Strauss applied Saussure’s structuralist linguistics in

anthropology where he related human culture to language. The structuralists

see culture as an overarching order where various practices and beliefs can be

derived—the large order being the langue and the individual variations parole

(Dosse,1997). This emphasizes structuralist theme that meanings cannot be

understood by studying units separately, but in examining relations between

them. In structuralist literary approach, the relations of literary texts to an

overarching order like genre, narrative model or a set of recurrent motifs are

studied (Barry, 2002). Hence, to understand the elements of a text is to analyze

their connections, and to understand a text is to analyze its kinship with other

texts. From Levi-Strauss’s structuralist approach, Barthes formulated a clearer

and more developed structuralist analysis.

Barthes and Duisit (1975) claimed that narratives are countless and

ubiquitous as almost everything from literature, history, music and even visual

art possess within them a certain level of narration. To Barthes, these

narratives are not a “random assemblage of events” resulting from chance or

pure genius, rather, a symptom of an underlying system. It is the aim of the

structuralist method of analysis to unravel what the underlying system is.

Following a deductive method, the structuralist proposes to conceive a

hypothetical model that would serve as the bases for the examination of the

“species” of narratives that both share and depart from the model.

To form a model for analysis, Barthes borrowed the linguistic

structural method of analysis. To understand how linguistics work as a model

for the examination of narratives, the relationship of sentence and discourse

must be looked into. A sentence, in linguistic perspective, is the smallest

25
segment perfectly and systematically representative of a discourse. A sentence

can be studied in different levels (phonetic, phonological, grammatical,

contextual) whence each level exists in hierarchical relations with its units and

their correlations, entailing that no unit in a certain level can mean something

unless integrated to a higher level (242). In this light, linguistics provides the

model for the structural analysis of narratives showing that what is necessary

in any system of meaning is its organization thereby clarifying that a narrative

is not merely the totality of its components, but the relationships of the said

components within their organization.

Benveniste in Barthes (1975) proposed two types of relationships

operating in the organization of meaning: distributional and integrative. The

distributional relation exists when the relationship of the units is horizontal or

on the same level while integrative exists if the relationship is vertical or is

taken from one hierarchical level to another. Although it is linguistics that is

used as the model for the analyses, the system of language is not the same with

the system of the narrative. The difference between the linguistic unit and

narrative unit lies in the fact that relationship between narrative units and their

correlates is not distributional but integrative. Thus, to understand a narrative

is not through following the order of the components of a story, but through

accounting the horizontal sequence of these components on a “vertical axis”

thereby giving importance not only to the operations but also to its sections’

connotations.

In this light, the structuralists noted two types of narrative: the

functional and the indicational. The functional narrative is characterized by the

existence of units in syntagmatic relation in which a preceding event in the

26
text can affect the what will happen next. On the other hand, indicational

narrative is characterized by the existence of units in paradigmatic relations in

which a unit or units connote something about the character, the atmosphere or

the theme. Traditional structuralist like Propp adhered to syntagmatic analysis

where the chronological order of the components defined the structure of a

narrative. However, modern structural analyses noted the primacy of logic

over chronology citing that the time structure in a narrative is an illusion.

Following this, the present structural analyses elevates from unravelling the

chronological appearance of events onto the unravelling the logic behind the

chronology of the text.

The said propositions entail that the underlying structure of a narrative

is an interplay of the syntagmatic relation (the segmentation of the units)

responsible for form, and paradigmatic relation (the integration of units into a

superior level) responsible for meaning. Barthes proposed five narrative codes

to analyze the underlying structure of a narrative (Barry, 2002, p.151). These

five narrative codes can be grouped into two: the syntagmatic and the

paradigmatic codes. The syntagmatic code includes the proairetic and the

hermeneutic codes both accountable for the text’s form. On the other hand, the

paradigmatic code includes the semantic, the symbolic and the cultural code

which are accountable for the text’s meaning.

Roland Barthes’s five narrative codes is this part of the review? Shouldn’t

this be part of the discussion? What did you find out in the texts that refer

to any or all of the 5 codes?

27
 A narrative, as a human expression and production can be observed in

different forms and found in different vehicles like myths, fables, epics,

paintings, stained glass windows and many more (p.237). The contention that

narratives may appear in various forms and vehicles raises the dilemma of

whether narrative is “a random assemblage of events” unique to the narrator or

it shares with other narratives an implicit system (238).

The structuralists contend that no narrative can be produced without

referring back to a larger hidden system. However, since the underlying larger

system lies in the unconscious (Barthes, 1975), this structure may only be

unraveled through the examination of the narrative itself. This was further

illustrated by structuralist linguistics’ ideas on sentence and discourse. In this

perspective, sentence is the minimal unit that can systematically represent

discourse. A discourse which is an arrangement of sentences is organized in

such a way that meaning is created. This does not entail that the message of a

discourse lies in the summation of its whole nor in the individual existence of

the sentences but by the observation of how each is connected to another and

how they shape a whole (Barthes,1975). Similarly, in structuralist literary

approach the it is the relationship of the units in the narratives, and the

relationship of the narratives within a genre that account for their meanings.

To understand the overarching structure that shape a text, Roland

Barthes proposed five narrative codes: proairetic code (action), hermeneutic

code (enigma), semic code (connotations), symbolic code (oppositions) and

cultural code (Barry, 2002). By placing literary texts under these five codes,

28
the characteristics as well as the genre of a text or a group of texts may be

discovered.

Barthes’ narrative codes can be categorized into two, the codes that can

be studied syntagmatically and the ones understood paradigmatically (Ali,

2013, p.120). The hermeneutic code and proairetic code can be studied

syntagmatically since their essence unveils in the chronological sequence of the

text.

A. The Hermeneutic Code

The hermeneutic code pertains to the elements of a text that

create mystery which compels the reader to discover more. These

elements can either be an evasion of the truth or a mixture of

evasion and hint of truth (Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014).

B. The Proairetic Code

The proairetic code refers to the actions that create suspense in

the text (Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014). The code of action sustains

the flow of the narrative as it leads to what comes next.

The codes that are free from the chronological sequence can be understood

paradigmatically (Ali, 2013, p.120). These codes include the semantic, the

symbolic and the cultural code.

A. The Semantic Code

29
 The semantic code refers to the elements of the text that give connotative

meaning.

The semantic code is also called the connotative code. This is often found in

the characterization and theme of the text (Barry, 2002, p.151 & Selden,

Widdowson & Brooker, 2005, p.152).

B. The Symbolic Code

This code refers to those elements that show polarities and oppositional

relations. Through the concept of binary oppositions, the structuralist make

sense of reality (Barry, 2002, p.151).

C. The Cultural Code

The cultural code refers to the elements of a text that show cultural reference.

These elements exhibit information that can illumine readers with literary,

historical, physical and other knowledge common to a particular field, place or

group. These codes may include clothing, sayings or practices present in a

certain culture.

The conceptual literature reviewed provide knowledge on the features, types and

development of foreign and local speculative stories. Also, they gave insights on the

relationship of speculative stories to 21st century literature, to education and to social

awareness development. Other related literature reviewed provide brief account of the

development and theme of structuralism. Also, the materials studied illumined the merits of

the structuralist literary approach in unravelling the characteristics of a text or a genre of

literature.

30
Research Literature

Several studies on speculative fiction explored its genre, features, themes and

relationship to society and education. These studies ventured to concretize what speculative

fiction really is amidst the blurry arbitrary conception of speculativeness—the quality of texts

having speculative traits.

Speculative Fiction

The 21st century fiction themes involve scientific extrapolations, magic

realism, re-conceptualized histories and fantastic adventures in alternative worlds

—all of which are grouped under the umbrella category, speculative fiction. This

fiction category is often viewed as popular culture and dismissed as not literary

enough to be studied in the classroom. However, that these texts are written and

published in the 21st century entails that these texts’ themes and narrative features

are symptomatic of the experiences, sentiments and responses of the people in the

contemporary world they live in. In this light, it is only practical that this category

be included in the teaching of the senior high school subject, 21 st Century

Literature from the Philippines and the World.

Several studies (Thomas, 2018; Kelly, 2015; Burnett, 2001) discussed some of

the 21st century issues and themes at the heart of speculative fiction. One of the

important themes is the struggle between the privileged and the underprivileged

group, the dominant center and the invisible if not subjugated periphery. This

theme in the form of racial discrimination is the subject of the study of Thomas

(2018). Thomas (2018) studied the role of racial discrimination in young adult

speculative fiction and examined how people of color struggle to create liberating

alternative worlds. In Toward a Theory of the Dark Fantastic: The Role of Racial

31
Difference in Young Adult Speculative Fiction and Media, Thomas (2018)

explained how the mainstream speculative fiction symbolically mirrors the

violence of the empirical world against the Dark other. The study illumined how

the dark fantastic cycle in the mainstream is interrupted by emancipation or the

transformation of “the objectified Dark others into agentive Dark Ones”. This

means that the Dark other are not at the center of the narrative, rather the victim

emancipated by the narrative’s hero. Thomas’s (2018) study strengthens this

research’s assertion that speculative fiction shows the conditions and experiences

of the underprivileged in the 21st century. Also, the observations of Thomas

(2018) emphasized that speculative fiction, as a social commentary reveals the

need for shifting the focus of narratives from mimicking real-world violence and

emancipation into creating an alternative world where the Dark other is at the

center of his or her own narrative. This light presupposes that speculative stories,

through their fantastic reconceptualization of reality bare the struggle between the

center and the periphery, and call for the decentralization and social reinvention in

the fictional world reflective of the real-world.

While Thomas’s (2018) study focuses on the themes of speculative fiction,

Burnett’s (2015) study focuses on the speculative fiction’s re-inventive ability

which allows it to present accepted world views and orders in a new light which in

turn can encourage a movement for actual change in real life. Following

Hopkinson’s premises on the ability of speculative fiction to re-present “the

colonial, postcolonial and neocolonial conditions”, Burnett (2015) explored how

Okorafor’s post-apocalyptic novels, The Shadow Speaker (2007) and Who fears

Death (2010), memed, critiqued and “pervert[ed]” colonialism. Burnett’s (2015)

observation of the speculative texts’ ability for re-presentation of established

32
world views backed this study’s contention that the reading of speculative stories

may help the senior high school students in the Philippines see established world-

views in a new perspective thereby encouraging critical thinking and pursuit of re-

formation of the conditions passed as acceptable and unchangeable.

Kelly’s (2001) dissertation, on the other hand mentions one of the features of

speculative fiction that lend it its re-inventive ability—scientific extrapolations. In

her dissertation, The Ghost in the Machine, Kelly (2001) investigated the

relationship of futurist literature and science noting how scientific extrapolations

of the unknown attempt to counter the “stagnating” influences of the established

conditions. Kelly’s (2001) dissertation serves as this study’s basis for claiming

that science-anchored speculative fiction reimagines the world by placing side by

side the ordinary and the fantastic to elicit a sense of estrangement that suspends

reception of accepted realities and provokes questioning of the present order and

welcoming of a new.

While there are data about the traits, themes and function of speculative fiction

(Thomas, 2018; Burnett, 2015; Kelly, 2001) which are invaluable in teaching

speculative fiction, they do not provide a tool for the teaching of this genre in the

classroom. The studies of Cabrera (2017) and Shimkus (2010) both focused on the

instruction of speculative fiction.

Shimkus’s (2012) study ventured on the improvement of the instruction of

literature classes, specifically of speculative fiction. In his study titled, “Teaching

Speculative Fiction in College: A Pedagogy for Making English Studies

Relevant”, Shimkus (2012) discussed the pedagogical benefits of speculative

fiction and alternative texts to the teachers handling the literature subject in the

tertiary level and highlighted the need to include more speculative fiction in

33
literature, creative writing and composition classes. Though the study proved the

merits of the inclusion of speculative fiction in the classroom by tracing its

development and themes, his study only used this information to create a syllabi

and activity suggestions for the teachers of the subjects. The syllabi and activities,

however are not applicable to the teaching of Philippine speculative fiction for the

practical reason that the texts in the syllabi are western stories and the suggested

activities were constructed with those texts in mind. Thusly, the present study saw

the need to create a model for instruction that can be used to examine the features

of Philippines speculative texts.

Cabrera (2017), like Shimkus (2010) ventured in exploring speculative fiction

instruction. Cabrera (2017), however, unlike the latter focused on the

classification of Philippine speculative stories. In the study, Systematic Genre

Identification: Nomenclature and Taxonomy of Contemporary Philippine

Speculative Fiction, Cabrera (2017) pointed out that the absence of tools and

standards for the analysis of Philippine speculative fiction is due to the lack of

standard genre for studying this form. He (2017) conducted an exploratory

research and used mixed-methods approach to gather standards for the

classifications of Philippine speculative fiction. Cabrera’s (2017) study identified

the speculative fiction genres as science-fantasy, science-horror, science-

melodrama, science-humor and science romance. Cabrera’s (2017) findings on

speculative genre reiterates the already recognized features of western speculative

stories and used them as means for classifying Philippine speculative stories.

Though the classification of speculative texts may contribute to the understanding

of this genre, it doesn’t provide a tool for the teaching of the speculative fiction as

21st century literature. Hence, the present study saw the need to create a model for

34
the teaching of the narrative structure and features of the Philippine Speculative

stories.

As this study sought to create a model for analyzing and teaching the narrative

structures and features of speculative fiction, the study used the structuralist

method of literary analysis, specifically that of Roland Barthes’ narrative codes.

In the research titled, “Theory into Practice: Application of Roland

Barthes’ Five Codes on Bina Shah’s ‘The Optimist’ “, Malik, Zaib and Bughio

(2013) examined Bina Shah’s The Optimist (2007), using the Roland Barthes’

structural theory’s five codes (the proairetic, the symbolic, the semantic, the

hermeneutic and the cultural) to reveal the selected text’s distinct structure and

features. Malik, et al. (2013) concluded that Shah’s The Optimist demonstrates

content and structural balance by showing the contrast in the characters’

perception of reality and actual reality. Similar to the study of Malik, et al.

(2013), the present research sought to reveal the narrative structure and features

of the selected Philippine speculative fiction and in so doing produce a model

for instruction as a by-product of the study.

Developing materials for Literature Instruction

Several studies about literature instruction and developing instructional

materials were reviewed to help the researcher devise an instructional tool for

teaching Philippine speculative literature.

Ochoa (2015) developed and validated an Outcome-Based Instruction

Module for teaching World Literature to college students. The researcher

designed the module according to William Spady’s outcomes-based concepts:

clarity of focus, designing down, high expectations and expanded opportunities.

35
The module was validated by OBE experts and tried out by professors of

literature. The combination of OBE and the ADDIE instructional model gave

teachers and learners new and practical way of studying literature. Similar to

Ochoa’s (2015) study, the present research sought to create a tool for literature

instruction, however, the difference is that the former’s focus is on enabling the

students to produce outcomes that could strengthen and verify students’ learning

while the latter focuses on determining a process by which a newly recognized

genre, speculative fiction can be discussed.

Quintero (2007) and Coyoca (2012) respectively ventured on

developing modules in teaching literature using the constructivist learning

design. Quintero (2007), Coyoca (2012) developed modules for teaching

selected literary genres to high school students. Like the study of Ochoa

(2015), Quintero’s (2007), and Coyoca’s (2012) focused on the genres that

have been long recognized as part of the literary canon and whose features

have been examined under different literary critical perspectives. Though the

results of their respective studies showed that Gagnon and Collay’s six

elements of constructivism are effective guide in creating an instructional

material, this constructivist guide cannot account for the narrative features of

the Philippine speculative fiction which is the subject of the present study.

Majul (2012), Biares (2010), Belvis (2007) and Villaraiz-Sabordo

(2010) respectively integrated literary theories in designing and constructing

instructional materials in teaching literature. Majul (2012), and Villaraiz-

Sabordo (2010) respectively designed instructional modules using Reader-

Response theories and complementary literary theories as the framework for

teaching British fiction for Majul, and world literature for Villaraiz-Sabordo,

36
respectively. The two studies like the previously discussed did not focus on

21st century texts nor on the methods of analyzing fiction’s narrative structures

and features.

Belvis’s (2007) study applied Kilgore Model of teaching strategy plan

as well as Scholes’ textual power through code recognition and contemporary

literary theories in developing an instructional module. The focus of Belvis’s

(2007) study is raising the level of literary studies in college and “bridging the

gap” between literary criticism and literature instruction.

Lastly, Escamillas (2007) constructed an instructional material using

Feminist analysis of Chick-Lit novels by Filipino women. Like the present

research, Escamillas’s (2007) study dealt with analyzing the narrative structure

of the selected texts, however, Escamillas (2007) employed Claude Bremond’s

logical sequence of narrative function which is only limited to accounting the

order of appearance of narrative units. Though this is valuable in Feminist

analysis in Escamillas’s (2007) study, the present research on speculative

fiction cannot employ the same narrative structure analysis, as the current study

sought to reveal not only the sequential order of units in the speculative texts,

but as well as reveal the indispensable units that account for the narrative

patterns and features of the selected stories.

The related studies on instructional tool development for literature

classes perused in this chapter revealed that at the present time, there are no

instructional materials developed yet for the teaching of the narrative structure

and features of Philippine speculative fiction as a 21 st century literature, hence,

the current study sought to address this gap by designing a model for the

teaching of the said genre of literature.

37
 The literature and studies reviewed explored the classification, features

and themes of speculative fiction as well as its implications in education and

in the society at large. Based on the literature and studies presented,

speculative fiction is a literary form birthed from responses to the different

social conditions and developments. Speculative texts as a respond to the

world, use scientific advancements and the mystical sense of the unknowable

as a platform for weaving alternative worlds that shake the numbing effect of

longstanding social habits. Thusly, the study of speculativeness of Philippine

contemporary fiction will reveal not only the structural and thematic features

of Filipino short stories but will also illumined how Filipinos’ view of the

world and relationship with the multiple realities that surround their identity.

Determining the structural system, the salient features and the position of

Philippine speculative fiction in the literary terrain will contribute in the

improvement of literature instruction.

Research Problems

The study examined the structure of selected Philippine Speculative fiction in

English using Roland Barthes’ five narrative codes. The illumined structure served as the

basis for the development of a pedagogical model. Specifically, the study sought to shed

light on the following:

1. Determine narrative patterns of Philippine speculative stories in terms of Barthe’s

their syntagmatic relations: didn’t we answer implications of this question? Say:

because w eoufn out such and such action, we realize that the Filipino is…

38
 If this is so: can the question be: Determine the patterns of Philippine speculative fiction

in relation to Barthe’s syntagmatic relations to show Filipino culture/values/ etc tect etc ?

a. actions

b. enigma

2. Determine the characteristics of the Philippine speculative stories in terms of their

paradigmatic relations that show Filipino culture necessary to understand Philippine

literature:

a.connotations

b. symbolism

c.cultural references

3. Develop a pedagogic model for teaching Philippine Speculative fiction

All are suggetsions from my end. Remove if not possible.

Theoretical Framework

The researcher examined the selected texts’ minimal units and their narrative system

using structuralist approach. The study chose structuralism as this approach seeks to unravel

the implicit operations through which explicit meanings in the texts are shaped (Culler,

1981). Specifically, the study used Barthes’ five narrative codes which may uncover the

narrative patterns and the inherent features of Philippine Speculative fiction as basis for the

development of a pedagogical model.

Structuralism you have structurialism in review litt. Change that sub topic/title

Structuralism is a deviation from the romantic perspective that human experience is

subjective (Clarke, 1981, p.1; Sturrock, 2003) as it insists on a methodological understanding

39
of the underlying structures in all human experiences (Chandler, 2002; Clarke, 1981, p.2;

Sturrock, 2003; Tyson, 2006, p. 209-210)

In Structuralists’ perspective, meanings are in-built in symbolic systems and are

independent of the external world. What the world looks like and how it works is not exactly

what it is, but how human beings understand it. As symbolic systems make human beings’

notion of reality, there’s no way of understanding reality outside these systems (Clarke, 1981,

p.2; Blackburn, 2008). Hence, structuralism deals mainly with the uncovering of the hidden

codes, rules and systems that shape human beings’ view of reality. The overarching order

that propel all human experiences can be uncovered through the examination of the minimal

units of the larger structure—the recurring individual actions or productions and the relations

of these recurring elements. This theme is derived from the structuralist linguist, Saussure’s

concept of the langue and the parole. To Saussure language system is consist of arbitrary

codes that dictate how expressions in a language must occur, the langue. The langue involves

grammar units and rules that dictate which combinations and arrangements of parts of speech

will result into meaningful sentence. From the set of rules, innumerable forms of expressions

maybe be derived through individual speech. The individual speech derived from the larger

system is referred to us the parole. Without the langue, there could be no meaning behind the

various combinations and arrangements of the parts of speech. However, without the different

derivations from the rules, there could be no actual meaningful expression but just a

repetition of the codes.

Structuralist literary approach treats literature like a language system (Chandler,2002)

where the langue is the set of arbitrary conventions that dictate the literariness of a text, and

the parole is the individual variations made by different authors adhering to the conventions.

As no narrative can be created and recreated without referring back to an overarching

structure (Barthes in The New History, 1975), the structure may only be unraveled by

40
studying the recurring elements and the relations (Hawkes, 2003; Blackburn, 2008) of these

elements in the individual variations of the set. This method may examine literature in two

ways: a.) It may examine the minimal units of a text to uncover the implicit codes which

according to Sturrock (2003) shape a text; and, b.) In a larger scale, it may examine a number

of texts to unravel the hidden system that shapes the genre of the selected texts. All these

entail that the system is primary to the theme (Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014); hence, the

method focuses not on what the text means but how a text means.

Structural Linguistics as a model for Narrative Analysis

A narrative, as a human expression and production is evident in different forms and

found in different vehicles like myths, fables, epics, paintings, stained glass windows and

many other art forms (Barthes & Duisit, p.237). That narratives may appear in various forms

and vehicles raises the dilemma of whether narratives are “random assemblage of events”

resulting from the inherent talent of the author or they are a result of variations and

derivations of an implicit system (ibid., p. 238). That the structuralist believed in the latter,

the goal of this literary approach then is to uncover the underlying structure of units and rules

that make up a narrative.

The main preoccupation of the structuralist approach is to determine the langue from

which various narratives originate and derive (Barthes & Duisit, 1975, p. 238). This is

borrowed from Saussure’s linguistic insights on the langue and the parole. It can be recalled

that Saussure endeavored to make sense of the desultory instances of language and find an

underlying structure from which the different variations are formed. This lead him to the

concept of the langue and the parole. The langue refers to the system of rules and units that

serve as the basis for the formation of intelligible language expressions. The parole, on the

other hand, refers to the individual expressions derived from the langue by the speakers of

41
that language. Following Saussure’s insights, the structuralist seek to make sense of the

seemingly “random assemblage” of expressions that make up narratives and uncover the

underlying system from which different “species” of narratives partake and deviate.

To understand the implicit system of narratives, what the structuralist proposed to be

put under examination is not the external influences surrounding the formation of a narrative

but the narrative itself (Barthes & Duisit, 1975, p. 238). As this may seem problematic due to

an infinite number of narratives in existence, the structuralist committed to a deductive

method and elected linguistics as its model for narrative analyses. In using Linguistics as a

model for analysis, structuralist referred to the homologous relationship of sentence and

discourse. In structural linguistics, the sentence is the smallest non-reducible segment

representative of discourse while discourse is an organization of sentences. With this, there is

nothing about a discourse that cannot be uncover through a sentence. However, this doesn’t

mean that a discourse’s meaning lies on the sum total of the sentences that it is made up of,

rather it lies on the organization of these sentences. This organization as the system of units

and rules creates the message of the discourse. Modeled after this homologous relation,

structurally, a narrative is a large constative sentence, and a constative sentence is an outline

of a small narrative. This entails that what is necessary in examining the implicit system of a

narrative is the observation of the organization of its constative units. Thusly, clarifying that

a narrative’s meaning does not lie on the totality of its units, but on the relationships of the

said units within their organization.

The organization of units involves the distributional relation and integrative relation

(Benveniste in Barthes, 1975). The distributional relation exists when the relationship of the

units is horizontal or on the same level while integrative exists if the relationship is vertical or

is taken from one hierarchical level to another. In line with this, the structuralist approach

holds that to comprehend the meaning of a narrative is not only through following the

42
sequence of the units, but also through accounting the units’ order on a “vertical axis” thereby

giving importance not only to the operations present but also to its sections’ connotations.

The said propositions entail that the underlying structure of a narrative is an interplay

of the paradigmatic relation (the integration of units into a superior level) responsible for

meaning, and syntagmatic relation (the segmentation of the units) responsible for form.

A. Paradigmatic Analysis

A paradigm is a categorical set of signifiers and signifieds

associated to one another by the functions that they have (Leymore,

1975), yet at the same time carry meanings that differ from each

other. This may be exemplified by the grammatical functions in a

language (Leymore, 1975) like verbs or nouns in a sentence

(Chandler, n.d.). Words under the verb category like run, jump or leap

are in the same paradigm as they have the same function in a sentence

albeit different from each other. If one is replaced with another within

a structure (Silverman & Torode 1980, 255, the meaning conveyed

will be altered. Paradigmatic relations are established on “similarities

between signs at the level of the signifier, the signified, or both”.

Paradigmatic relations on the level of the signified may include

synonyms and antonyms while on the level of signifier may include

similarities in the affixes, rhymes and homonyms (Silverman, 1984,

p.10).

43
 In literary approach, the paradigmatic relations refer to the

possibility of interchangeability or substitution of one literary element

with another.

A text or a set of selected texts may be analyzed

paradigmatically through three of Barthes’ five codes: the semantic,

the symbolic and the cultural. Ali (2013) claimed that these codes can

help in understanding the texts paradigmatically since these codes

operate on the horizontal axes (cf. Jakobson) or associative relations.

The semantic code, also known as the semic code refers to the

connotative relations of the elements of the texts. Connotative

meaning can be found in the themes and characterizations in a text

(Barry, 2002, p.151 & Selden, Widdowson & Brooker, 2005, p.152).

The second code, the symbolic refers to the units in the texts that show

binary oppositions (Barry, 2002, p.151). In this study, not only the

binaries but as well as the instances of multiplicities will be analyzed

in the selected texts. The third is the cultural code which pertains to

the elements in the narrative that show cultural, literary, historical and

other references unique to a particular field.

B. Syntagmatic Analysis

A syntagm is a chain of interacting signifiers which create a

meaningful whole (Barthes, !967; Chandler,2002). The relations created

by combining and arranging signifiers according to specific rules

wherein the signifiers of a system interact with each other are called

syntagmatic relations (Course on General Linguistics, 1959; Barthes,

44
1967). This may be illustrated by looking at the characteristic of a

sentence or a paragraph (Chandler, 2002). A sentence is created by

following syntactic rules or the logical sequencing of the minimal units

of a language to arrive at a meaningful expression. The parts of a

sentence may have individual meanings but without following a

syntactic rule, the individual meanings put together will not be a

coherent whole. As Saussure (1984; 1983; 1974) emphasized, “the

whole depends on the parts, and the parts depend on the whole”.

In the syntagmatic plane, elements are bound together by

“praesentia” (Barthes, 1967) which entails that the appearance of the

elements in a chain are dictated by what precedes them and dictates what

proceeds after them. In determining the syntagmatic relations of the

selected texts in this study, Barthes’s proairetic and hermeneutic code

may be used. The code of actions or the proairetic refers to actions that

create suspense in the text (Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014). These

elements sustain the flow of the narrative as they help open events that

come after another. In this study, the recurring actions, sequences of

events and patterns in the selected Philippine speculative stories will be

examined. The next code, the hermeneutic refers to the element of the

texts that create enigma by partial or full evasion of details about a

character, an object or an event. These elements compel the readers to

read more and discover how one event leads to another. This study will

stretch the application of the hermeneutic code from element of mystery

45
 to any defamiliarized element that propels the proceeding actions in the

selected speculative stories.

Barthes’ Narrative Codes

Barthes proposed five narrative codes to analyze the underlying structure of a

narrative (Barry, 2002, p.151). Barthes’ five narrative codes include the proairetic,

hermeneutic, semantic, symbolic and cultural (Barry, 2002). Through the use of Barthes’ five

narrative codes, the characteristics as well as the genre of a text or group of texts may be

discovered.

The first narrative code, the proairetic refers to the actions that propels the story forward

(Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014). Also known as the code of action, the proairetic pertains to the pattern

of events that sustains the flow of the narrative. It may be noted that in fiction it is the functional unit

whose appearance in the text ensures the appearance of another unit. This may be understood by

recalling how structuralist literary method of analysis likens narrative structure to language structure.

A fiction’s narrative like a sentence follows a grammatical convention. Though there are various ways

by which a sentence can be formed, each variant adheres to a convention that dictates the relations of

each unit in the sentence thereby signaling which unit can precede and proceed after another. In

fictional narrative, it means that though there could be a plenitude of actions and events in various

samples of a specific genre, the units in each said variants of the genre follows a convention

responsible for making these texts distinct from other genres of literature.

The second narrative code is the hermeneutic code. The hermeneutic code pertains

to the elements of a text that create mystery which compels the reader to discover more.

These elements can either be an evasion of the truth or a mixture of evasion and hint of truth

(Malik, Zaib & Bughio, 2014). The hermeneutic is traceable in the events, characters, setting

or objects that create enigma in the story. The first two codes discussed are considered

syntagmatic features as these features are dictated by the narrative grammar of a specific

46
genre. This means that the appearances of the proairetic code, and hermeneutic code are

cogent to other codes thereby entailing that though samples of a specific genre may appear

different from each other at initial reading, when stripped to their barest minimum would

reveal the same skeletal frames.

The third narrative code is the semantic code. The semantic code, also known as the

connotative code refers to the elements of the text that give connotative meaning. This is

often found in the characterization and theme of the text (Barry, 2002, p.151; Selden,

Widdowson & Brooker, 2005, p.152).

The next code is the symbolic code which pertains to elements that show polarities

and oppositional relations. Examples of this are the binary opposition between the rich and

the poor, fire and ice, and dark and light. Through the concept of binary oppositions, the

structuralist make sense of reality (Barry, 2002, p.151).

The fifth Barthesian code is cultural which refers to the elements of a text that show

cultural reference. These elements exhibit information that can illumined readers with

literary, historical, physical and other knowledge common to a particular field, place or

group. These codes may include food, clothes, practices and traditions, sayings, myths,

literature, names of places, historical figures and various other elements indicative of culture.

The last three codes, the semantic, symbolic and cultural are considered paradigmatic

features as these codes are free from the chronological sequence and can be understood

paradigmatically (Ali, 2013, p.120). This means that these features may come in different

forms and at different points in the narrative flow without disrupting the narrative grammar

of the text they are in.

Too much. What do you want your reader to know? That you are using Barthe’s

Structuralism. What is it? And what are its features, incuding codes. Lessen

47
Speculative Fiction how different is this from the earlier discussions?

Conceptula litt is anything that deals with the concepts we use in the study:

Structuralism, SF, filipno SF, what else?

Speculative fiction is an umbrella literary category that covers science fiction, horror,

alternative history, fantasy and magic realism. The mentioned types of texts are classified

under speculative fiction since they operate in either a neocosmic alternative world or an

anticosmic alternative world.

There are tropes and elements that can set speculative fiction apart from other literary

forms. The common speculative fiction tropes involve sehnsucht or desire, wonder,

extrapolation, novum, cognitive estrangement and heterotopia (Cabrera, 2017; Wolfe, 2005;

James, 2000).

Gerdin (2013) describes sehnsucht as the intense desire to be transported to an ideal

world and a utopian existence. Sehnsucht is both a half-awake desire and an insatiable

craving as the attainment of what is being desired is improbable since what is yearned for is

nameless and unknowable in the present existence. Eizykman (1974) in Wolfe (2005) sees

sehnsucht in rebellion against the natural laws and idealizing “what could bes” and “what

ifs”. Sehnsucht is evident in speculative fiction written by and about marginalized and

oppressed groups in the society. The unfavorable condition set by class hierarchy, gender

prejudices, racial discrimination, and other biases create an insatiable longing for individuals

to be transported to a better world (cf. Afro-futurism in Asim, 2016). Sehnsucht may instigate

extrapolation of an alternative system. In the study of fiction, extrapolation is used to refer to

the style of speculating on what the past could have been and what the future could be if the

rules are altered. Wolfe (2005) claimed it as the use of “cognitive or rational means” to create

an “imaginary world or situation”. Extrapolation, as a respond to an insatiable nameless

48
longing dare to traverse the unknown by reinventing the known. The reinvention of the

natural laws happens when something—a novum—that doesn’t normally sit in with the

natural is forced to be accepted as normal.

A novum is any object that opposes the rules of the empirical world (Suvin, 1979).

Researchers describe a novum as a familiar object, character, person or behavior made to

appear strange (Cabrera, 2017; Turan, 2006; Riviere et al, 1986) or something strange

depicted as ordinary which causes readers to experience cognitive estrangement (Cabrera,

2017). Cognitive estrangement is a “momentary mental disconnection” when a person is

faced with a novum. A narrative novum obliges the readers to look at things differently, thus,

breaking what Bertolt Brecht describes as the paralyzing effect of habit.

Cognitive estrangement is evident in marginalized narratives like Afro-futuristic

fiction, stories of members of LGBT community, people of color and disabled people’s

narratives which challenges longstanding norms by presenting real life issues set in imagined

worlds. Afro-futurism, as a demonstration of Black resilience speculate on utopic existence in

better worlds and better futures (Nelson in Asim, 2016) thereby inciting the desire to alter

real world systems. Speculative stories are reflection of reality—cognitiveness—and

reflection on reality—cognition (Suvin, 1979) as they comment on unacceptable elements in

the society (Cabrera, 2017; Nodelman,1981; Suvin, 1979) and show that things could be

changed (Suvin, 1979).

The placement of a novum in aided by and at the same time results in heterotopia or

the dis-placement of an organ or an organism. Plank (1968) in Wolfe (2005) associated

heterotopia with stories that invent time and places. The invented time, place and atmosphere

create the narrative’s own logic which makes the existence of the novum appear natural, thus

49
suspending the disbelief of the readers. The detachment of the narrative from the empirical

laws of the world—heterotopia—and the placement of the novum weave an alternative

reality, an alternative world.

To say that speculative stories operate on heterotopia, and causes cognitive

estrangement to the readers at the same time may seem to some contradictory. However, the

cognition and the cognitiveness in speculative fiction follow a different logic that may mirror

the real world yet exists in a different universe. This may be illustrated by borrowing

established conventions then twisting, turning and reinventing them to expose what is corrupt

and dysfunctional in what is taken for granted as have always been. This allows speculative

texts to meme the conditions of the society and deliver a social commentary.

The use of novum and heterotopia in a narrative not only results in cognitive

estrangement but as well as wonder. Wonder both refers to the sense of awe and desire. Awe

is the sudden jolt created by making something considered impossible to be possible thereby

resulting to the desire to either make it real or to be transported to a world where it is

possible.

The study employed the structuralist approach, specifically Roland Barthes’ five

narrative codes to unravel the narrative pattern and the narrative features of the selected

Philippine speculative stories. As shown in Figure 1, through the use of the proairetic and

hermeneutic codes in the analysis of the selected speculative fiction, the functional units of

the stories will be revealed. Consequently, the relations of the said functional units will be

scrutinized to reveal the narrative grammar of the stories. The narrative grammar or

convention that dictates the organization of the narrative units is the bare structure of the

speculative fiction in which other speculative variants may be derived. The Figure 1 also

shows that concurrent to the syntagmatic analysis is the paradigmatic analysis of the stories in

50
which the three remaining codes (semantic, symbolic and cultural) are used in examining the

speculative texts. The semantic analysis of the texts is conducted to unravel implicit messages

and themes of the texts. The symbolic code, on the other hand is employed to reveal the

binary oppositions in the texts. The binary oppositions detected in the texts are symptomatic

of the types of conflicts and crises akin to all the selected speculative stories and may or may

not be reflective of the 21st century environment. Lastly the analysis of the cultural code is

conducted to reveal the elements of the texts that alluded to different manifestations of

Filipino culture.

Fig1

51
 Narrative Pattern

Structure of Philippine Speculative Fiction

PEDAGOGICAL MODEL
FOR TEACHING

The study, through the syntagmatic and paradigmatic analyses determined the unique

narrative structure and features of Philippine speculative fiction that set them apart from other

speculative stories. The result of the syntagmatic analysis revealed the narrative pattern of the

texts, thus showing the Filipinos mode of storytelling. Equally important, the paradigmatic

analyses uncovered functional units in the texts that account for their distinct traits.

Anchored on this, the illumined structure of the Philippine Speculative Fiction served as the

basis for designing a pedagogical model.

Definition of Terms

For better understanding and full comprehension of the study, the following terms

were defined conceptually and operationally.

Alternative

52
 This term refers to a reworking of an established idea or narrative trend

to give voice to the silenced stories (Obeso, 2014; Wood, 2016)

Alternative history

Alternate history refers to fiction that starts with “a single fact that

differentiate the world of the story from our own, and goes on to detail the events that

might have occurred if this fact was true” (Wood, 2016).

In this study, this term refers to “the type of historical fiction that does not

only tell stories set in historical periods but also speculate on the possible effects of

altering historical details”.

Alternative world

This term pertains with the play of idea of the possible results of changing the

natural order in the real world in the context of a fictional story (Orzel, 2015)

In this study, this term refers to the imaginative world created on the basis

of empirical rules of the real world but operates on fantastic processes.

Cognitive estrangement

The term cognitive estrangement refers to “the presence in a story or novel of

what Suvin (1979) calls a ‘novum’, that is a device or machine that is absolutely new

and whose presence compels us to imagine a different way of conceiving our world

(The Dictionary of Critical Theory, 2010).

This study used the term to refer to “the momentary disagreement between

ideas wherein something familiar is depicted in a slightly different or alienated way or

something alien in a highly familiar context”.

Cognitiveness

53
 Cognitiveness is derived from the term cognitive which is defined by Merriam

Webster Dictionary (2018) as based on or capable of being reduced to empirical

factual knowledge.

The term cognitiveness is used in this study to mean that a fiction’s narration

is based on logical reasoning, whether it is anchored on the empirical world or on the

fantasy world’s reasoning.

Estrangement-effect

The moment in a work of art when that which used to appear natural suddenly

unnatural or strange, when that which was thought of as timeless is deemed as caused

and altered across time (Brecht, 1977).

In this study, the term estrangement effect refers to the impact that speculative

fiction creates upon its readers. This paper uses the term to refer to the moment

wherein something natural is made to appear strange.

Extrapolation

It refers to the term borrowed from the field of Mathematics which means a

prediction of a value of a dependent variable for a variable that is beyond the area that

is certainly known (Taylor, 2019)

In this research, the term extrapolate means to study patterns of data and

relationships of patterns to predict a future.

Fantastic

This pertains to fiction that depends on the alteration and reinvention of

ground rules of a narrative world which allows a “psychological escape” to a world

that departs from yet reflects reality (Rabkin, 2015)

The term operationally means the characteristic of speculative fiction that

deals with the impossible and highly imaginative situations, places or beings.

54
 Novum

This term refers to the entity which is “unexpectedly new which pushes

humanity out of its present towards what is not yet realized” (Bloch, 1923 in Moylan,

1982; Suvin, 1979).

In this study, the researcher used it to refer to any object, situation or being

that is presented beyond reality or beyond what is expected in the natural world.

Sehnsucht

In psychology it refers to a person’s clamor for happiness while coping with

reality of the unattainability of his or her wishes (Kotter-Gruhn, D. et al, 2009).

Speculative fiction

Speculative fiction is a term used to describe science fiction’s extrapolation

from known facts; now, it is used to suggest a broader range of exploratory genres

including fantasy (Heinlein, 1947; Playle, 2016).

In this study, the term speculative fiction refers to the stories that extrapolate

on the future or past based on existing cognitive processes. These may include science

fiction, fantasy, horror and many others.

Where is filipononess

Pedagogical model

CHAPTER 2

PROCEDURES

Qualitative Design and Methodology

55
 The study employed the descriptive-analytical approach described by Mcmillan and

Schumacher (1993) as a course of organizing data into categories and determining relations

between and among the said categories. This is due to the study being concerned with

examining the structural system and features of the Philippine speculative fiction. The result

of the series of syntagmatic and paradigmatic textual analysis served as the basis for

designing a pedagogic model.

Process these are steps of the study. How was descriptive analytical used in the

study?

The study will undergo seven (7) phases.

Phase 1-Selection of literary texts

The researcher surveyed the eleven volumes of Philippine Speculative Fiction

anthology edited by Dean Francis S. Alfar. From the said collections, the researcher

initially selected twenty stories of the following theme: alternate history, mystical

encounters, and scientific extrapolations. In selecting the twenty stories, the

researcher ensured that an even selection of stories written by both male and female

authors was adhered to. From the initial twenty texts, the researcher randomly

selected five texts written by male authors, and five texts written by female authors.

The criteria for the Philippine speculative short stories are as follows:

a. The short story must be written by a Filipino writer based in different parts of

the Philippines

b. There should be five speculative fiction written by female Filipino authors and

five speculative stories written by male Filipino authors

c. The short story must be written and published within 2000-2018

56
 d. The short story must be written in English

e. The stories must have scientific, fantastic or mystical extrapolations.

f. The short story must be available in printed or online sources

The shortlisted Philippine speculative stories are listed below:

1. “Sink” by Isabel Yap (2010)

2. “Keeping time” by F.H. Batacan (2008)

3. “And These were the Names of the Vanished” by Rochita-Loenen Ruiz (2014)

4. “Press Release” by Leo Magno (2009)

5. “Anthropomorpha” by Crystal Koo (2014)

6. “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night” by Vida

Cruz (2014)

7. “Carbon” by Paolo Chikiamco (2012)

8. “Panopticon” by Victor Fernando Ocampo (2014)

9. “The Apologist” by Ian Rosales Casocot (2018)

10. “Sky Gypsies” by Timothy James Dimacali (2007)

Phase 2-Content Analysis

The researcher conducted close reading of the texts to arrive at the initial

understanding of the texts’ subject and basic elements.

Phase 3 Determining the syntagmatic features of the texts

Using Roland Barthes’ five narrative codes, the study will examine the characteristics

of each of the selected text. Specifically, the texts will be analyzed using the proairetic

code, hermeneutic code, symbolic code, semantic code and cultural code. The researcher

will construct a table using the five codes and the data gathered from the texts will be

supplied in table. Each of the codes selected accounts for the characteristics of speculative

57
fiction that the study seeks to unravel. The examination of the codes will reveal the plot-

turning actions, characterization, enthralling element, oppositions and cultural references

that may account for the Filipino-ness of the texts.

Phase 4-Identifying the paradigmatic features of the speculative stories

In this part, the study will examine and review the data gathered from the table of

five narrative codes. Also, in this phase, the study will analyze the similarities in the

actions, enthralling element, cultural references, oppositions and characterization in the

ten selected speculative texts to account for the distinct characteristics of Philippine

Speculative fiction.

Features Questions

1. Narrative What type of actions propel the stories forward? Based on the identified

patterns propelling actions, what are the narrative pattern of the stories?

2. Enigma What type of object, phenomenon or situation at the center of the

narration creates a sense of mystery in the texts?

3. Connotation What do the characters and other elements in the texts connote?

4. Symbolism What are the binary opposites in the texts? How do they help shape the

meaning of texts?

5. Cultural What aspects of the texts show Filipino cultural references?

references

Phase 5 Tracing the narrative structure of the texts

58
 Using Barthes’ proairetic codes and hermeneutic codes, the study will conduct a

syntagmatic analysis of the selected Philippine speculative fiction. The study will tease

out the basic unit of actions in each text. The units will be tabulated bearing in mind their

order of appearance in the story and considering which units have similar features. The

elements with similar traits will be placed in the same column and will be labeled

according to how the members of the set are related to each other. Through the

mentioned process, the study expects to uncover the horizontal and vertical relationships

of the units. By employing this method, the study will reveal the recurring elements in

the texts, their order of appearance (what precedes or proceeds after each), and their

relations which all shape the narratives of the Philippine speculative stories.

Phase 7 Constructing a pedagogical model

This phase deals with constructing a model for teaching speculative fiction to

senior high school students.

Selection Criteria and Participants

The study used purposive sampling in selecting texts that will be analyzed.

Purposive sampling technique is used when the researcher sets criteria for determining

the subjects of the study. Ten short stories will be used for the study.

The criteria for the Philippine speculative short stories are as follows:

a.There should be five speculative fiction written by female Filipino authors and five

speculative stories written by male Filipino authors

b. The short story must be written and published within 2000-2018

c.The short stories must contain scientific, fantastic, or mystical extrapolations

d. The short story must be written in English

59
 e.The short story must be available in printed or online sources

Data Collection

The data collection procedure consists five parts: a.) surveying of resources about

the nature of speculative fiction and Philippine speculative stories; b.) surveying of

approaches and methods of examining structures of text; c.) content analysis of the

speculative stories d.) analytical reading of the selected stories.

a. The researcher examined different articles, books and references about the

subjects and features of speculative fiction and Philippine speculative stories. The

researcher listed and noted down information gathered from the survey of

materials. The data collected are clustered according to their connections to each

other.

b. The researcher surveyed for literary approaches and methods for structural

analyses of short stories. Books, articles, researches and other references will be

studied to determine which approach is more appropriate for the intention of the

study.

c. The researcher conducted a close reading of the selected literary texts to

determine the subject and understand the content of each text.

d. The researcher conducted an analytical reading of the texts. Roland Barthes’

five narrative codes will be applied in the study of the features of texts

60
Role of the Researcher

The researcher’s roles will be that of an observer, note taker, analyst and interpreter.

Specifically, the researcher will subject the selected texts under open observation,

tabulation and coding of data. The researcher will note down the features of the texts,

cluster or group the data, locate patterns and connections, analyze relationships of

elements found in the texts and interpret the results.

Ethical Considerations

The study adhered to the following ethical considerations:

1. All data collected in the study are openly stated together with the specific details

and sources

2. The study declared that there had been no conflicts of interest construed during the

progression of the study.

3. This study does not contain any procedure involving human participants

performed by the researcher.

4. Informed consent from the editors of the selected anthology of Philippine

speculative fictions were obtained.

5. This study does not involve any procedure involving vulnerable groups

performed by the researcher.

6. The completion of the study has an impact on the teaching-learning of

literature in the senior high school level as the study sought to shed light on the

structure of Philippine Speculative fiction. Buttressed on the processes and

discoveries in this study, a pedagogical model for teaching Philippine

Speculative Fiction as a 21st century literary genre is constructed.

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 CHAPTER 3

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Findings

The study unraveled the structure of Philippine speculative fiction by examining

the texts using Roland Barthes’ five narrative codes. The descriptive-analytical research

method was used in conducting this study. A pedagogical model for teaching is

designed based on the findings of the study.

After conducting the study, the findings are the following:

1. The propelling actions in the narratives of the selected speculative stories

consist of events where connections/relations are built and broken.

2. The novum, being the enigmatic element of the speculative stories

functions in two ways: a.) as a signal for the implicit system of the

alternative world; b.) as a destabilizer of the established system of both the

fictional and real world.

3. The plots of Philippine Speculative fiction follow the structure D-N-R

(Disconnection-Novum-Reconnection). The disconnection phase comes in

various forms that signal detachment, destruction or expiration. Next, the

novum comes in the form of fantastic entity or scientific advancement.

Thirdly, the reconnection comes in any form that signals something that has

expired was made to re-exist. Though the D-N-R pattern appears in the

selected speculative stories, they appear in different variations and with

different additional components.

62
4. The selected speculative stories have connotative elements. The characters

and other details of the texts, aside from performing their role in the

narrative, functions in delivering a larger message about particular issues.

5. The alternative worlds in the selected speculative fiction are divided into

binary oppositions. The binary oppositions in the texts come in three forms:

position of power vs the masses, the real vs the unreal, and the norm vs the

strange. The presentation of the clash between the privileged and

underprivileged groups demonstrates sehnsucht, a yearning for something

lacking and that which is difficult to attain—the dissolution of hierarchy

and the re-positioning of the subjugated.

6. The selected speculative stories have connotative elements that deliver

concepts, worldviews and stance about different issues occurring in the

Philippines and in the world.

7. The selected speculative stories alluded to cultural, historical, literary and

scientific references. The cultural, literary and historical allusions

reverberate Filipino consciousness and identity. While the scientific

allusions were used to back up extrapolations of an alternative world.

63
Discussion

Textual Analysis Using Barthes’ Narrative Codes

A. “ Keeping Time” by F. H. Batacan

The Text

The selected fiction, “Keeping Time” was written by Batacan in 2008

and was included in an anthology of speculative fiction titled, The Best of

Philippine Speculative Fiction 2005-2010 edited by Dean Alfar and Nikki

Alfar.

The story, “Keeping Time”, set in a distant alternative future is

concerned with the theme of human beings’ desperate attempt to stay alive

despite the self-inflicted inevitable doom. The story told in the first-person

point of view, began with Mike mulling over the fitness of his present body in

contrast with his old physique. He used to be married, but his wife left him

when he reached beyond 300 pounds. At the present, his body had

transformed into a muscled one he had always dreamt of and believed his ex-

wife would love if she was still alive and could see him. The transformation of

his body was not due to gym workouts but due to a world-wide water problem.

The water problem could be traced back to when a company in Europe

clamored to fight diabetes, hypertension, obesity, heart diseases and more by

introducing a particular enzyme to bodies of water. Asian countries

immediately jumped the bandwagon in the pretext of clamoring for health, but

in actuality for vanity—as the story implied that the enzyme could speedily

breakdown nutrients and stop producing fats. The enzyme spread in all bodies

of water and the horrifying effects became uncontrollable. A lot of people

reduced in weight and eventually became emaciated despite round the clock

64
feeding, and to other cases ingestion of nutrients through IV drips. The

children and the old people were the first to die in the first wave of the

epidemic. Mike’s wife, with her supermodel body was one of the first to go.

As WHO’s (World Health Organization) field investigator, Mike had travelled

to many different countries and was present in every conference to gather

information about the effects and possible inhibitors of the enzyme. Many

intelligent members of WHO had already passed away while the others that

remained were either weak and scrawny or in hospital beds. Mike looked so

normal and healthy in contrast with the people around him due to the fact that

he was a lot bigger in physique than many which explained why though the

enzyme is affecting and reducing his body, he had more to shed off and

therefore had more time to live like normal than the others. In one of Mike’s

visit to Peter, his superior, the latter told him he had more time which made

him the “timekeeper” of the world. Peter warned him that amidst everything

happening in the world, he shouldn’t be alone.

Mike spent the night with Marisol, a writer paid to cover news about the

enzyme. He had seen her several times before the day of the conference, and he

noted her beauty not much due to the fitness of her body but due to her looking

more alive than the others. Marisol and Mike talked about their past and how

they were rejected due to being overweight. They made love that night and

woke up the next morning knowing they would be parting ways. Mike,

recalling everything that Peter told him, decided to use the little time they had

left and be together.

65
Syntagmatic Analysis

1. The Proairetic Code

“Keeping Time” is propelled by actions of connections and

disconnections. Mike was disconnected from his wife when she left

him after he had exceeded 300 pounds. The separation resulted to him

neglecting himself and eating away his grief which could amplify not

only his disconnection from his wife, but more importantly from

himself which eventually lead to him growing even bigger. When the

enzyme contamination boomed, he worked at the World Health

Organization as a field investigator which made him connected to

people and the concerns of humanity. The transformation of his body,

caused by the enzyme made him connected to his and her wife’s ideal

body. However, the old habits formed through the years of being

overweight carried on which made his actions disconnected to his

appearance (eg. When he takes his breath and walks sideways as he

enters doors). Positions had been reversed, and now Mike had the

appearance all the emaciated—used-to-be-fit—people desired. The

feeling of being different created another sense of disconnection.

When he met Marisol, a beautiful and fit woman, he had felt a

connection with her due perhaps to her appearing more alive than

everyone else. Mike, compelled to get to know her had tried to reach

out to her while she evaded him which resulted in a series of brief

meetings and separations. The meetings and separations eventually

66
lead to their union, not just of the body but a confession of their past

which created a strong bond between them. Mike and Marisol

wordlessly agreed to part ways, but Mike remembering Peter had said

“do not be alone” reached out to Marisol which though not clearly

hinted a deeper connection forming between them. The text also

showed Mike’s connection to his superior, Peter, and the impending

disconnection as the latter’s body slowly deteriorated. Marisol had also

undergone connection-disconnection-connection, when she had pity-

sex with a fit guy who calculated her BMI. She had been connected to

him, disconnected to her body, disconnected to him, both connected

and disconnected to her new physique, and connected to Mike.

2. The Hermeneutic Code

The story’s mysterious quality is derived from two things: the

title itself, “Keeping Time”; and the killer enzyme that plagued the

world in the text. The title of the text weaves questions like what or

who keeps time, and why and how time is kept. What creates the

mystery is the implication that time is running out and the initial

withdrawal of the information about why it is running out, who can

keep it and in what manner can it be kept.

Aside from the title, mystery also radiates from the enzyme that

spread throughout and infected the world. The conflict in the text is

rooted from this enzyme that has been manufactured by a company in

Europe and has been acquired by Asian countries in the pretext of

67
fighting obesity, heart diseases, hypertension and diabetes. The spread

of the enzyme has become uncontrollable and contaminated the bodies

of water. The nature of the enzyme was not clearly discussed in the

text but has been implied as having the capability of rapidly breaking

down or dissolving nutrients which horrifyingly resulted to the

deterioration of human physique. The first wave killed many kids and

elderly people, and those who were left behind became emaciated and

slowly drifted to the second and proceeding waves of deaths.

As a whole the text is woven with a defamiliarized element, the

enzyme (cf. novum) that hooked the readers yet still left them

wondering about the fate of the remaining human beings.

In the text, the character’s sense of disconnection is due to the

discriminating effects of the society’s unjust and unrealistic

expectations of the human body. The character being part of the

unideal minority is pushed to the periphery, however, due to the

inflection of the text’s novum, an enigmatic dietary enzyme, the tables

were turned. The unideal minority become the envied as they now

possess the traits necessary for survival amidst the pandemic that

plagued the world. Ironically it is only when many people expired due

to the pandemic caused by the novum, did the character find and

establish a new human connection.

68
 The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the

proairetic code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern,

D-N-R (disconnection-Novum-Reconnection):

Novum:
themysterious
dietaryenzyme

Disconnection:
-Mike'sseparation
fromhiswife, and Reconnection:
hisdetachment establishinganew
fromsocietydueto humanrelation
his weight

The diagram showed that this speculative story is propelled by building

and breaking of relations, with the novum (an enigmatic element) at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. The Semantic Code

The semantic code refers to the elements of the text that have

connotative meanings. In “Keeping Time”, there are several elements that

have connotative meanings: timekeeper, the noise, the key, making love, and

some lines at the end of the text. The first connotative code is the timekeeper.

In the text, Peter called Mike the “timekeeper of the world” as the latter was

healthier and had more strength to function and more chance to live longer to

see what would happen to the world. The second code is noise as mentioned

by Peter when he was talking to Mike doesn’t refer to literal noise of the

69
 places the latter went to but to the myriads of things that kept him occupied

and busy as his time—though slower than the others—drifted away. The third

connotative code is the key, which according to Peter what Mike must focus

on amidst the noise. The key to prolong time wasn’t to find ways to inhibit

depletion of time but to make most of what’s left; hence, the key is “Don’t be

alone when the end comes”.

The intercourse of Mike and Marisol signaled not only the physical

union of a man and a woman but also the hope of not being perpetually

disconnected from the world and eventually perish alone. “There’s little time

left”, Mike uttered aware of life slipping off their fingers and wanting to make

most of it by being with her. “There’s still enough time to teach you how to

blow smoke rings”, Marisol responded implying her acquiescence to stretch

the remaining drops of their lives. To sum up, their union is a union of the

bodies, a promise of enduring life.

2. The Symbolic Code

The short story, “Keeping Time” rests on binary oppositions. The

opposition can be traced in the two groups of human set apart by the body types

they had. Mike, the main character has been portrayed as somebody who used

to be overweight, the reason why his ex-wife left him. His physique was in

direct contrast to the physique of his wife, who has a fit and trimmed body.

Marisol, another main character was once an overweight who had a pity-sex

with a fit guy who asked for her BMI after sex. The story showed how initially,

the overweight people were seen as misfits and were rejected. The dawn of the

spread of the enzyme altered the fate of the fit and the overweight. As the

70
enzyme speedily reduces nutrients and starves human beings, the supermodel

bodies reduced to emaciated and bony figures while the once cringed upon due

to being fat reduced into the muscled and trimmed figures. The rejected people

like Mike and Marisol became the envy of the now horrifying image of the

many. The emaciated were slowly deteriorating and dying, some of them even

expired years ago, while the likes of Mike still looking healthy and had more

fats to shed had more time in their hands. Secondary to the opposition

explained above, the oppositions of meeting and separation, living and dying

reverberated throughout the story.

3. The Cultural Code

The story didn’t have much Filipino cultural references except for the

mention of the city, Manila. The remaining cultural reference is not much of a

nation’s cultural as much as it of a generation’s culture: the excessive and

shallow act of giving much importance on the physical attributes of a person, in

this text, the figure and the weight.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic,

symbolic and cultural code revealed the distinct Filipino features of the selected

speculative story. The semantic analysis revealed the text’s connotations on an

individual’s need for genuine human connection. The symbolic analysis, on

the other hand, illumined the text’s insurgent quality against the established

norms and often unchecked social expectations through the narrative’s reversal

of fortune between the privileged and underprivileged. Lastly, the selected

71
 story alluded to the well-known places in the country, and to the Filipinos’

body ideal body standards.

B. “Sink” by Isabel Yap

The Text

Isabel Yap’s short story, “Sink” was written and published in 2010 as part of the

Philippine Speculative Fiction Vol. 5, co-edited by Nikki Alfar and Vincent Micheal

Simbulan (Alfar & Alfar, 2012).

“Sink”, set in alternative world of highly advanced robotics, deals with the

cycles of birth, death, rebirth, death and letting go. The story opened with Margo and

her nine-year old son, Jake discussing about the latter’s faint memory of loving the

beach. Margo brushed off the idea by insinuating that his memories weren’t real but

rather derived from what he watched on TV. The story revealed that Margo was a

single-parent and had been raising Jake on her own but with the financial assistance

from her ex-husband. The financial assistance stopped right after Jake got sick and

passed away a year ago. Margo was so devastated that she couldn’t accept his death.

Margo met a mysterious salesman in Greenhills who promised her solutions to

all her problems. Margo accepted the offer of the salesman and signed the contract. The

salesman brought back a robot version of Jake, the likeness and the life radiating from

the robot captivated Margo that though she knew it wasn’t her son, and she didn’t know

how it was made, she loved it as if it was the real one. She didn’t allow the new Jake to

go out or meet anyone to avoid suspicions from people around her. Her days became

filled with work in the office, chores at home, and teaching Jake lessons. Jake, unlike

ordinary kids wasn’t growing, but Margo found it to her advantage as she didn’t have to

72
worry about outgrown clothes or a teenage boy’s broken heart. Her life was almost

perfect to her when the new Jake started to get sick and became weaker. She called the

Salesman, known as Dr. Reyes to Jake to find out the problem. The Salesman reminded

her of their earlier discussion about the possibility of the new Jake to deteriorate even if

the system was perfectly functioning. She realized that she would lose her son once

more. The new Jake, like the old one had always loved the ocean, hence, on the

remaining days of the robot Jake, Margo brought him to the beach. She knew that

saltwater would destroy him, and as he neared the ocean, water lapped on his body till

he was no more. Margo realized that she should let go now as she should have done a

year ago.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. The Proairetic Code

“Sink” like Batacan’s “Keeping Time” is woven by actions of

connections and disconnections, appearances and disappearances. The

backstory of “Sink” explained that Margo married an affluent man with whom

she had a son, named Jake. Though Margo was initially happy with their life

together, she had eventually felt distant from him which resulted to their

separation. Margo decided to raise the child on her own with the financial

support of his father. The first trace of the connection-disconnection-

connection motif here was evident in Margo’s union with the man she thought

she loved. This was followed by a motif of disconnection when Margo and her

husband separated and lead to an even stronger bond between Margo and her

son. The motif of disappearance which can also be equated with disconnection

can be seen in the death of Jake. The motif of disconnection was further

73
 amplified by Margo’s shutting off family and friends, and denying the

irretrievable loss of her son. The motif of connection resurfaced when Margo

met a mysterious salesman who brought her son in the form of a robot.

However, this connection strengthened her disconnection to the outside world.

When the robot weakened and finally broke, Margo was disconnected to her

artificial son and got back in contact with the reality that she should have let

him go long before.

2. The Hermeneutic Code

The selected fiction has two element of mystery: the salesman from

Greenhills and the unexplainable lifelike creation of a robot Jake. Though it’s

the longing of Margo for her son that propelled most of the events of the story,

it is the enigmatic power or technological skills of the salesman that served as

the current where the events flow. When Margo, wearing mourning clothes

was walking around Greenhills, she met the Salesman who claimed that he

had the solution to all problems, even her problems. Where the man was from,

what kind of solutions and up to what extent he could help were withdrawn

from the readers. He stored her memories of him in a device, and not long

after that he met with his people in Quiapo where the constructed the body

which would be carrying Jake’s memory. The robot looked very much like her

son that she could easily believe it was her real son, but as to how were able to

create and what they used in the process still remained a mystery. The

mysterious salesman who came from nowhere and the highly advanced robot

created an alternative world where magic and science were interlaced.

74
 In the text, the character’s sense of disconnection is due to the death of

a loved one. The character has not only lost her son; she has also detached

herself from other human relations. The inflection of the text’s novums, the

robot substitute of the deceased, while reconnecting the character with her

‘son’, disconnected her further from genuine human relations. The

deterioration of the novum disconnected once more from her son but

reconnected her with real people around her.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the

proairetic code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-

R (disconnection-Novum-Reconnect):

Novum:
the robot,
Jake

Reconnection/
Disconnection: Disconnection:
-thedeathof Margot's son -reconnectionwiththe
-Margot's detachment from 'son'
The pattern ofother
“Sink” has a slight variation from that of the “Keeping Time” as
people
-further disconnection
the former didn’t stop with only a reconnection, but a combinationw iththe humof anrelations

reconnection and disconnection which proceeded to Novum, and another

combination of reconnection/disconnection.

Reconnection/
Disconnection:
Novum: -reconnection with
the robot, Jake the 'son'
-further
disconnection with
the human relations

Disconnection:
-the death of Novum (failure) :
Margot's son
deterioration of
-Margot's the robot, Jake
detachment from 75
other people
 reconnection with
real humans-
acceptance of Jake's
death

The diagram showed that this speculative story is propelled by building

and breaking of relations, with the novum (an enigmatic element) at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. The Semantic Code

In “Sink”, the elements that have connotative meanings are: the robot,

the ocean, salesman and Margo herself.

The robot, Jake connotes both artificiality and inevitability of death.

The robot though looking very much like Jake could never really be Jake; thus

entailing that though the fake replacements could make someone happy, the

happiness that it could provide is also artificial and illusory. Also, the robot

Jake couldn’t defy death, hence echoing the death of the original and

amplifying the inevitability of death, of endings. The ocean which the original

Jake loved and which the fake Jake fervently wish to visit connotes peace and

letting go. Margo, seeing the robot son was weakening gave in to his wish to

swim despite her knowledge that saltwater could damage him. This decision of

Margo showed how she had realized that she must accept the death of her son.

She watched as the ocean water lapped the body of the robot Jake, letting him

expire in the place that used to make him really happy. The character of the

salesman connotes acquisition of artificial solutions to problems, and fleeting

illusory happiness the former provides. His character, dim and mysterious

76
 though sympathetic of Margo ironically illustrated how not everything has a

solution and not everything can be retrieved back. Lastly, Margo’s character

connotes both an undying love, and a freeing acceptance.

2. The Symbolic Code

The selected text was interwoven with binary opposites. The

oppositions in “Sink” are the life vs death, the real vs the fake, the inside of

the house vs the outside world, and holding on vs. moving on. The first

opposition, life vs. death was shown through the contrast of the sudden death

of a young energetic boy, and the continuous empty existence of Margo. The

second opposition was a result of Margo’s desire to fill the void that her son’s

death left. The story showed Margo’s heart sitting between the real but

departed Jake, and the fake but full of life robot Jake. Margo’s clutched on

the fake son emphasized denial of the inevitability of death, thus succumbing

to an artificial and make-believe happiness. The third opposition is the inside

of the house vs. the outside world. Margo and the robot Jake kept to

themselves and mostly stayed inside the house shutting off friends and

relatives. This entailed how Margo held tightly to her make-believe happiness

protecting it from any outside force that could reveal it for what it really was,

a fake. The last opposition, the holding on vs. the letting go where the latter

won, showed that though Margo tried so hard to keep her son alive, any

replacement like the original could still perish; thus, she would have to accept

the truth and let him go.

3. The Cultural Code

77
 The cultural codes in the text are presented through strong filial bonds,

mourning, empathy and even the use of well-known delicacies and places in the

Philippines.

The short story showed filial bonds through Margo’s relationship with

her mom, and the deceased Jake’s previous bond with his lola. Even the

separation of Margo and her husband didn’t stop this bond, as the father

provided for his son’s needs. Most importantly, the strong filial bond was

highlighted in Margo’s undying love for her departed son.

Empathy on the other hand was shown through the actions of Margo’s

mom, and even her boss. Margo’s mom continuously tried to connect to Margo

and make her feel she wasn’t alone, as a mother feeling another mother’s grief.

Empathy was also seen in the way the boss let Margo recover from her loss by

allowing her to have less hours in the office and take home some of her works.

The story also used Filipino delicacies like leche flan, and alluded to

places like Greenhills famous for selling all sorts of items.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic,

symbolic, and cultural codes unravel features of the speculative story that

account for its Filipinoness. The semantic analysis revealed through Margot,

the Filipino’s placing of value on genuine human connection and filial love. On

the other hand, the symbolic analysis displayed the binary opposition of

authentic and artificial. The said oppositions highlighted Filipinos’ views on

the importance of real human connection irreplaceable even by advanced

technology.

78
C. “The Apologist” by Ian Rosales Casocot

The Text

Ian Rosales Casocot’s short story, “The Apologist” was published in 2018 as

part of the anthology of speculative fiction titled, The Philippine Speculative Fiction

Vol. 11 edited by Kate Osias, Elyss Punzalan and Nikki Alfar.

The story starts with a reporter who finds a small boy killed and skinned on

display in the lobby of his favourite hotel. He searches the crowd hoping the killer

was brazen enough to remain, but upon finding that same killer in the crowd he

realizes he cannot write this important story. The killer, Ben Salvacion, is then on a

talk show openly discussing his murders as though they are a sport. The story jumps

around in perspective à bit to give the reader back story. It is revealed that Ben's agent

Sal has been tasked with managing his client's public reputation and is doing his best

to turn this serial killing psych into a celebrity. The act of doing so is giving Sal ulcers

from stress. He does his job by using various psychological tactics to portray his

client as a victim—someone who kills because it is the art of a depressed and

misunderstood man. He compares this action in his own mind to selling cigarettes,

something people know kills but is sold because of the social status they have

acquired through years of carefully managed public perception.

79
 Another scene shows Sal convincing his sister at a family get together to

interview Ben on TV. She refuses repeatedly, but eventually concedes to her brother.

He assures her that his client, being the son of the prime minister and immune to

criminal charges (during the time period some 25 years in the future) that their station

will get great numbers with Filipino people as almost everyone watches TV. Back at

the interview Ben is poetically describing murder and how he can smell emotion.

Going as far as to describe how he hunts his victims when they are the most content

describing their smell as syrupy at the time. Then, he goes into details about the

abduction, mutilation, and slow murder of a nurse he met. He kidnapped her during

her Christmas party. He dressed as Santa and gave gifts to each nurse (each gift was

personalized to their tastes). The story finishes with Ben visiting Sal's sister in her

dressing room. She is obviously nervous and knows she's about to die. Ben slits her

throat. Three weeks after, Sal is on another interview where reporters ask him why he

is still speaking for Ben when Ben has allegedly killed the former’s sister. Sal defends

Ben just as before and says he never backs down from impossible tasks.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

“The Apologist” is woven by actions of murder and apologies which

create a melding of suspense and normalization.

Death, more specifically by murder is a recurrent motif in “The

Apologist” as the death appears three times in the story, in the beginning,

middle and end. The text begins with a death motif, when the body of a

brutally killed boy is found in a hotel lobby. The narrative beginning with

murder builds the suspense in the story. This suspense is increased when

80
the murderer visited the scene of the crime with a look of pride and

satisfaction. The suspense rises as not only was somebody mutilated and

murdered in the beginning, the murderer is actually freely roaming

around without the slightest sign of remorse or fear of getting caught. The

freedom and self-satisfied confidence of the murderer, Ben Salvacion

pose threat to anyone he picks as his prey. Being the son of Gus

Salvacion, the prime minister, Ben is untouchable which then highlights

how vulnerable are the other people around him. Ben Salvacion has

already killed 84 people in a span of twelve years, but due to connections

and media spin-off, he remains free and is treated like a celebrity.

The action of apologies is presented through Sal Fabellar’s

manipulation of truth to stop Ben from getting a monstrous image that

could lose the Prime Minister’s chance of keeping his position. Sal

pacifies the media and the public by twisting and spinning the reality

behind Ben’s thirst for blood thereby becoming the apologist referred to

in the title. Sal deflects the people’s aspersion of Ben by trivializing,

twisting, denying and romanticizing the latter’s claims of crimes. Sal

trivializes Ben’s claims on the murders by presenting the claims as jokes

as shown in his lines, “Don’t always take my client’s words for real. He is

fond of metaphor, of hyperbole, of drama”. He makes Ben’s words appear

figurative and in need of deeper understanding as he says to Rappler,

“You need to do some creative interpretation to get to the heart of what he

is truly saying”. Other times, Sal tries to convince the public that his

81
 client is just creative and exaggerated in his expressions and must not be

taken seriously.

Twisting logic, Sal other times explains that Ben’s confessions are

sarcastic ways of saying the latter is innocent. Sal even leads the focus of

interviews away from the murders to training and trusting the police force

to ensure public safety. There were also times that Sal denies the murders

actually happen and points an accusing finger at the mainstream media as

propagators of malicious information. The last strategy of Sal is the usage

of the glitz of television and social media. He sets Ben up for interviews

where Ben romanticizes murders by calling it ravaging, likening the

process to poetry. In his interview with Sarah, Sal’s sister, Ben explains

that his choice of prey is based on their smell, and it is the syrupy smell of

happiness that wakes up the ravaging. Ben, explains like a romanticized

hunting spree how he abducts, mutilates and kills his victims. The spin-

off strategies designed by Sal for Ben result to the latter becoming

popular and murder becoming fashionable and excusable.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The story, “The Apologist” derived its enigmatic atmosphere from the

title and faintly from the ravaging. The title sets mystery on who is the

apologist and what does he have to apologize for to earn that label. The

mystery goes on as the story opens with a skinned and mutilated body of

young boy is displayed in a hotel lobby. The scene creates melding of

mystery and terror as it raises the queries like who murdered the boy and

82
how he could do such a monstrous act, where he is and if there will be

other victims in the future. The mystery of who the murderer is revealed

when he comes back to admire from a distance his crime. This opens

another wonder—why does he do what he does? The most probable

answer to the question which was also implied by his interviews is spine-

chilling for his sole reason for murder is pure thirst for blood. The last

enigma which shows either a desensitized human or a cold-blooded spin-

off man is Sal’s continuous service to his client after Ben killed the

former’s sister.

In this text, the character’s disconnection to other people is a result of

excessive and unchecked power possessed by the leaders of the country

and their family or friends. The said power lead to abuse as well as

impunity. Ben Salvacion’s character in this text is a good illustration of

how political power detaches the heart and mind of a person from the rest

of the society. However, due to economic and political influence, the

character’s apathy could easily be romanticized to appeal to the masses.

This means that disconnection and connection concurrently transpire in the

narrative. His power disconnects him from the commoners, while the

romantization of his public image connects the hearts of the people to him.

The novum inflected in the narrative is not so much of an enigmatic

magical element, but rather a human being’s morbidly mysterious thirst for

blood. This novum is both a result of the disconnection, and a cause for

further disconnection.

83
 The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the

proairetic code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-

N-D/R (disconnection-Novum-Disconnection/Reconnection):

Novum:
the ravaging

Disconnection/
Reconnection:
Disconnection: -disconnection due to the
-Ben's apathy and fear of the masses
detachment fromthe
humanity -reconnection to the
masses due to media
manipulation and
romantization

The diagram showed that this speculative story is propelled by building

and breaking of relations, with the novum (an enigmatic element) at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. Semantic Code

The semantic code refers to the elements in the texts that carry

connotative meanings. The semantic code in “The Apologist” are found in the

actions, words and lines in the narrative.

84
 The first example of this code is in the way Ben Salvacion kills his

victims. He chooses, hunts, mutilates and kills his victims like a predator

devouring preys. Ben’s crimes connote sacrilege, bloodthirst, and play of

power. The torture that the victims undergo before dying in the hands of Ben

show how he treats human beings like animals if not objects of sadistic

amusement, thus, connoting sacrilege on human life. The way he left the bodies

in public view and talks casually about his crimes on air show how he

trivializes life and death. Also, Ben’s killing didn’t spur out of self-defense,

ambition or passion which though undeniably wrong still possess humanness.

Salvacion’s crime is driven by nothing but the sheer pleasure he gets in killing

thereby connoting bloodthirst. Thirdly, the Salvacion’s actions connote play of

power. He is the son of the most powerful man in the country, the Prime

Minister, hence, he is respected and treated with utmost importance.

Additionally, the constitutional amendment immunizes political figures and

their family from prosecution which makes Ben Salvacion untouchable despite

his open crimes. Ben basks in power and freedom to do anything that pleases

him, thus, the country becomes his playground and the lives of the citizen his

playthings. Godlike, Ben decides who lives and who dies, and when and how.

The second example of this code is in the spin-off of the truth about the

murders. The murders were done confidently that pieces of evidence, even the

bodies are left for public view. Also, in his interviews, Ben claims openly that

he is the one behind the murders. Despite the apparent evidence and Ben’s

claims, Sal twists and turns details to deflect aspersion from the public. The

story shows how Sal’s success both normalizes and romanticizes the killing

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spree of his client, thereby connoting that truth can be manipulated and morals

bent by media manipulation and influences.

Lastly, the words and lines used in the story have connotative meanings.

The word, Ravaging, used by Ben to refer to his killing spree denotes

destruction and connotes predation on the masses. On the other hand, Sal’s line

“I have never shirked from impossible challenges” after being asked about

Ben’s murder of his sister signals that Sal, himself has become desensitized to

death even that of his sister.

2. Symbolic Code

“The Apologist” is structured on the basis of binary oppositions. The

binaries in the text consist of predator versus prey, power versus subjects, and

voice versus voiceless.

The first example of this code is the predator-prey opposition of Ben

Salvacion and his victims. The predator-prey roles have been illustrated in the

way Ben picked Delilah, the nurse, as his victim. Ben recounts how he had

entrapped Delilah by befriending her and earning her trust. The contrast here

lies on Ben weaving his plans masked in kindness and charm, and Delilah

charmed and turned vulnerable by the former. The predator-prey opposition is

further highlighted by how Ben held power over his victim. He explains how

he stabbed and tied Delilah and took pleasure peel off with a knife the skin of

the still breathing victim. The predator-prey opposition here can also be likened

to hunter-hunted based on the way Ben reduced his victim to an animal’s meat.

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 The second binary set is power versus subjects which is demonstrated

through again Ben Salvacion and the public. It was stated in the story that

government officials and their family are made immune from prosecution by

former Senator Manny Pacquiao’s constitutional amendment. The

immunization from prosecution results to the public becoming vulnerable to the

abuses of the ones who hold power. This is presented through Ben Salvacion’s

freedom despite openly committing heinous crimes. This binary shows the

contrasting condition between the ruler and the ruled.

The last binary set is the voice versus the voiceless. Ben Salvacion

repeatedly appeared on public talk poetically about his murders. Sal Fabellar,

his spin-off man makes public pronouncements about the creative expressions

of his client. Media deliver opinion and even celebrate Ben’s crimes. They are

the people who have the chance to speak out in public. Their voices are heard,

and their versions of the truth listened to. In contrast to that, the victims and

their families are silent all throughout the story. They don’t have the chance to

speak out, their voices are unheard, their deaths trivialized, and the chance for

justice brushed off.

3. Cultural code

Cultural code refers to the present of cultural references in a text. The

first example of the cultural code in “The Apologist” is the padrino system. The

padrino system happens when someone of power acts as patron to someone to

make the latter get favors and treatments ordinary people don’t receive. The

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text presented padrino system through the immunization of the government

officials and their families from prosecution. Although padrino system is not

constitutionalized in real life, it is very much visible in the Philippine

government and other aspects of the society. To illustrate further, there are a

number of Filipino politicians, businessmen and even celebrity who are not

held accountable for their violations or unlawful acts simply because they are

powerful and influential or are allies of the powerful and influential. The next

example of the cultural code is the normalizing of abuse of power, and the

desensitizing of the public from abuses done by those in power. This is

illustrated by Sal’s spinning off and twisting of the truth about Ben’s crimes.

Sal made Ben’s crime appear normal by openly and constantly discussing it in

media. Sal switches from twisting, denying, trivializing and even romanticizing

Ben’s murders in media, thereby, blurring monstrosity of his deeds. Also, Sal

take turns presenting Ben as mentally disturbed, creatively and exaggeratedly

expressive, and poetic which then turn Ben’s image from a murderer to a

celebrity. This emphasizes how those in power control what media releases,

and how what media releases conditions the mind of the people.

The selected story demonstrates distinct Filipino features. These are

discovered through the semantic, symbolic and cultural analyses of the text.

Based on the semantic analysis, the character of Ben Salvacion connotes crime

and impunity of the government officials and their cronies. Also, Sal Fabellar’s

character connotes how the real life public relations staff and media invalidate,

trivialize and even romanticize crimes and impunity. The symbolic code, on

other hand reveals the binary oppositions of the powerful vs. the powerless.

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 Through the opositions, the insurgent attitude of speculative texts towards

government official’s and their cronies’ abuse of power is illumined. Lastly, the

analyses of the cultural code in the text revealed the allusion to the Philippine

locations, political figures and prevalent politicsl climate, hence positioning the

text in the context of the contemporary Philippine society.

D. “Sky Gypsies” by Timothy James Dimacali

The Text

Timothy James Dimacali’s short story, “Sky Gypsies” was published in 2007 as part

of an anthology of speculative fiction titled “Philippine Speculative Fiction Vol 3” edited

by Dean Alfar.

Sky Gypsies, set in 2084 extrapolated on the possibility establishing a Martian

Colony. In this alternative futuristic text, the ethnic tribe Badjao as well as other Earth

dwellers had transitioned from seafaring to spacefaring. The story revolved around the

mission of Mandali and his son, Sanno to mine platinum in the outer space, specifically the

nearby asteroid belt. These two Badjao, using the 2084 technology braved the outer space

and mined floating asteroids. Their goal was to get as much platinum as they could, but

they have only succeeded in filling five bags with useful yet not remarkable ores. Before

they got back to their ship, Mandali caught sight of an unusual ore which he hid inside his

pocket. When they were about to leave, they were halted by space patrols who checked

their mines and took one bag as toll. Sanno was furious of the abusive actions of the

patrols, but his father calmed him down. When the patrols were gone, Mandali showed the

unusual ore to his son. The unusual ore wasn’t as expensive as the other ores, but it had

89
traces of oxygen in it which means that they harvest more of this stone, they will no longer

be depending on the Outsiders for oxygen generating technology.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

The proairetic code refers to actions that open proceeding events thereby

making the plot propel forward. “Skype Gypsies” is propelled forward by code

of journey which creates both the narrative’s excitement and suspense.

The first instance of the journey motif is the Badjaos, Mandali and

Sanno’s space faring using their Karumarga sail. Mandali and Sanno of the

Sama-Laut tribe work as skyharvesters and they embarked on a space journey

to the nearby asteroid belts to mine platinum and other usable ores. This

opening resembles hero journeys which begin with the protagonist leaving

home to win over battles, seek glory, or bring home a prize. The journey motif

doesn’t end in Mandali and Sanno’s sailing to the outer space, instead it is

further by the challenges and obstacles that the father and son faced. Mandali

had to use dorsal explosives to probe the asteroid belt. With only his tether

connecting him to his ship, and clothed only with white linen hos, Mandali

floats past the whirling rocks to search for platinum and other ores. Mandali’s

previous sea-faring trained him in this job, however, he knows full that any

moment his life could expire if the god, Tuhan wills so. Mandali’s mission to

obtain platinum bears the difficulty and danger which are characteristics of

hero journeys.

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 The Martian Union Police who took one of the bags of the Sama-Laut

also represents adversaries during the mission codes. The next element that

shows journey motif is the is the reddish ore that Mandali found and pcketed.

The reddish ore serves as the prize that Mandali and his son will be bringing

home after a long and difficult journey. The journey back to earth wraps up

the story and parallels the hero journey towards home.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The enigmatic quality of “Sky Gypsies” is evident in the text’s title, the

space-faring prowess of the Sama-Laut, the worship of Tuhan and the reddish

oxygen ore.

The text’s title, “Sky Gypsies” poses questions on what kind of creatures

the sky gypsies are, how they roam the sky, and if the term sky is used literally

or figuratively. These mysteries are answered immediately as the narrative

explains that space travel and space mining has already become possible

together with the success of building Martian colonies.

The story also revealed that the Philippines followed suit in the

development with its ethnic tribes like the Sama-Laut, transferring from sea-

faring to space-faring. The Sama-Laut, as cheap laborers sail through space to

mine platinum and other ores in the nearby asteroid belts. The next enigma is

the space-faring skill of the Sama-Laut. The mystery lies on how these

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Badjao’s with their scanty ship and wearing only linen hos work and mine

more effectively than those of the space-suited Outsiders riding their big and

advanced space ships. Even if the text explained that their skills were earned

through years of sea-faring, the difference between the working condition of

the sea and the space can’t still be ignored.

The third enigma is Mandali and Sanno’s supplication and gratitude

towards Tuhan. The mystery is answered when the text revealed that Tuhan is

the god that the Sama-Laut worship. Contributing to the wonders of Tuhan,

Mandali and Sanno keep faith that it is Tuhan who holds their life and has the

ability to reward or punish them. Mandali even believes that it was through the

good will of Tuhan that he found the reddish ore containing oxygen. The last

enigma in the text is the reddish ore itself. Initially, in the eyes of Sanno the ore

is nothing but a dark tar like rock, but when he looks closer he sees the blue

specks appearing. The rock was further described as a reddish rock covered by

black tar that emanates oxygen. How this rock was formed and how this

produces oxygen remains a mystery. What is left known to the readers is that

possessing that rock entails the chance of the Sama-Laut to be independent

from the Outsiders.

The unit of disconnection in the Sky Gypsies is due to the technological

divide. The Philippine ethnic groups are disconnected if not completely

oblivious to the on-going science developments and rivalries between and

amongst nations. This code of disconnection is followed by the novum, an

enigmatic element that ensures the suspense of the story. The inflection of the

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 novum, in this text’s case, the oxygen ore promises the Sama di Laut’s a

chance to an independent spacefaring thereby implying the impending

disconnection from the Outsiders who control and rob the Sama di Laut’s of the

fruits of their spacework.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the

proairetic code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-R

(disconnection-Novum-disconnection/connection):

Novum:
the mysterious
oxygen ore

Disconnection/
Disconnection: Connection:
-the technological gap or -disconnecting fromthe
divide between the western abusive colonizers
countries and the Filipino -connecting and coping with
ethnic groups
21st century
tech-advancements
The diagram showed that this speculative story is propelled by building and breaking of

relations, with the novum (an enigmatic element) at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

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1. Semantic Code

The elements that have connotative meaning in the texts are the space-

faring, the sky-harvesters, and the Outsiders (the Martian Union Police, and

the pirates).

The first element, space-faring shows human being sailing in the outer

space and mining ores in the planetoids. Space-faring connotes that human

beings’ technology has evolved so much that they haven’t only explored

space, they have also extended their territories and businesses in the outer

space. That territorial lines have been mapped out and union police exists to

patrol demonstrate how human beings have created a systematic way of

exploiting outer space.

The next element are the sky-harvesters, Mandali and Sanno. Mandali

and Sanno aren’t the only sky harvesters in the story, but it was through that

the condition of the ethnic groups were presented. Mandali and Sanno’s

transition from sea-faring to sky harvesting connote that even the ethnic tribes

are driven by societal demands to modernity. The two Sama-Laut’s

remarkable strength and skill in sky harvesting is due to their training in sea-

faring. This condition connotes that though life changes because of scientific

and technological development, Filipinos still thrive because of their

endurance, resiliency and adaptability. Also, the bronze skin of the Sama-Laut,

though was explained as due to exposure to sun’s radiation connote the

Filipinoness of the characters and the hard work they dedicate to their jobs.

The last element with connotative meaning is the Outsiders. The story

implied that the Outsiders are the dominant group that rule over the common

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 sky-harvesters. The Outsiders may be categorized into two, the pirates and the

Martian Union patrol. Whether it is the pirates or the space police, the image

of the Outsiders, in space suit and big armed ships connote fear, abuse and

injustice.

2. Symbolic Code

The story under analysis is structured on the basis of the opposition

between the Sama-Laut and the Outsiders. The Outsiders are presented as the

more powerful of the opposites due to their ship, their spacesuit, their

armaments and their assigned roles.

As described and implied in the text, the Outsiders have advanced and

enclosed spaceships which protect them from the dangers of navigating

through space. In contrast to where the Outsiders rode on, the Sama-laut’s

have a scanty ship that is implied to be more vulnerable than the other sails

out there.

The next contrast is on the clothes as the Outsiders wear spacesuits that

protect their bodies from the whirling rocks around them. On the other hand,

the Sama-laut’s only wear white linen hos which implies to offer no

protection in case they get hit by whirling objects.

The third contrast is on the assigned roles as the Outsiders are placed

in privileged position while the Sama-lauts in the subjected position. This

contrast is illustrated by the detail that the Outsiders are the ones who control

and regulate space activities and exploits forcing the Sama-laut to work under

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 the former’s rules. Another element that makes the Sama-laut the less

privileged is their dependence on the Outsiders in getting oxygen generation

which is needed for space sail. Initially, the binary opposition here presents

the Outsiders as the privileged and the Sama-laut as the underprivileged,

however two elements overturn the opposition. For one, the Sama-laut prove

to be the naturally stronger and adaptable group as though they don’t have

enclosed ships and space suits, they can survive the dangers that the sky

harvesting imposes. The other element that overturns the binary is Mandali’s

discovery of a rock that emits oxygen due to an unknown chemical reaction.

It may be recalled that part of their group’s being underprivileged is because

of their dependence on the Outsider’s oxygen generator, but since the Sama-

laut has discovered a way to produce their own oxygen, it will not be long till

they will no longer be needing the former.

3. Cultural code

The story, “Sky Gypsies” have references on a Filipino ethnic group,

the Sama Dilaut. In the text, Mandali and his son, Sanno are members of the

Sama-laut which is a derivation of the name Sama Dilaut. According to

Nimmo (2001), Sama Dilaut is a subset of a bigger ethnic group called Sama.

Sama Dilaut means Sama of the Sea which is used by the sea dwellers to

differentiate themselves from shore-dwellers. The Samas which are also

known as Bajaus (or Badjaos) are from the Sulu archipelago and eastern

Borneo. Mandali and Sanno’s sea-faring turned space-faring skills are based

on the Sama Dilaut as the latter dwell in, and get their means of survival in the

sea. The next cultural code is the reference on ethnic religious belief which

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 was demonstrated through the Mandali and Sanno’s faith on Tuhan. Tuhan, in

the malay language means the highest or god. The supplication of Mandali to

Tuhan, “Guide our rudders to the water of true life, atahah kalluman” shows

that the Samas believe in the existence of a god that guide and help human

beings. The father and son’s recurrent supplication and gratitude towards

Tuhan shows Filipinos’ religiosity. Lastly, the use of the words “shaitan”

which means “evil”, and “atahah kalluman” which means “help our

livelihood” both demonstrate the text’s reference to Philippine languages.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic,

symbolic and cultural code revealed the distinct Filipino features of the “Sky

Gypsies”. The semantic analysis showed that the characters are connotative of

strength of will –power, physical faculty, and spirituality, all of which survival

traits that the ethnic Filipinos have in facing their harsh environment. The

symbolic analysis, on the other hand, showed the binary oppositions of

powerful versus the powerless in the context of technological advancement.

Signalling the text’s insurgent attitude towards the seat of power, the inflection

of the novum, oxygen ore signaled an impending equity in if not reversal of

fortune of the oppositions in the binary. Lastly, the cultural code analysis

bared the text’s allusion to the Filipino ethnic group, Samas or Badjaos,

highlighting their strength and survival skills.

E. “Anthropomorpha” by Crystal Koo

The Text

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 Crystal Koo’s short speculative story, “Anthropomorpha” was published in

2014 in “Philippine Speculative Fiction Volume 9” edited by Andrew Drilon and

Charles Tan.

The story opened by describing Luz’s struggle when she was still a marcupo.

Like other anthros, she had to cover herself up with human form whenever in public

lest she would be arrested. The problem with covering up in human form was that

anthros usually had the urge to shift back in the most inconvenient moments. She had

applied for license to live as she was, but she was rejected since a marcupo was

considered very severe in the list of anthros threats. Luz went under a permanent

mutagenic operation performed by Dr. Cardoso which turned her into a homo sapiens.

To pay for the operation, she worked as Dr. Cardoso’s secretary.

Meanwhile, at a park in Quezon Memorial, another character in the name of

Tai was listening in a rally. The union was fighting for the anthros’ right to live as

who they really were without needing a license. After the rally, Tai went to Dr.

Cardoso’s clinic not to have a mutagenic operation but to convince people to be part

of their union’s cause. Her pamphleteering and her shifting of form made Luz call the

guards to send the former away. Ashamed Tai shifted back to human form and walked

away. At a nearby park, she met Dominic, the union leader, now dressed in human

form. Tai contemplated at how the strong and confident form of the Siokoy Dominic

contrasted the limping form of the short man before her. They talked about why they

were both by the park until the topic drifted to the suicide of Romualdo, a kapre who

was also part of the union. The story then shifted to the past to reveal why Luz

underwent a mutagenic operation. Her parents were sapiens, but when she was twelve

years old she found out she was an anthro due to recessive genes. When her parents

98
found out, her father told her to always be in human form in public and to never let

him see her marcupo form. Her mom on the other hand started avoiding her. Her

parents along other reasons drove her to have the operation. The story shifted back to

Tai’s meeting with Dominic which then revealed he wanted to have a mutagenic

operation himself. Tai feeling betrayed transformed into a garuda and killed Dominic.

Then, she went to Dr. Cardoso’s clinic to have an immediate operation, but Luz told

her the doctor wasn’t around. Tai told Luz different versions of what happened to

Dominic. Luz felt a strong and unexplainable hunger inside her as she looked at Tai.

Before the thought of devouring a young bird consume her, Luz ran to the bathroom.

When she came back Tai was gone, and what she saw instead was the dead Siokoy.

Luz’s body transformed back into a marcupo, and though she believed it was wrong,

she also felt it was right to eat the Siokoy. When Tai came back, she saw the lifeless

coil of the marcupo’s swollen body. Tai shifted to a garuda, lifted the marcupo using

her talons and flew away.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

The narrative of “Anthropomorpha” is propelled forward by the motifs

of transformation, connection and disconnection. In the text, Tai, Luz, Dominic

and the rest of the Anthros are discriminated and othered by the Sapiens.

Anthros are beings with the activated recessive genes of the Philippine mystic

creatures like the garuda, siokoy, marcupo and others. The discriminating laws

and treatments of the Sapiens towards the anthros equate to differentiation and

disconnection from the deemed lower forms of beings. The Anthros aim

to overcome this disconnection and become lawfully included in the society they

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live in, but their means of working towards this goal differ from one group to

another. The other anthros resort to mutagenic operations while the others resort

to rallies and protests.

The anthros who have resorted to mutagenic operations to become

permanently sapiens become disconnected from their fellow anthros, yet

ironically not completely connected to the sapiens. Even if they have gained the

forms of the sapiens, they still have the consciousness and feelings of the

anthros inside them which made them disconnected to both the sapiens and the

anthros. Luz’s character illustrates the patterns of connection, disconnection and

transformation of the anthros who have had the operation. Luz was born a

sapiens and has sapiens parents, however, due to the activation of recessive

genes Luz had her first transformation when she was twelve years old. The

discovery made her parents recoil from her which resulted to Luz being

alienated from the family that she grew up in and disconnected to both her

former sapiens self and present anthro self. To regain the connection and sense

of belongingness that she lost, Luz had the operation years after. Even if the

operation was successful, and Luz appeared completely human, her parents’

affection didn’t return. Luz didn’t get the assimilation that she had hoped for,

but instead detached her life from her true inner identity hiding in beneath her

acceptable humanness.

The other anthros refuse to have mutagenic operations and take the

cause to the streets instead where they bravely declare their anthro forms and the

rights they acclaim for. This group of anthros don’t want to become sapiens to

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gain a sense of belongingness rather, they want to be recognized, accepted and

given equal rights and respect for who they really are—anthropomorphs. Their

public appearances and movements result to some of them getting arrested or

receiving violent treatments from sapiens. Tai, a young garuda is one of the

anthros who try to convince others to keep their original forms and revolt

against the system. Though Tai feels disconnection from the society, she feels a

strong connection to the cause lead by Dominic and other anthros. The

disillusionment of Tai comes when Dominic, the siokoy reveals that he himself

want to have a mutagenic operation. Tai feels disconnected from the only thing

that gives her a sense of belongingness. After accidentally killing Dominic, Tai

decides to have mutagenic operation herself.

The meeting of the three anthros, Tai (a garuda), Luz (a former

anthro), and the lifeless body of Dominic (the siokoy) signals a return to one’s

own identity, a reconnection with fellow anthropomorhs, and a reconnection

with the self. Luz, despite the promised permanence of the operation transform

back to her original form and swallows the dead body of the siokoy. Tai, the

garuda sees the lifeless marcupo who has swallowed a siokoy. She lifts it and

flies away with its body in her talons. The ending shows both the return, the

union, and the flight for freedom of the othered anthros.

2. Hermeneutic Code

“Anthropomorpha” has enigmatic elements that influence the

propelling actions and events in the narrative. The story’s mysterious quality is

derived from the presence of the anthros and the mutagenic operations.

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 The text reveals that the anthros are human beings with the ability to

transform into mystic beings like siokoy and others. Their transformation ability

a result of their genetic make ups which is evident in the minority of the Filipino

population. The text doesn’t give much details about the origins and nature of

the anthros which make them mysteriously scary for the sapiens in the story, and

mysteriously inviting for the readers. What adds to the enthralling quality of the

anthros is the fact that not all anthros were born anthros but for some genetic

lottery had had their recessive anthro genes activated at a certain age.

The second mystery code in the text is the mutagenic operation. The

story hints that the operation surgical irreversibly transforms the anthros into

sapiens. How the operation is conducted by Dr. Cardoso is not revealed in the

narrative. To amplify the mystery of the anthros’ beings, Luz, an anthro who

had an irreversible mutagene transformed back to her original form due to an

unexplainable insatiable hunger. The turn of events leaves to question whether

the operation failed in Luz’s case, or the result of the operation is not permanent

at all, or that there is an inner fire within anthros that though forcefully pushed

back can’t be contained forever.

The narrative opened with the disconnection of the characters, the strange

minority from the majority, the human members of the society. In the text, it is

the inflection of the two novums, the mystical gene and the mutagenic

operation that influence the breaking and building of relations in the text. The

first novum, the activation of the recessive mystical gene trait of the anthros is

responsible for their transformation into ancient Philippine mystical creatures.

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 The anthros’ strange forms illicit fear, disgust and hatred from the human

members of the society. The inflection of the second novum, the mutagenic

operation, presented a chance for the anthros to disconnect from their anthro

identity in favor of reassimilation to the human society. The limitation of this

novum, however, results in the final dissimilation from the sapiens, and the

reassimilation to their mystical identity.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the proairetic

code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-D/R

(disconnection-Novum-Disconnection/Reconnection):

Novum:
-the "mystical
creature" gene of the
anthros
-mutagenic operation

Disconnection/Recon
Disconnection: nection:
-the -dissimilation from
discrimination of the society
the anthros -assimilation with the
mystical self

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 The diagram showed that this speculative story is propelled by building and

breaking of relations, with the novum (an enigmatic element) at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. Semantic Code

The story “Anthropomorpha”, contains semantic elements also known as

connotative elements. The anthros’ mystic forms connote inner identities deemed

unacceptable due to their nonconformity to the majority. The characters of the

three anthros, Luz, Dominic and Tai, and their predicaments connote the othering,

discrimination and alienation of the less privileged minorities. Through these three

characters, human reactions to discrimination and othering were illustrated. Luz’s

character signals human beings attempt to conform despite the demand of

shedding off one’s true identity. On the other hand, the character of Dominic

signals a façade of revolution against the Big others—in this text, the sapiens—

while secretly nurturing a plan imitate if not become one with the Big others.

Lastly, the character of Tai, shows a young idealistic individual who seeks to end

the fallible system only to be disillusioned by the betrayal of the revolt leader.

Towards the end of the story, even Tai’s last resort to societal assimilation—the

mutagenic operation—disillusions her when she finds Luz’s dead marcupo body.

Dominic’s death, Luz’s return to her original form, and Luz’s swallowing of the

former’s corpse connote that one cannot escape one’s true identity even after

death. Tai’s transformation to a garuda, and her lifting of the corpses as she flies

above the city connotes that only those who have remained true themselves have

the chance to live, and to be truly free.

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 2. Symbolic Code

“Anthropomorpha’s” plot is held together by the oppositions between the

sapiens and the anthros, the former being the privileged and the latter being the

subjugated. Several other oppositions rise from the first like the subversives vs.

the mutagenes, and life vs. death.

The opposition between the sapiens vs. the anthros is the pillar of the story

as the inner and outer conflicts all originated from the hatred, fear and disgust felt

by the former for the latter. The sapiens are implied as the normal and acceptable

human while the anthros are human beings with the blood of the mystic creatures

that walk the Philippines in the ancient times, in the times of the anitos. The

anthros have the ability as well as the urge to transform into the form of mystic

being that they have in their bloods, like siokoy, kapre and others. Due to their

anthro forms, anthros are deemed severely dangerous by the government, hence,

they are either arrested or killed when seen in their natural form. To stay alive,

they must secure a license to exist as anthros with second rate citizens’ rights and

innumerable limitations. The wretched state of the anthros create a strong desire

for acceptance and inclusion amongst them. This desire results to the second

opposition in the story, those who fight for equality and those who resort to

mutagenic operations. The first carry their causes in the streets and openly declare

revolt to be accepted for who they are while the second undergo surgery to

remove their anthro identity and attain sameness with the sapiens. Both

movements open the third opposition, life versus death. Towards the end of the

text, Luz who had the operation and Dominic who initially revolts but eventually

wanted the operation both died, leaving behind Tai.

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 3. Cultural code

The cultural code refers to the elements that signal distinct Filipino beliefs,

traditions and practices. “Anthropomorpha” used the Filipino superstitious beliefs

on mystic creatures to weave a plot on the subjects of exclusion, imitation and

othering.

The anthros in the text are described as human beings with the genes of the

ancient mystic creatures. The anthros of the text illustrate Filipinos’ beliefs on

fantastic creatures that exists in Philippine folktales and urban legends like the

kapre, wakwak, sarangay, garuda, siokoy and marcupo. Twined with the use of the

mystic creatures as characters is the use of the Filipino belief in magic which

explains the capability of the anthros to morph back and forth human form and

mystic form. Also present in the narrative is the popular culture of undergoing

surgical enhancements and transformations which are borrowed for the story’s

mutagenic operations.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic, symbolic

and cultural code revealed the distinct Filipino features of the “Anthropomorpha”.

The semantic analysis showed that the characters are connotative of the

experiences of the marginalized and discriminated members of the society. The

symbolic analysis, on the other hand, showed the binary oppositions of norm

versus the strange where the former is the privileged and the latter underprivileged.

The text showed the underprivileged clamor for societal assimilation even at the

expense of shedding off identity. The limitation of the novum, the mutagenic

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 operation showed the narrative’s implicit position that the dissimilation from the

self in exchange for the assimilation to the majority results not to the formation of

an inclusive society, but rather results in the death of an individual’s identity.

Lastly, the cultural code analysis bared the text’s allusion to the mystical beings in

pre-colonial literary tradition and spiritual beliefs.

F. “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night”

by Vida Cruz

The Text

Vida Cruz’s fiction “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on

Opening Night” was published in 2014 in an anthology of speculative stories titled,

Philippine Speculative Fiction Vol. 9 edited by Andrew Drilon and Charles Tan.

“First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night” is

written in the form of several interconnected journalistic pieces. The story unfolds

Herrera’s article about the opening night of Jerald Bulan’s musical play, Noladi in

the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP). The North Luzon’s 12, 394-line epic

poem, Noladi revolves around the female tikbalang named Noladi who has insulted

the sea god, Haik who in turned cursed her to have a human form. To regain her true

form, she travelled to the ends of the archipelago where she has fought wars, incurs

diwatas’ jealousies, and gains mortal suitors. This play is performed when the sun is

out while it is raining—as this type of weather signals the wedding of tikbalangs.

Bulan’s musical adaptation received a lot of criticisms and protests from

people since it is the first play to use mythic beings as both the subject, the casts, and

the production staff. However, despite the innumerable protesters outside CCP, he

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 with Madirawen—the female tikbalang playing the lead role Noladi— still joyfully

greeted and received the guests. To Bulan, whether the reactions are negative or

positive, they still count as attention which is good for his show.

Bulan’s inspiration for adapting Noladi can be traced back to when he was 16

when he dreamt of seeing a Tikbalang. Bulan’s actors and staff tried their best to

meet his ambitious demands, but when the multi-awarded Elysia Bernadino, head of

Production Design quit, a lot of people quit with her. This turned Bulan to sought the

power of the mythic beings not only for playing lead roles but also creating the

setting and other effects. Other artists find Bulan’s acts as insults to art as art is

meant to reflect life and not life recreating art. Churches and religious groups find

the play an abomination of values, government officials find it a security threat to

people, while more liberal ones find it an exploitation of the mythic beings. The

attitude of Bulan and the others signal that whether people like it or not, the play will

be there for a long time. Herrera’s article then, closes with the dates of the shows,

September 1 to December 1.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

The plot of the text is propelled forward by the code of ambitious pursuits

which lead the main character, Bulan’s building and breaking of ties. The story

began with Bulan, a musical play director, and Madirawen, a tikbalang joyously

greeting and receiving audiences to the opening night of Noladi in the Cultural

Complex of the Philippines. The persistence of the musical play despite the

numerous critics, rallyists and picketers against it signals Bulan’s pride and

unwavering ambitious pursuit of theatrical perfection. While the present time frame

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 proceeds, bits and pieces of the past actions of Bulan that lead to his affiliation with

the mystical beings were revealed. The text portrayed Bulan as a creative genius

who had won Palanca awards and had previous successful musical productions.

Bulan’s success lead him to aspire for greater achievements which lead him to seek

for inspirations beyond mortal subjects resulting to him drifting towards mystical

subjects and mystical beings. Inspired by his visions of a tikbalang when he was

young, Bulan decided to seek more information about the said creature in North

Luzon where he had learned about Noladi, the tikbalang’s epic poem about the title-

character, Noladi, a tikbalang punished by the sea god, Haik. Bulan’s new piece has

complicated details which his production team, staff, and actors tried their best to

bring to reality. Bulan was dissatisfied with the works of his team, for as creative as

they were, they couldn’t make the setting and props as realistic as what Bulan

wanted. Bulan, then broke his ties with his human team and ask for the help of the

mystical beings instead. In replacing his human team with mystical beings

manipulating scenes with magic, Bulan did not only change staff but broke

friendships which then demonstrates the code of breaking and building or

connecting and disconnecting. On a different note, though Bulan’s actions

disconnected him from the fellow mortals, his pursuits brought the mystical beings

to the cities to meld with human beings.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The enigma of the text under analysis lies on how Bulan convinced the mystical

beings to work for him. The mystical beings like diwata, kapre, tikbalang and elves

in the text are already enigmatic in and of themselves, but it was increased by how

these mystical beings used their powers to create real settings in place of the

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articial ones that Bulan’s former team could have made. The greatest enigma in the

text is on how Bulan convinced the mystical creatures to work for him. It was

stated that he had offered payment for their services, but the price for their

participation in his musical play still remained a mystery. The other characters in

the text surmised that the price wasn’t money and whatever that was could be dark

and grim.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the proairetic code

and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-C (disconnection-

Novum-Connection):
Novum:
-mystical creatures
-the 'pay' Bulan
promised the
mystical creatures

Disconnection:
Connection:
-Bulan's quest
establishing ties
for mystic with the mystical
integration in beings
the theatre
In the text, the disconnection unit is incited by Bulan’s ambition to make the

theatrical productions hyper-realistic to the point of actually employing the help

mystical beings to create real magical atmostphere which should have been

presented through human being’s creative productions of props and special effects.

His ministrations ired the general public and severed his relationship with friends,

thus, a narrative unit of disconnection. The novum inflected at the heart of this

disconnection is the enigma of the powers of the mystical creatures and the

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 payment they demand of Bulan in exchange for their service. The novum further

the breakage of Bulan’s human relations and concurrently further his building of

ties with mystical beings.

The narrative grammar or pattern that has just been dicussed, and illustrated

through a diagram shows that the Philippine Speculative stories are propelled by

the codes of building and breaking of relations with the novum, an element of

mystery at their center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. Semantic Code

The text under discussion has elements with connotative meanings. The

first element with the connotative meaning is the character of Bulan whose

name means moon. Since the image of full moon is associated with darkness,

witching hour, and increasing of supernatural powers, its presence connotes the

presence of mystical beings. This is supported by the fact that in the text, Bulan

served as the bridge between the mortals and the mystics, if not the harbinger of

the latter. The next element with connotative meaning is Elysia’s walking away

from Bulan’s team. Her quitting resulted to the staff’s mutiny, thus,

connotatively showing the breaking of ties with his human friends and building

ties with his mystical team. The last element that has connotative meaning is

Bulan’s use of real scenes and situations created by his mystics’ power. This

shows that Bulan wasn’t using art to imitate reality, but rather magically creates

reality to imitate the aesthetic effects of arts. This element reverberates with the

idea that things don’t need to be real for them to be considered art, for it is the

creative inventions to reflect life that makes art art.

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2. Symbolic Code

The Symbolic code pertains to the oppositions that served as the

pillars of the text. The plot of the selected text is anchored on three

oppositions: human beings vs. mystic beings, artificial vs. real, and art vs.

life. The first binary set is observed on the human production team and the

mystic production staff. The human production team have been with Bulan

for a long time and have already made remarkable props and set ups for his

works. Bulan hired the service of the mystic creatures to do same job his

human team have been doing for a long time. The contrast here is shown in

the limitations of human abilities and the infinite possibilities the mystics’

powers can afford. No matter how beautiful and life like the inventions of

human beings, they were still artificial and couldn’t present everything that

Bulan’s masterpiece demanded. Thus, Bulan summoned the power of the

supernatural beings to bring real settings and situations that the audience

could see, hear and feel. This leads to the second binary set, artificial versus

real, and the last binary set, art versus life. Human beings’ ability to create

have limitations, so their inventions were just artificial, make-believe while

the mystic’s were real. Bulan, in search for perfection has opted for the real

over the artificial which opens the binary of art versus life. Bulan forced to

create the real in his theatrical production which originally meant to be a

reflection of the real. Bulan reversed the function of the two, instead of art

imitating life, it was life playing as art in from of a spectacle.

3. Cultural code

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 The story has cultural references on Philippine beliefs. Philippine

culture is rich in supernatural beliefs, mystic beings and folklores which were

alluded to when the story used mythic beings like kapre, duwende, diwata

and tikbalang as characters. The story also showed the belief that though

these creatures exist, they exist in their own sanctuaries where melding with

mortals isn’t possible. Aside from the mythical beings, there were other

traces of Filipinoness presented like the inclusion of the prestigious literary

award, Palanca in narrative, the use of Cultural Complex of the Philippines as

setting, and the use of the Filipino word, bulan.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic,

symbolic and cultural code revealed the distinct Filipino features of the “First

Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night”. The semantic

analysis showed the character of Bulan as connotative of ambition that incites

breakage of human relations. Also, his ventures on replacing creative human

productions with real magical situations produced by mystical beings connotes

artists’ dilemma of choosing between artistic inventions, and realism.

The symbolic analysis, on the other hand, showed the binary

oppositions of art versus the real. In showing the realism as the favored mode

of expression of Bulan, the text was able to deliver the implicit message that

the intensive inclination to realism results to the delimits imagination and

dissolves opportunity for artistic inventions.

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 Lastly, the cultural code analysis showed the text’s allusion to the

Philippine literature (the Palanca awards, the literary dilemma of realism

versus artistic invention, a Philippine epic), precolonial Filipino beliefs on

mystical beings.

G. “Press Release” by Leo Magno

The Text

Leo Magno’s short story “Press Releases” was published in 2009 in an

anthology of speculative stories titled, Philippine Speculative Fiction Vol. 4 edited by

Dean Francis Alfar and Nikki Alfar

“Press Release”, set in a distant future 2108 in North Maharlika, is written in the

form of fragmented yet interconnected releases of information. The story began with

execution of Col. Fedrico Barrera, an agent of North Maharlika-Military Information

Services (NM-MIS) for thirteen years. According to the Bureau of Corrections North

Maharlika, the Greater Manilakati Regional Trial Court found Barrera guilty of treason

and is sentenced to death by cardiovascular- and neurological- oxygen deprivation.

President Samantha Gomez-Lee explained that the reason for the execution is to

maintain the security of North Maharlika from warmongers and southern influences of

South Maharlika.

The president recalled how her great grandfather, former president Ricardo

Gomez changed the name of the country from “Philippines” to Maharlika in 2030. She

emphasized how Ricardo Gomez eradicated insurgencies by containing separatist in

Visayas and Mindanao thereby creating a virtual wall that separates the North

Maharlika from the South Maharlika. Maharlika Acct 5152 bans communications,

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travel, and trade with people from the South. Ever since the virtual wall has been

created, the two territories became isolated from each other. In North Maharlika, it has

been known that the life in South Maharlika is chaotic and poverty stricken in contrast

to what they release to international media. North Maharlikans believe that the

southerners, with their President Tom Osmena are a threat to the stability of the North;

hence, the government looked for ways to gather military information about the

enemies. Unbeknownst to both the people of the North and the South, the real plan of

the North Maharlika government is to destroy and occupy the south. Gen Matthew

Ocampo, the director of NM-MIS sent Col. Barrera on a mission to astral project to the

south.

After twelve hours of astral projection, Barrera returned to his corporeal body

screaming and seemingly mentally unstable. Doctor Joy Quentin Paredes is sent by the

government to assess Barrera’s mental stability. During their interview, Barrera talks

about the lies, corruption, theft, absence of basic education, and health care in the land

of the enemies. He talks about the poverty stricken citizens neglected by the

exploitative socialites. He also talks about the enemies’ plan to contaminate the water to

wipe out all the citizens of the south. At first, Paredes thought Barrera refers to the

southerners as the enemies, but Barrera reveals that he isnt Barrera. He is Captain

Sidney Mercader Galici of South Maharlika Intel Division. He has accidentally

swapped corporeal bodies with Barrera when they touched hands. He then reiterated

that the evils he is talking about are the plans of the North Maharlika. Captain Galici

wants to be released, and he knows only death can release him. Captain Galici, who

everybody believes is Barrera is executed to avoid the leak of the government’s

treachery. The story closes with Oliva, the editor of The Maharlikan, rewording but

releasing the same content of the government’s press release.

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Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

The story under analysis is interwoven by death, connection, and

disconnection. The death code is used in the opening of the text where the

execution of Col. Fedrico Barrera was announced after the alleged treachery to

the North Maharlikan government. The death code here doesn’t lead to other

actions but instead the endpoint of all the other actions. Following the

presentation of his execution is the backstory where the motif of connection

and disconnection were used. In the backstory, North Maharlika and South

Maharlika used to be together as one country called the Philippines, but it was

renamed to Maharlika which was eventually separated on the pretext of

maintaining peace. This detail presents connection-disconnection where the

country and its people used to be one before they were divided by political

reasons. The next disconnection code is the separation of Col. Barrera from his

body and his country when he went astral projection. This code of is followed

by the union or connection motif when the astral bodies of Col. Barrera and

Captain Galici met and felt nostalgic kinship towards each other. The moment

their hands touched mark the union of the citizens of the two territories long

separated by virtual and political barriers. This shows that despite the political

propagandas, rivalries and isolations, they were still citizens of one Maharlika.

They were still brothers. This event is followed by the disconnection motif

when the physical contact of the two sent Barrera to the corporeal body of

Galici, and Galici to the corporeal body of Barrera. The corporeal exchange

lead to Galici’s discovery of the genocide plans of the North against the South.

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 This revelation marks the disconnection of the projected ideal image of the

North from its real condition. Galici, trapped in the body of Barrera wished to

die as it was the only way for him to be free. His death equates to the

disconnection code as it frees him from the claws of the North and from the

horrors of the political rivalries.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The “Press Release’s” enigmas present themselves through the title,

the character, the setting, and scientifically extrapolated situations. The title,

“Press Release” creates the mystery of what important information was

released to the public. This enigma was immediately solved in the opening of

the text when the execution of Col. Barrera was announced. The execution

however opened another mystery: why is Col. Barrera—an agent of NM-MIS

for thirteen years—executed? What did he actually do that could be equated to

treachery? Before this enigma was solved, a backstory explained that North

Maharlika and South Maharlika used to be one country called the Philippines.

The enigma here didn’t last long as it was immediately explained that former

Pres. Ricardo Gomez changed the name to Maharlika, and separated the North

from the South to contain his oppositions in Visayas and Mindanao. To

separate the two countries, a virtual wall was built. The virtual wall is also an

element of enigma as the building process, the characteristics, and operation

process were not explained, yet it was hinted in the text that the two countries

were totally isolated from each other by the virtual walls. The fourth enigma is

the use of astral projection as tactic to get military information from the

enemies. It was hinted in the story that a few Maharlikans have the ability to

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 astral project, and some of them have stronger astral projection abilities than

the rest. This detail makes the reader wonder about was astral projection

discovered, how does it actually happen, how are the agents trained to do it,

and what equipment are used to conduct this. The fifth enigma is the corporeal

body exchange of Galici and Barrera. This opens the question of whether it was

their souls or their consciousness that were exchanged, and if there was a

chance for them to go back to their real bodies. The last mystery is on what

happened to the real Barrera when he was transported to Galici’s body in Cebu.

This last enigma was never solved in the text.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of

the proairetic code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-

N-R (disconnection-Novum-Reconnection):

Novum:
-Virtual wall
-astral projection

Disconnection:
-divison between Reconnection:
North and South -the encounter and
Maharlika swapping of astral
-Col. Barrera's bodies of Col. Barrera
mission to South and Col. Galici
The first instance
Maharlika of the disconnection code is traceable in the division

between North and South Maharlika. This disconnection is enforced by the

narrative inflection of the novum, virtual wall which ensures crossing the borders

of the North and South is impossible thereby ensuring zero interaction between the

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 people of each territories. The second instance of the disconnection code appeared

in the form of literal albeit scientific disconnect, specifically in Col. Barrera’s

mission that requires him to leave North Maharlika and spy on South Maharlika.

The inflection of the novum, astral projection made it possible for Barrera’s astral

body to cross the virtual wall. His passage to North Maharlika and his encounter

with the Southerner, Col. Galici exemplifies connection/reconnection unit as it

symbolically signals the convergence of the two estranged halves of Maharlika.

The narrative grammar or pattern that has just been dicussed, and illustrated

through a diagram shows that this narrative is moved forward by the disconnection

and connection codes with the novum, a scientific extrapolated object at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. Semantic Code

The text has two elements with connotative meanings: a.) the name of the

land, Maharlika; and, b.) the recurrent use of the word release.

In the story, the north and south territories used to be one country named

Maharlika. Maharlika connotes aristocracy and nobility which represent the

nation’s dignity and rich cultural identity before it was divided by political forces.

The division lead to the rise of North Maharlika which was formerly known as

Luzon, and the South Maharlika made up of Visayas and Mindanao. The

separation of the two territories and the division of the citizens lead to a new

connotative meaning for the word, Maharlika. Maharlika, in the North now does

not refer to the dignity of the citizens but the enthroned politicians who enjoy the

socio-economic exploitation of the country. The government officials, allies and

cronies became the maharlikas in the poverty-stricken nation.

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 The next element that has connotative meaning is the word release

which appeared in the text several times. The word release first appeared in the

title, “Press Release” which signals an announcement of a very important event

in the country. The word release appeared next in the different sections of the

texts: Barrera’s release, Executioner’s release, Malacanang’s release,

Senate’s release, Psychiatric release, Sexual release, and Media release. In

the first section of the text, Barrera’s death was stated, and the word release

here is equivalent to death—only death freed Barrera. In the next section, it was

the Bureau of Correction who delivered its press release about Barrera’s

execution due to High Treason. The first and second uses of the word release

are both about the death of Col. Barrera, however, the difference lies on who or

what was released by whom. In the first, Barrera was released from his

suffering while in the second, the executioner released its justification for

killing Barrera. The release in the second section intends to emphasize the

power of Manilakati Regional Trial Court, the justice that has been served, and

a warning for future dissenters. The third and fourth release, Malacanang’s and

the Senate’s both present justifications for killing Barrera. The third release

emphasized that the execution was meant to maintain the country’s security.

On the other hand, the fourth emphasized Barrera’s frailty as an agent, as a

human being when he was implied by Gen. Francis as crazy. The fourth

release, the psychiatric release reveals that Barrera wasn’t crazy, in fact, he

wasn’t even Barrera but Galici trapped in the former’s corporeal body. In this

section, the evil plans of President Gomez-Lee and Gen. Francis towards the

South Maharlika revealed, which was in a way a form of release. The sixth

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 occurrence of the word release was in Sexual release which signals the betrayal

Gomez-Lee and Francis not only to their partners but to the nation. The last

occurrence of release, Media release is about the treason by and execution of

Col. Barrera. In the text, Media release wasn’t based on any journalistic

investigation nor an editorial but merely a careful rewording and repeating of

the information released by the government. As a whole the action “release”

was done by the government which means everything is controlled by those in

power, and that the information that circulate are the ones created by the same

government.

2. Symbolic Code

The plot of “Press Release” is woven by binary oppositions. The first

binary opposition is presented through the North Maharlika and the South

Maharlika. The two nation’s opposition does not only lie in their locations but

on how the two country were described in the text. In North Maharlika, the

government claim that the enemy, South Maharlika was chaotic, poverty-

stricken, ill-willed and a threat to the security of the former. The next set of

opposites is Barrera and Galici, both working on separate military intelligence

services. Their position and role were the same but what made them opposites

were the opposing governments they were working under, and the causes they

were fighting for. The last binary set is between the government and the

masses. In the story, it was the government that controlled everything which is

evident on how it manufactured the truths that force-fed to the people. The

masses in the text were absent characters which signals how they were silenced

not by physical force but by ideological conditioning—they were conditioned

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to believe that the government was concerned with the welfare of the citizens,

and to swallow that the South Maharlika was socio-economically crippled and

politically corrupted.

3. Cultural Code

The text represented Filipino culture by referencing to words and

sentences from Philippine languages, actual names of people and places,

mystical beliefs. The first cultural reference is the use of Philippine languages

which was evident in the words maharlika, ginoo, sama sa sagad mahitabo,

giabot ug kamingaw. Maharlika is a Tagalog word which means aristocracy or

nobility. Ginoo, on the other hand has two different meanings: in Tagalog, it

means gentleman while in Cebuano, it means God. In the story, “Press

Release” it was used as a Cebuano expression by Galici, an agent from the

South. The two other phrases, sama sa sagad mahitabo (death is the only

release) and giabot ug kamingaw (grief has come) are both sentences from

Cebuano language. The next cultural reference is the use of the names Ricardo

Gomez, Samantha Gomez-Lee, and Osmena. Ricardo Gomez is an alternative

name for a real person, a Filipino celebrity named Richard Gomez who once

ran and lost in a senatorial election. Samantha Gomez-Lee’s name is borrowed

from Richard Gomez’s daughter’s name, Samantha. Also, Osmena is well-

known name in the political field in the Philippines. Actual names of places

were also used and reinvented for the text like Luzon (which became North

Maharlika), Visayas and Mindanao (which became South Maharlika), Cebu,

and Manilakati (a melding of the city names, Manila and Makati). Lastly, the

text used Filipinos’ beliefs on mystical and psychic abilities like astral

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 projection. In the story, astral projection was used as a tactic for the military

intelligence services to get the information from the enemies.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic,

symbolic and cultural code revealed the thematic features of the text. The

semantic analysis showed that the characters in the story are connotative of the

social, economic and political conditions of the masses under a corrupt

leadership. The symbolic analysis, on the other hand, showed the binary

oppositions between the powerful and the powerless, the government and the

governed, and good and evil. The government, in the text used its power to

manipulate media information, and brainwash its citizens into directing their

socio-economic despair on the projected “enemy”, the South Maharlikans.

Lastly, the cultural code analysis bared the text’s allusion to the political

atmosphere of the Philippines: swarming of celebrities in government

positions, cronyism, media manipulation, and blame-game.

H. “And These were the Names of the Vanished” by Rochita-Loenen Ruiz

The Text

The selected speculative story “And These were the Names of the Vanished” was

published in 2014 in “The Best of Philippine Speculative Fiction Volume 9” edited by

Andrew Drilon and Charles Tan.

The story is set in a small continent called Lualhati. Lualhati, obscure and

“uncivilized” was helped and trained by the Compassionate. The Compassionate claimed

to only want the best for the welfare of the people in Lualhati, but many citizens like

Piray questioned the real intention of the Compassionate. If the latter really wanted the

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best for the citizens, Piray wonders why the latter can’t let them lead themselves and live

as who they are. On the promise of independence, the Compassionate allowed the

election of Lualhati’s leader, Sarrat Norte. The people rejoiced at first, but were

dismayed to find out that the Leader-Elect was still working under the Compassionate,

and the rights, power, and licenses of lands were ceded over to the PF. Others turned a

blind eye while others like Piray revolted. Seven thousand five hundred seven days after

the right to self-governance was given, Sarrrat announced his vision to create a new

society. Piray was to meet Sarrat in her studio. She planned to tell him the platforms she

has listed from the ideas of the people from the commons, but Pacifing Forces barged in

the studio and arrested her. After 11 years, Piray was released and reunited with her

sister, Nene. They now resided in Bato Balani, a temporary refuge. Piray saw her old

unsent letters to Alina, and as she read them she recalled how her ruff was removed by

PF. She remembered how she was forced to recant. She was thankful the PF didn’t find

Alina or they would have clipped her wings. Piray wonders about the others who were

imprisoned, killed, released, and disappeared. She recounted the names of those who

were vanished for fighting for Lualhati. Later on in the story it was revealed that the

freedom of Piray was in exchange of Nene becoming the woman of Quinto, Sarrat’s son.

At this time, the ruler is Quinto, and under his reign people seemed to have lost their will

for self-expression. Piray communed with the forces in Gamelan 2, and other worlds to

rage revolt against Sarrat and his son. On the day of the encounter, the dissenters thought

they will be vanquished, but Sarrat and his son escaped instead.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

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 The proairetic code refers to the actions in the narrative that herald the events

that come next. Rochita Loenen-Ruiz’s “And These were the Names of the

Vanished” is interwoven by codes of connection-disconnection, and appearance-

disappearance. The codes of connection-disconnection, and appearance-

disappearance are on three levels: the government to their people, the people to

their loved ones, and the people to their identity.

In the beginning of the text, the people were forcefully disconnected from

their natural identity by the civilizing cause of the Compassionate. In the name of

reformation, people were stripped of their customs and practices like the loud

joyous singing and the wearing of colorful clothes. The people of Lualhati were

educated to become like the people of the Compassionate that not before long the

former’s identity became the improper and the unacceptable. This results to slowly

fading of the Lualhati’s culture, and the appearance of citizens who are not quite

Compassionate but aren’t Lualhati either.

The rise of Sarrat Norte to the position of Leader-Elect created hope amongst

the people as this initially signals impending independence. However, the hope of

the people disappeared when they found out that Sarrat Norte was just a puppet

leader of the Compassionate. Sarrat Norte was given power and military support by

the Compassionate to “govern” but in truth to maintain the laws promulgated by

the latter.

The connection-disconnection, and appearance-disappearance code wove the

struggles of the characters. Piray in her hopes to bridge the gap between the

Leader-Elect and the people of the commons tried to present to him a list of the

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 platforms from the masses, however, she was incarcerated for eleven years. Piray’s

disappearance disconnected her from her sister, and from the movement. Piray and

the others’ disappearance marked the beginning of the Silence, a period in Lualhati

where people became like mechanized beings who are efficient followers but

devoid of the will and ability for self-expression. After 11 years, Piray was freed

and reconnected with her sister, Nene, only to find out that her freedom was gained

through the loss of her sister’s. Nene, in order to help her sister and the cause

agreed to become Quinto’s woman. This signals another filial disconnection in the

story which gave way to Piray’s reconnection with the refugees in Gamelan 2.

Piray, the people of Gamelan and the other commons from neighboring stars joined

force to revolt against Sarrat Norte and Quinto. In the end of the story, Lualhati

was freed when Sarrat and Quinto swallowed by a ball of light fleed from the

country.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The hermeneutic code refers to elements in the texts that create mystery. The

element of mystery in the selected story can be traced in its title, Lualhati people’s

physiognomy, the Compassionate, and the Compassionate’s creature.

The title, “And These were the Names of the Vanished” create a sense of

mystery compelling the readers to ask questions like who vanished in the story?

why and how did they vanish? The mystery was unveiled when Piray was

incarcerated in her attempt to help the cause. The first two questions were

answered. The vanished are the members of the movement or anyone who showed

disobedience against the Compassionate. The third question was loosely explained

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as either the people were imprisoned, killed or went into hiding, yet many were

still unaccounted for.

The next code of mystery is traceable in the Lualhati people. They were

described as people who love music, singing, and colorful clothes that matched

their physiognomy. It was hinted in the text, the Piray and Nene had ring-like parts

on their necks that change color depending on their emotions. It was implied that

these parts were removed by the Pacifying forces, Piray during her incarceration,

and Nene in the reformatory. Another feature that creates mystery on the

physiognomy of the characters was Piray’s mention of Alina’s wings. Alina’s

wings could be debated as either a figuratively meaning freedom or literally

wings. Even at the end of the story, the physical form and type of beings the

Lualhatis were left a mystery.

The third code of mystery is in the Compassionate. They were not clearly

described in the story except for being civilized and having the intention to train

the Lualhati. In the text, they were also presented as powerful with the ability to

annihilate whoever contradicts them. What adds to the mystery is the irony that

though they were called Compassionate, they were merciless and terminating

lives.

The last element of enigma is created in the Compassionate’s creature. The

story did not give details about the creature. The characters, from hearsay

described the creature as possessing the ability to kill a large crowd in a blink of an

eye. The creature, along with the Pacifying force was used by Sarrat Norte and son,

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Quinto to stop revolts. The ending heightened the mystery of the creature as the

creature was described as a ball of light that swallowed the father and son before

they completely disappeared.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the proairetic code

and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-R (disconnection-

Novum-Reconnection):

Novum:
the
Compassionat
Disconnection: e's creature
-encarceration Reconnection:
of Piray
-Piray's reunion
-de-culturation with her sister
of the
Lualhatians -assembly of the
insurrectionists

Reconnection/
Dicsonnection:
-Lualhati was freed Disconnection:
from the claws of -Nene's sacrifice
Sarrat Norte and the Novum:
Compassionate the
Compassionate'
s creature

The first instance of the disconnection code is traceable the forced

disconnection of Piray from her family and friends when she was encarcerated for

openly expressing her desire for the government’s reformation. The second

instance of the disconnection code is traceable in the de-culturation of the

Lualhatians or forced education on the ways of the Compassionate. This event

exemplifies disconnection as it didn’t only literally dissolve Lualhatian’s sense of

identity, it also divided their loyalty. The narrative inflection of the novum, the

mysterious creature of the Compassionate instilled fear amongst the Lualhatians,

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 reason for them to cower from the idea of insurrection. The code of reconnection,

on the other hand is evident in two instances: Piray’s reunion with her sisters, and

the Lualhatian’s assembly for insurrection. The story didn’t close with the

reconnection of the lualhatis rather it repeats the pattern of D-N-R. The next

disconnection unit is traceable in Nene’s sacrifice to woman of Sarrat’s son. The

novum appeared again in the form of a more vicious and enigmatic creature

described as possessing the ability to wipe out the whole Lualhati in a snap of a

finger. The story ended with the people winning against Sarrat thereby freeing

them from the Compassionate’s claws, and allowing them to reconnect not only

with their brethrens but also with their repressed identities.

The narrative grammar or pattern that has just been dicussed, and illustrated

through a diagram shows that this narrative is moved forward by the disconnection

and connection codes with the novum at the center.

Paradigmatic Analysis

1. Semantic Code

Several elements in the text have connotative meaning. The first

element with connotative meaning is the name of the dominant group,

Compassionate. Compassionate denotes kindness and sympathy, but in the

narrative the word compassionate meant something else for the characters. To

the people of Lualhati, Compassionatte signifies the opposite of what its name

means as to them it meant subjugation, torture and ruthlessness. The

Compassionate, though claiming to have nothing but concern for the welfare of

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the people of Lualhati never let the latter govern themselves instead forced them

to become silent followers if not second-rate imitations of the former.

The next element that carries connotative meaning is the name of the

continent where the story is set. Lualhati in Filipino language denotes happiness

and peacefulness, and in the text signals the contrast between the experiences of

the people before and after the Compassionate has arrived. Before the

Compassionate came, Lualhati is filled with joyous music and freedom of

expression. To the Compassionate, this was a sign of barbary that they took the

responsibility of bringing peace and order to the people. The state of Lualhati

under the control of the Leader-elect and the Compassionate is silent and orderly

which was deemed as peaceful. To the commons, however, the peacefulness is

just a façade, for there was no real peace and happiness in living in the current

Lualhati.

The third semantic element is the Pacifying Force, the name of the

military group sent by the Compassionate to help the Leader-Elect maintain

peace and order. The name Pacifying Force denotes peacemaking, however, in

the story it means the opposite as these force brings horror, torture and death to

those who dare oppose the Compassionate.

The last connotative elements are the period of Chaos, and Silence.

The Chaos denotes disorder, battles and death while the Silence denotes

calmness and peace, however, in the story they have different connotations. In

the story, Chaos though filled with turmoil signals revolt against oppression.

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 People form unions and fight the Pacifying forces, and though these result to

bloodbaths, these still bring hope of attaining freedom. On the other hand, the

Silence signals intimidation, fear, despair and hopelessness amongst the people.

During this period, people stopped voicing out their beliefs and fighting for their

rights, they simply thrive and follow orders.

As a whole, the text use words to name things that operate in an

opposite sense in the plot. The ironic use of the names demonstrates that not

everything that appears to are what they really are.

2. Symbolic Code

The binary opposition in the texts is presented in three instances: a.) in the

Compassionate and Lualhati; b.) in Chaos and Silence; and, c.) incarceration and

freedom. The three sets present seemingly favorable and unfavorable conditions.

The first binary set is the Compassionate vs. Lualhati where the former is

assumed civilized and the latter is deemed savage. The people of the Compassionate

and the Lualhati have different physiognomy, beliefs and practices. The

Compassionate see themselves as the ideal beings and the ideal society that

observed difference of Lualhati were viewed as flaws and lack of culture. To

remove the difference, the Compassionate as a missioned forced the Lualhati, the

lower forms to become urbanized citizens like the former. In the text, the group of

the Compassionate held the power to rule while as an opposite, the Lualhati were

forced at the end of the cline as the ruled over.

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 The second binary set is the Chaos and Silence, two significant periods in

the reign of the Leader-Elect. The Chaos denotes turmoil and disorder while the

Silence denotes the calmness and order. In this binary, Silence seemed to be favored

over Chaos, but closer view at the condition of the people reveal that Silence is just

a façade, as the order during this period is a result of fear, torture and death. The

unfavorable image of Chaos, though unsafe ring with the voice of revolution.

The third binary set is the incarceration and freedom. This binary is

presented through the character of Piray, and the whole of Lualhati. Piray was

arrested and imprisoned for eleven years in the belly of the mothership. The prison,

surrounded by walls is filled with darkness and ambled by rodents and spiders. The

darkness and the creatures that surround Piray engulfed her with fear. When Pilar

was released, she was disconcerted by the brightness and openness of the ship she

was in. Incarceration is associated to darkness and clamped chamber while freedom

is associated to light and open space. Also, this binary of incarceration and freedom

is presented through plus voice versus minus voice existence of the characters.

Before the Compassionate came, Lualhati citizens could sing and dance loudly in

the streets. They had freedom of expression. During the Compassionate’s rule, their

voice was silenced and their colorful culture snatched from them.

3. Cultural code

The cultural code refers to the elements that signal distinct Filipino beliefs,

traditions and practices. In this selected text, filial piety was hinted, ethnic groups

were referenced, and history was re-presented.

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 The text presented filial piety in the relationship of Piray and her sister, Nene.

Nene, despite and because of being separated from her sister for a long time, gave

up her freedom and became Quinto’s woman in exchange for Piray’s release from

prison. The next cultural element in the text is the referencing of ethnic groups.

Though the characteristics of the Lualhati people weren’t clearly detailed, it was

hinted that these people like the ethnic tribes in the Philippines were the original

dwellers of the country before they were invaded and forced to change. The third

cultural code which is connected to the second one was the re-presentation of the

colonization. The Lualhati people represent the precolonial Filipinos while the

Compassionate were the colonizers who othered and subjugated the Filipinos.

Through the semantic, symbolic and cultural code analysis conducted on the

text, the thematic features of the story are revealed. The semantic analysis showed

that the characters and the crises in the story are connotative of colonialism (under

the Compassionate’s rule) and neocolonialism (under Sarrat Norte’s rule). The

symbolic analysis, on the other hand, showed the binary oppositions of powerful

versus the powerless, and the colonizer versus the colonized. The text, through its

characters’ struggles and battles showed its insurgence against colonialism and

neocolonialism. Lastly, the cultural code analysis bared the text’s allusion to the

sufferings and the revolution of the Filipinos against the colonizers during the

Philippine colonial periods.

I. “Panopticon” by Victor Fernando Ocampo

The Text

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 Victor Fernando’s short story “Panopticon” was published in 2014 as part of the

speculative fiction collection titled, Philippine Speculative Fiction, Vol. 9 edited by

Andrew Drilon and Charles Tan.

The narrative opens with Alfredo Salazar waking up wretched and dizzy in a dirty

public toilet. Pai Kia, a woman that looks like the celebrity Marrie Lee tells him not to move

much since he isn’t complete yet. Pai Kia morphs into an androgynous form, adjusts her

haptic interface, and introduces herself to Alfredo as his caseworker. Pai Kia explains to

Alfredo that he has travelled through a steerage, and now he is in New Tundon. Alfredo

throws up, and Pai Kia explains it’s just a way for the body to remove unnecessary

information. Pai Kia then tells him, he is already dead and is currently transitioning.

Esperanza, a former love has paid Pai Kia to hack Alfredo’s soul and upload it in the digital

universe. Pai Kia hands Alfredo a casio data bank watch and explains to him that since he

doesn’t belong to the 1% mega-rich, he needs the watch to stay safe in Tundon, a Hacker

Town. Pai Kia disappears, and when Alfredo looks in the mirror he sees himself looking 20

or 21 again, the same age when he first met Esperanza. He ponders upon how still loves

Esperanza after all those years. Alfredo was Esperanza’s film teacher. They fell in love with

each other, but Esperanza left him to marry the rich man, Julio Salas. This left Alfredo

devastated that he didn’t have any other relationships and grew old alone. Alfredo goes out

of the public toilet and rodes the Shimano Intelligent bicycle around the slums of Tundon.

He then met an oddly dressed man who tells him that he will be brought to Torre Paraiso

after reskinning. He enters his shop and sees not clothes hanging but pictures and video

screens. The man strips Alfredo down to his nanotex frame and dresses him in a nanotex

fabric the color of his emotions, grey. Alfredo is then brought to an Airlifter where he meets

once again Pai Kia. From the airlifter Alfredo sees a view of the sky filled with factoids,

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advertisements and holosonic visions. Alfredo questions why the digital world is designed

like that and why do the people to choose to be there. Pai Kia explains that New Tundon is

just for hanky-panky, and the rich live in the New Cities. She further explains that the rich

get uploaded in the New Cities, the poor simply die while the others with trickier means pay

soul-hackers to build them an afterlife. One’s level of comfort and reality according to Pai

Kia depends on his or her money. Alfredo alights in Torre Paraiso, an Integrated Private

Resort. Esperanza waits in Immersion Gallery, an 8-star lounge in the Pride section where

the richest live. In the pad arranged in old Filipino style of Earthquake baroque, Esperanza

and Alfredo sit across each other. Alfredo asks Esperanza’s intention for bringing him there,

and she explains that it is for her son. She has promised her son, Julio Salas Jr. that she will

introduce him to his real father. The screen flickers and shows the figure of the young Julio

who looks like Alfredo in his thirties. Esperanza then tells Alfredo that her money can’t

afford her two more than one eternal life in the New City. Esperanza disappears and leaves

Alfredo in front of the screen that shows his son’s face, filled with questions.

Syntagmatic Code

1. Proairetic Code

The text under analysis is interwoven by motifs of death-rebirth, and union-

separation. The first is presented in the opening of the story where Alfredo woke

up in the digital Universe after his death in the physical world. This scene

demonstrates Alfredo’s disconnection from real life and connection to an artificial

life. Alfredo’s corporeal body died, and his soul was disconnected from it and

uploaded in a digital platform where he was in a way reborn into his nanotex

frame. The second instance of connection-disconnection motif is the separation of

Esperanza and Alfredo. Alfredo and Esperanza used to be lovers, but they

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separated when Esperanza met and married the rich, Julio Salas. After years of not

seeing each other, Alfredo met Esperanza again in the New City in a digital

universe. The reconnection of the two didn’t last long as Esperanza’s money only

afforded her one uploaded soul in the New City. Her bringing Alfredo meant her

deletion from the virtual reality. Another code of separation is presented in the

disappearance of Esperanza. This separation, however, is the dawn of a new union

albeit a digital one. Esperanza’s intention for ordering the upload of Alfredo’s soul

is for Alfredo to meet Julio Jr. Esperanza revealed that Julio Jr. is the son of

Alfredo, not of the late Julio Salas, and she had promised her son to introduce him

to his real father. The story closed with Alfredo facing the image of his son on a

big screen.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The enigma of the story is woven through three elements: the title,

“Panopticon”, the soul upload, and the digital universe. The title, “Panopticon”

creates mystery as the word connotes surveillance and control which makes the

reader wonder about who is under surveillance and by whom. The first enigma

element is solved after the second, soul upload and the third, digital universe are

explained. The story is set in a world where when people die they have the option

of expiring irreversibly or live in a digital heaven where their souls can be

uploaded. The enigma lies in the question of how exactly do the caseworkers hack

souls and upload them to digital platforms, and when they are uploaded, is it really

the souls that get uploaded, the brainwaves or just the simulation of human

consciousness. The third enigma is the digital universe which very much resembles

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the real world except for the floating factoids, nanotex bodies, sims as background

people, and various other simulations. How the digital universe was created, how is

it operated, who operates it and if it can really last eternity remains a mystery in the

story. The existence of the digital world, and the uploading of souls in it then

solves albeit partially the mystery of the Panopticon. When people die, if they have

money, they get uploaded to a digital world where their digital existence can be

observed and controlled by an all-seeing watchman, very much like a god.

The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the proairetic

code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-R

(disconnection-Novum-Reconnection):

Novum:
uploading to
the virtual
paradise

Reconnection:
Disconnection:
-estrangement from -digital resurection
Esperanza -reconnection with
-Alfredo's death Esperanza

In “Panopticon”, the disconnection code is evident in two instances: Alfredo’s

literal separation from Esperanza, and later on, Alfredo’s death which is practically

his disconnection from life. The inflection of the novum, virtual paradise allowed

the text to defy the preceding units of disconnection. Since Alfredo was uploaded in

the virtual paradise, he was digital resurrected, and had the chance to meet his old

flame, Esperanza.

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 The smallest units of this text’s narrative grammar or pattern are the

disconnection code, novum, and the reconnection code.

Paradigmatic Analysis

 Semantic Code

The title of the text, and the names of places carry connotative meanings that

amplify the atmosphere of the story. The title, “Panopticon” which means

something or someone that can see and control everything emphasized that

condition that is entailed by getting uploaded in the digital world. Everyone who

gets uploaded becomes a subject to a god-like watchman who can oversee, control

and modify the digital life of the people inside the program. Next to the title are the

names of the places like, New Cities, New Tundon, Torre Paraiso, and the places

named after the seven deadly sins. The New Cities and New Tundon with the noun

modifier new signals the reinvention of real cities outside the digital world. New

Tundon, as a reinvention of the slums of Tondo, is filled with soul hackers and

digital thieves. On the other hand, New Cities are digital reinventions of the elite

subdivisions were the richest reside. Thirdly, Torre Paraiso which means tower of

paradise is a digital re-invention of the imagined heaven afterlife. Torre Paraiso is

the residence of the richest, thus implying that heaven is only for the wealthy and

the powerful. Torre Paraiso is divided into different sections named after the seven

deadly sins. Though the name of the place means paradise and appears to be the

heaven for the richest, the place instead is hell. Each section in Torre Paraiso is

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named after the sins of the people who reside in them which then implies that the

richest are the ones who reside in a digital hell.

 Symbolic Code

The story under analysis is pillared on two binary opposites: a.) the rich versus

the poor; and, b.) the real versus the artificial. The first binary set shows the

distinction between the rich and the poor. The text demonstrates how the rich can

buy themselves everything from physical world happiness to even heaven. This was

shown when Alfredo and Esperanza’s love ended when Esperanza chose to marry

the rich Julio Salas. The power of the rich was even highlighted when the text

revealed that they can buy eternal life. In “Panopticon”, when the poor die, they just

disappear into complete oblivion while the rich pay to be uploaded into eternity in

the digital universe. Even inside the digital world people live in binary which is

illustrated by the existence of New Tundon, and New Cities where the former is the

place of hackers and virtual thieves whereas the latter is the place for the wealthy.

Another visible binary set is the opposition between the real and the artificial. The

real is presented in the impermanent life of the poor who expires into oblivion and

the artificial is presented in the digital life of the rich whose souls are trapped in

computer generated simulations.

 Cultural code

The story has cultural references on Filipino religious beliefs, Philippine

literature and Filipino communities. The text has presented the Filipino’s religious

beliefs by borrowing elements from the bible to name places in text, like Torre

Paraiso which equates to the rich peoples’ heaven, and the seven deadly sins as

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names of the sections in Torre Paraiso. The story also alluded to an earlier

Philippine fiction, Paz Marquez Benitez’s “Dead Stars”. Panopticon used the same

characters but presented an alternative plot where Alfredo and Esperanza didn’t

marry because Esperanza chose the rich, Julio Salas. The text also alluded to “Dead

Stars” symbolism, star which was hacked by a caseworker in order to upload

Alfredo’ soul in the digital world. Lastly, the text referenced Tondo for the New

Tundon, the hacker and digital-thieves-filled slums of the virtual world.

Through the semantic, symbolic, and cultural code analysis of the given text,

the Filipino thematic features of the text are revealed. The semantic analysis showed

that the characters are connotative of the socio-economic gap between the rich and

the poor as the character of Alfredo and Esperanza emphasized the things that

money can buy. That paradise in the text is virtual connotes technological

advancement which allows the rich to buy themselves an afterlife, a heaven.

However, the use of the seven deadly sins as the sections of Torre Paradiso connotes

that the virtual paradise is not a paradise, but a virtual hell.

The symbolic analysis showed the binary opposition between the rich and the

poor as represented by the characters of Alfredo and Esperanza. Through the

inflection of the novum, virtual a paradise the text was able to caricature the huge

socio-economic gap between the rich and the poor which made even the afterlife

available only to the former. Through the elements’ connotations, however, the text

was able to emphasized the artificiality and superficiality of the human-made

paradise.

Lastly, the cultural code analysis bared the text’s allusion to Philippine literature,

specifically Paz Marquez Benitez’s “Dead Stars” , to shady businesses in Tundo,

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 and to the Filipinos’ religious belief hinted by the references on paradise and seven

deadly sins.

J. “Carbon” by Paolo Chikiamco

The Text

Paolo Chikiamko’s “Carbon” was published in 2012 as part of the speculative

fiction anthology titled, Philippine Speculative Fiction Vol. 5, edited by Dean Francis

Alfar and Vincent Michael Simbulan.

The story is divided into five sections: Carmen Tiu’s interview with Tirso Villamayor,

the test firing of the Balangay project, the interview with Pontifico Zarate, the interview

with Tirso-B, and the negotiation of Tirso Villamayor with Sergio-B. The story begins with

the airing of Face to Face show on January 8, 2175. Carmen Tiu interviews President Tirso

Villamayor about his sketchy aim to amend the constitution to provide rights for clones,

also known as Carbons. The public including Carmen believe that the goal behind the

amendment is to secure more votes for Tirso Villamayor. The controversy is also fanned by

the fact that Tirso’s family own the biggest cloning facility in the country. The story then

shifts to the Vice President Pontifico Zarate’s point of view. The Vice President Zarate and

the President Villamayor are in the Balangay Project facility in the Agila Station. Zarate

thinks about how his rating grows higher while the president’s crashes down which means

the former will defeat the latter in the coming election. The president’s popularity is

destroyed by his advocacy for the clones. Zarate observes that though the clones look very

much like their progenitors, they lack the spontaneity and initiative of human beings who

have real spirits. To him, clones are just good in receiving orders and nothing more. Tirso

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congratulates Zarate on the success of his space sail project, Balangay. They walk through

the main lasers where they view the space sail while they talk about Zarate’s goal to make

the Philippines the third Asian Nation to have Interstellar Technology. Zarate and Tirso

debate about vanity, patriotism, carbon controversy, ratings, risk takings, going against the

majority, and the coming election. Tirso sounds defeated making Zarate feel victorious as

he zones out deep in his thought. He is brought back from his trance by the shout of Tirso

and the soundless explosion in the station. Tirso helps Zarate get in inside the next room

before the seals lock. Tirso dies in that accident. The story reopens on February 12, 2175

with Carmen interviewing President Zarate. Zarate expresses his strong support of the

rights of the clones, even choosing as a candidate Tirso B, the clone of the late Villamayor.

The story geared forward to Carmen’s interview with Tirso B, where she and the public

observe that Tirso B is different from all the carbons as he seems to possess a soul. Before

halting to a close, the story reveals that Tirso B is the real Villamayor and the one that died

was the clone. Tirso and Sergio-B planned the fake death of the former that would get

Zarate’s desired glory and at the same time would give Villamayor a chance to run for a

second term.

Syntagmatic Analysis

1. Proairetic Code

The story’s plot is propelled forward by the code of pursuit of victory which

leads to actions of connections and disconnection. The choices of the characters

and the turn of the story are all results of the characters’ desire to win the

presidential election. President Tirso Villamayor is described in the text as

someone whose image has captivated the public’s trust due to his leadership skills.

The public’s initial views on President Villamayor exemplifies though faintly the

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code of connection. President Villamayor’s ratings, however, crashes down when

he advocates for giving equal rights to the clones also known as Carbons. The

advocacy leads to the citizens’ disconnection from Villamayor as people start

withdrawing their support. Many people have withdrawn their support for they

don’t see clones as human beings and giving these clones equal rights like voting

will only serve the political intentions Villamayor to gain votes. Villamayor’s

attempt at bridging the gap between the Carbons and the original humans illustrate

an action of connection. Though the citizens tolerate cohabitation with Carbons,

their refusal to give them the same equal rights show a code of disconnection.

Another situation that shows code of connection is President Villamayor’s support

on Vice President’s Balangay project. The disconnection code lies on Pontifico’s

intention of running for president and defeating Villamayor. The two characters

both aim to win the next presidential election, but their reasons for that were

different as Pontifico’s was more of pursuit of glory, and Villamayor’s was to keep

himself in the seat of power. Connection was then again forged when Villamayor

staged a rescue of Pontifico in the accident in the Agila station. Villamayor went

even further as faking his own death in order to come back as a clone, Tirso B. The

staged rescue and death rekindled Pontifico’s connection to President Villamayor

which then was carried on to his supposed clone, Tirso B. The connection between

Villamayor and Pontifico strengthened when the latter met Tirso B and was

impressed by its humanness. Pontifico’s continuation of the late Villamayor’s

constitutional amendment for the Carbons show a code or connection towards the

former president, and a connection between humans and Carbons. Tirso B’s

(Villamayor) interview with Carmen Tiu demonstrated that clones can have

initiative, spontaneity, wit and other traces of humanness. The story’s ending

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 implies that due to Villamayor’s deceit, the citizens may sooner or later start

accepting clones as humans too—another action of connection.

2. Hermeneutic Code

The “Carbon” has three elements that create wonder and mystery. The first

element of enigma is evident in the text’s title, “Carbon”. The text’s title leads

readers to wonder if carbon in the story refers to a chemical element or something

else and why was it used as the title. The first mystery was solved at the beginning

of the story when Carmen Tiu interviewed President Villamayor about his

advocacy for giving equal rights to carbons. It was then revealed that carbon is

another term they use for clones. This revelation leads to the next enigmatic

element, the clones. Though there are studies about the cloning studies and

attempts in the real world outside the text, the enigma of the carbons lies on the

wonder on whether the clones can be considered human too. It is a wonder not only

for the characters in the story but for the readers as well if clones can have souls

and act and live like real human beings. The last enigma is on the switch between

the real Tirso and the clone. It is revealed in the story that instead of the real Tirso

Villamayor dying, it is the clone Tirso B who died in the Agila station accident

while the real Tirso pretends to be Tirso B, the clone. The mystery lies on how the

real Tirso is made to look like a younger version of him to pass as a clone. Though

the text stated that it was through face morph, the process of the face morph is in

itself a mystery, thus contributing to the enigma of the switching process.

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 The narrative grammar bared by the syntagmatic analysis of the proairetic

code and the hermeneutic code in the text shows the pattern, D-N-R

(disconnection-Novum-Reconnection):

Novum:
-Carbon
-mysterious
operation

Disconnection:
Reconnection:
the decline of
Villamayor's regaining the
public's favor
In popularity amongst
“Carbon”, the code of disconnection is traceable in the decline of
the Filipino voters
Villamayor’s popularity amongst Filipino voters. His insistence on allowing the

clones to vote in the incoming election showed his attempt to tweak the election on

his favor. The novum here which comes in the form of the clones is the reason for

Villamayor’s disconnection with the masses, however, this same novum became

his tool for staging drama that could manipulate the public into supporting him

once again. In this light, the story under study showed the narrative functional

units, disconnection-novum-reconnection as its barest structure.

Paradigmatic Analysis

 Semantic Code

Semantic code refers to the elements of the text that have connotative

meanings. The first element that has connotative meaning is the character of

Villamayor. Villamayor’s character connote manipulation and deception borne out

of the desire for power. He possesses an air of charm and integrity which get the

confidence of many people. However, in the story, the façade of integrity dwindled

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when pushed for the constitutional amendment that will provide carbons their right

to vote. This signals his attempt at manipulating the law in order for him secure

more votes and eventually maintain his position. His character reflects many

politicians corrupt means to win elections and amass power. Towards the end of

the text, it is revealed that Villamayor didn’t die. The Tirso-B that everybody

thinks of as the clone of the former president is actually the former president

himself. Villamayor’s staged rescue of Zarate and his fake death earn the latter’s

high regard and loyalty. Zarate feels indebted to Villamayor that though he denies

it, it is apparent in his actions that he wants to give back to the former president.

Following the fake death, Villamayor reappears as his carbon, Tirso-B. The people

are amazed by this carbon’s human like spontaneity, initiative, and wit that they are

starting to believe that carbons must be allowed to vote, and more importantly

Tirso-B be allowed to run for president. Tirso Villamayor’s character connotes

how some politicians lie and stage events to appeal to human emotions, and gain

public trust.

 Symbolic Code

The text under analysis sits on the binary opposition of human beings and

clones. The contrast between the elements lie on their creator, the way they were

conceived, and their characteristics. Human beings are born of nature if not

created by a god while on the other hand, the carbons are made by humans who

are playing god in manipulating nature. The second contrast is on how the groups

are conceived, human beings are conceived through the union of the sperm and

the egg of the parents while the carbons are created by extracting cells to create

exact genetic copies of a progenitor. The last contrast is on the characteristics of

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the two groups. Human beings possess intelligence, wit, initiative and spontaneity

among other characteristics. On the other hand, carbons though efficient in

following orders and are very useful in companies and industries are nothing but

obedient followers. This is strengthened by the other character’s conviction that

clones lack the souls that human beings have which account for the emptiness in

their existence.

 Cultural code

The story, Carbon has three cultural references: a. the use of unique Filipino

elements; b. political depravity; and, c. media influences on election results.

The first cultural reference is on the use of Filipino symbolic elements like the

Agila and the Balangay. The interstellar station in the text was named Agila, a

Filipino term for eagle. While the space sail project was named Balangay, a type of

plank boat that was created and used by Filipinos in the sixteenth century.

The second and third references aren’t so much of a cultural reference than a

mirroring of the political conditions of the Philippines. The political depravity is

observable both in the character of Tirso and Pontifico. Tirso used his position to

keep his family business—cloning—going. This parallels to government officials

in the Philippines who entered politics to increase influence and privileges of their

businesses. The text also presented the dirty strategies of election candidates to

gain voters. In the story, Tirso wanted to use his position as President to pass a

constitutional amendment that would allow clones to vote in the national election.

His actions were interpreted by the public as a dirty tactic to get a lot of votes to

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 secure another term in the office. His political depravity was also demonstrated by

staging an accident and faking his death. In order to secure a second term, Tirso

resorted to lies, betrayal and manipulation. As third mirroring, the text presented

how media influence how the public view an issue or a political figure. The airing

of the talk show, Face to Face was recurrent in the text, and only through the

interviews in the show do the public scrutinize the election candidates. This

highlights the idea that political figures’ winning streak is shaped less by their

deeds but by the images they presented in public.

The paradigmatic analysis through the examination of the semantic, symbolic

and cultural code revealed the distinct Filipino themes in “Carbon”. The semantic

analysis showed that the character of Villamayor and Zarate as connotative of

manipulation, corruption and lies fueled by political greed and ambition.

The symbolic code analysis, on the other hand showed the binary opposition

of the government versus the governed or the electorates versus the voting masses.

Through the connotative elements and the binary oppositions in the narrative, the

text bares a commentary on the political condition in the Philippines.

Lastly, the cultural code analysis showed the text’s allusion to the locations in

the Philippines, the agencies in the government, and the publicity stunts and

appeal-to-emotions-strategy of the electorates tow in the public trust.

Recurrent Motifs in the Selected Speculative Fiction

Speculative Fiction Proairetic Hermeneutic Semantic Code Symbolic Code Cultural Code
Code Code
1. “Sink” by Isabel death / rebirth Jake (Robot) death / end Human vs Filipino food
Yap Meeting/ The Salesman ocean Robot (Leche flan)
separations Jake 1 Filial connections
Jake 2 Real vs (lola)

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 manmade center of forged or
inauthentic items
Life vs Death (Greenhills,
Quiapo)
2. “Keeping time” by separation- enzyme in the End of the Fat vs Slim Urban life
F.H. Batacan union water world/Apocalyp (Manila)
disconnection se Dead vs Alive
-connection Timekeeper Marriage
Mike Meeting vs
Marisol Separation

3. “And These were disappearance the creature from Compassionate Compassionate Filipino word
the Names of the -return the Lualhati vs. Lualhati (lualhati)
Vanished” by Rochita- Compassionate Pacifying
Loenen Ruiz disconnection Forces Pacifying Historical
-connection people of Forces vs. references
Lualhati dissenters (colonization)

government vs.
the masses
4. “Anthropomorpha” disconnection Anthropomorphs Luz, Tai, Anthros vs. Filipino belief in
by Crystal Koo -connection Dominic humans mystic beings
Mutagenic (kapre, siokoy,
assimilation- operations Transformation Anthros vs. wakwak, garuda)
dissimilation Hunger mutagenes
Death
Flight Hiding vs. free
Life vs. death
5. “First Play for and disconnection Tikbalangs Bulan Reality vs. Filipino belief in
by Tikbalang Triggers -connection Theatrical Play Artistic creation mystic beings
Uproar on Opening Theatrical (tikbalang, kapre,
Night” by Vida Cruz breaking ties- involvement of Human vs. duwende and
forming ties mystic creatures Mystic beings more)

6. “Panopticon” by disconnection Upload in Torre Paraiso Rich vs. Poor Reference in

Victor Fernando -connection Virtual Paradise seven deadly existing
Ocampo sins Philippine
death-rebirth Literature (Paz
Marquez-
Benitez’s Dead
Stars)
7. “Press Release” by division astral projection Barrera North Regions in the
Leo Magno virtual wall wall Maharlika vs. Philippines
disconnection release South (Luzon, Visayas,
-connection Maharlika Mindanao)
Government vs.
disappearance the masses Filipino word
-return Media release (maharlika)
vs. reality
death Public figure
(Richard Gomez)
8. “Carbon” by Paolo connection- Carbons (clones) Tirso humans vs. Agila Space
Chikiamco disconnection Villamayor clones Station
breaking Pontifico government vs. Balangay
trust-forming the people Political
trust campaigns
death-rebirth
9. “The Apologist” by Killings/ The Ravaging Ben Public vs. Philippine media,
Ian Rosales Casocot deaths Ben Salvacion Sal Media Manny Pacquaio

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 mutilated body The first family Karen Davila
Disconnectio vs ordinary ABS CBN
n (public people Desensitized
disapproval) Reality vs. Spin public
offs Romanticizing/tri
Connection vializing/legitimiz
(Spin offs ing crimes
techniques)
10.“Sky Gypsies” by embarking on Space Mandali and Sama-Laut vs Sama-Laut
Timothy James a mission- mining/Sky Sanno Outsiders Tuhan
Dimacali returning harvester Seafaring, mining
from a
mission Spacefaring
Unique ore

Recurring Patterns

A. Propelling Actions

The ten selected speculative fiction’s plot are driven by the patterns of

disconnection-connection that come in the forms of death-rebirth, union-separation,

subjugation-pacification code, and assimilation-dissimilation.

Death-Rebirth Code

The first disconnection-connection motif comes in the form of death and

birth. The death code may come literally in the events where characters die, kill

or get killed, or it may come symbolically in the death of old beliefs and

identity. The motif of birth, on the other hand may come as literal birth or

symbolic rise of a new perspective or a new beginning.

Yap’s “Sink”, Ocampo’s “Panopticon”, Magno’s “Press Release”, and

Casocot’s “The Apologist” are anchored on the literal death and rebirth motif

that precede the symbolic breaking and building of the characters.

In Yap’s “Sink”, the narrative is driven forward by the literal death and

rebirth of Margo’s son which impel the symbolic death and rebirth of Margo

herself. The literal death of Margo’s son resulted to her emotional breakdown,

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dwindling of her filial and social connections and her utter loss of the will to

live—all of which mark the character’s symbolic death. The rebirth motif

presents itself in the rebirth of Jake in a robot form and in the resulting

symbolic rebirth of Margo whose desire to live was rekindled. Ironically,

however, Margo’s growing will to live as she formed stronger connection to the

artificial Jake ripped her away from reality and authentic human connections. It

was only in the realization of the impermanence and artificiality of Jake that

Margo had let him have his second and final death which signals Margo’s

reconnection with reality and with the people around her thereby giving her

another chance to live again.

Like Yap’s “Sink”, Ocampo’s “Panopticon” is propelled by codes of

literal death and symbolic rebirth. The literal death code propelled the

expiration of Alfredo from the real world which then prompted the installation

of his consciousness into the computer generated world signaling his crossover

to virtual reality and his digital resurrection.

While the first two texts exhibited death-rebirth code, Magno’s “Press

Release” and Casocot’s “The Apologist” are propelled by agentive death codes.

In “Press Release”, the death of Col. Barrera was ordered by the

government as a punishment for his “treason”. From that point of the text, the

narrative shifted back and forth between the backstory on the reason of his

execution and the present press releases about him from the government.

Barrera’s execution impels the symbolic death of truth as the press releases

deny, twist, romanticize and fabricate details about his execution. These did not

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only dilute the truth behind his ‘crime’ and execution but also buried the true

reason behind the dissimilation of the two parts of Maharlika as well as the real

socio-economic condition of the North and the South. The death of truth here

then incites the symbolic death of the chance for the union of North and South

Maharlika, and the re-assimilation of the divided citizens to a unified country.

Similarly, Casocot’s “The Apologist” is driven by the agentive death

motif. In this text, there is a harbinger of death in the character of Ben

Salvacion who brings the demise of the other characters. The text’s agentive

death motif follows the sequence of selection, entrapment, mutilation and

murder, exhibition, and apology. Predatorily, Ben scans the area and selects his

prey. Upon selection, he proceeds to befriending the prey which either lasts

days or months. After gaining the trust of his prey, he then proceeds to attack

which often catches the victims off-guard. The victim, being a subject to his

power and mercy becomes his plaything which he mutilates alive before

killing.

The predation in the text does not stop in the death of the preys but

proceeds to the exhibition of the mutilated body signaling not only the

predator’s thirst for blood but also his pride and pleasure in trampling on

government forces and laws. The predation of Ben is public knowledge, yet

through the manipulations of his apologists, his crimes go unpunished. The

apology follows the sequence of denial, misdirection, and romanticization

which trivialize the sufferings of the victims and invalidate their call for justice.

The apologist in the text starts with denying that the killing spree happens, but

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upon surfacing of the proofs that the it does, he misdirects the attention of the

public by emphasizing the empowering of the police force to fight rapid

increase in crime rate. As this isn’t enough to fully sway the public, the

apologist then proceeds to romanticizing the crime by portraying Ben

Salvacion as poetic and his killing spree an art. From being romanticized, the

killing spree is then trivialized as Ben Salvacion becomes a fashion icon and

his crimes a fashion statement, a trend. The different forms of apologies after

the crimes desensitize the public and incite the symbolic death of justice.

The narrative of Koo’s short story, “Anthropomorpha” is propelled

forward by the birth and death codes. The birth code is evident in the genetic

transformations of the anthros, specifically of Luz’s. A genetic code in her

body switched on and transformed her from being a homo sapiens into an

anthropomorpha, a creature with the activated genetic make-up of a Philippine

mythic being. Her transformation signals the birth of her new identity. On the

other hand, the death code presents itself in the symbolic deaths of the

Philippine mythic beings when anthropomorphas choose to undergo mutagenic

operations that promise to erase any signs of their mythic being’s genetic

make-up. This code also presents itself in the consecutive literal deaths of the

anthros—Dominic the Siokoy, and Luz the Marcupo—thus, signalling the

impending extinction of the mythic beings and implying the fading away of

some Filipino identities.

Like the fiction, “Anthropomorpha”, the speculative story “Carbon” by

Chikiamco is also driven by the birth and death codes. The death motif is

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evident in President Tirso Villamayor’s staged death. His death was staged in

order to regain the loyalty of Zarate as well as to win the heart of the then

dissatisfied public. The staged death allowed him to reset his life by pretending

to be a Carbon. This event is driven by the rebirth code as since though Tirso-B

wasn’t really born a clone but Villamayor himself pretending to be one, he had

the chance for a new beginning where Zarate was loyal to him and the public

loved him.

The death and birth/rebirth codes in the speculative fictions, “Sink”,

“Panopticon”, “Press Release” and “The Apologist” propelled the literal and

symbolic expiration of characters, situations and beliefs which lead to and

allow the literal and symbolic rise of beings and principles—the pattern of

beginning and commencing, and vice versa.

Union-Separation Code

The second disconnection-connection pattern appears in the form of

union and separation. The union code may appear literally in characters’

meeting and staying together physically or through the characters’ forging

loyalty and forming allies. The separation code on the other hand may come in

the form of literal parting of the characters or in the loss of trust and breaking

of ties.

Yap’s “Sink”, Batacan’s and “Keeping Time”, and Ocampo’s

“Panopticon” demonstrate connection-disconnection pattern in the form of

union-separation.

The union-separation in Yap’s “Sink” was recurrent in Margo’s

interpersonal relationships: with her ex-husband, with her son, with her

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family, and with her colleagues. The first separation code is evident in

Margo’s failed marriage with her ex-husband which lead her to raise her child

on her own. The second occurrence of separation code is upon the death of her

son, Jake. The first and second separation codes differ in that the former is by

human decision and has a possibility of getting repaired while the latter is

beyond her choice and is permanent. The grief resulted by the death of her son

prompted Margo’s meeting with a mysterious salesman who sold to her the

robot, Jake. This event exemplifies the re-union code as Margo, through the

salesman defied the permanence of the second separation and re-united with

her son. Her relationship with her robot son severs her other interpersonal

relationships. Margo, in the fear of losing her son again, created a small world

for her and her the robot Jake, keeping everything a secret and shutting people

out in the process. This, then exemplifies the third separation code—her

separation from her family and colleagues. The deterioration of the robot Jake

and his eventual death exemplified the fourth separation code in the text.

Though the second death of Jake has broken Margo as much as the first one,

the impact of the former shattered her make-believe world, forced her out to

embrace reality and rebuild her relationships with her family and friends.

Like Yap’s “Sink”, the union-separation pattern in Batacan’s “Keeping

Time” is evident in the interpersonal relationships of the main character.

Mike’s relationships followed union-separation-union pattern. The union code

is evident in Mike’s married life. Due to the differences in the body types of

Mike and his wife, their marriage didn’t last. His wife was fit and has a

supermodel type of body while Mike was big and what many would consider

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as unattractive. The separation code here is illustrated by Mike’s estrangement

from his ex-wife and his feeling of alienation from the society who gives

much value to physical appearance and tolerates if not encourages body-

shaming. When the epidemic broke-out and a lot of people are turning

emaciated if not yet dying, Mike found connection with the members of the

World Health Organization who still remained looking healthy—these people,

like him who used to be overweight and undesirable, now possess the body

that the dying ones covet the most. As these people’s body were also

deteriorating and slowly dying despite round-the-clock feeding, Mike

experienced a series of permanent separation, the hardest of which was that

between him and his superior and remaining friend, Peter. The presence of

separation code is balanced by the presence of the union code exemplified by

the physical and emotional union of Mike and Marisol. The physical union of

the two were evident in the several encounters they had which lead to their

sexual union. Following the union of the body was the two characters’

emotional union which was demonstrated by their discovery of each other’s

past, understanding of each other’s struggle and their decision to face their

eventual doom together.

Ocampo’s “Panopticon”, a re-write of Paz Marquez Benitez’s “Dead

Stars” is characterized by the pattern of union-separation between the

characters, Alfredo and Esperanza. The union code is hinted by the backstory

of the text where the romantic relation between Alfredo and Esperanza

happened. This romantic relation was broken by a third party by the name of

Julio Salas. Instead of Alfredo enamored by the young and carefree Julia, in

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 Ocampo’s alternate universe, it was Esperanza who was smitten by the rich

Julio. The end of their relationship exemplifies the separation code. The re-

union of the characters were presented in the actual narrative of “Panopticon”

Alfredo’s consciousness was uploaded in the virtual afterlife where he met

again his estranged love, Esperanza. His virtual reconciliation with Esperanza

also incited his re-union with his son whom he never knew he had with her.

The union-separation codes in the speculative fictions, “Sink”,

“Keeping Time” and “Panopticon” illustrate the building, breaking and

rebuilding of interpersonal relations between characters.

Subjugation-Pacification Code

The third disconnection-connection pattern comes in the form of

subjugation-pacification code. The subjugation code includes any form of power

struggle where the dominant forces use all of their faculties to either achieve

their personal interests or inflict harm to the underprivileged. The pacification

code includes the conditioning of the public either through violence or through

fabrication of truth or both. Casocot’s “The Apologist”, Chikiamco’s “Carbon”,

Loenen-Ruiz’s “And These were the Names of the Vanished”, and Magno’s

“Press Release” are anchored on the subjugation-pacification code.

The subjugation-pacification code in Casocot’s “The Apologist” is evident

in the actions of Ben Salvacion being the agent of subjugation and Sal Fabellar,

the agent of pacification. The subjugation code is evident in the killing spree of

Ben Salvacion. The immunity from arrest and the lack of accountability of the

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government officials, their families and cronies resulted in the creation of a

monster in the person of Ben for his crimes are rooted not only on his thirst for

blood but also on the unprecedented power and unchecked freedom he enjoys as

the son of a prime minister. Ben knows he can get away with anything he does,

hence, he explores the depth and breadth of his freedom thereby developing and

discovering pleasure in exercising his power—both physical and political—over

his helpless victims. His subjugating power distanced and disconnected him

from the sufferings of the underprivileged thereby making the latter’s deaths and

mutilations paling in importance beside his pleasure.

In this text, the connection code through pacification does not reconnect

the people like Ben to the public. The subject of the pacification isn’t the

abusive dominant forces but the public who have started to distrust the seat of

power. In the text, Sal Fabellar being the actor of the pacification code

manipulate the public by fabricating the truth, romanticizing and trivializing

murder, and even denying the existence of Ben’s crimes. Sal, as Ben’s apologist

presents to the people a different image of the latter, and twists reality to regain

the trust of the citizens thereby enabling the crimes, erasing dissenters, and

ensuring impunity.

In Chikiamco’s “Carbon”, the subjugation-pacification code is evident in

the relation of president Tirso Villamayor to the public. Tirso Villamayor used

to have high satisfaction ratings from the public due to his charismatic and

diplomatic ways. In his desire to secure another term, he pushed for a bill that

would give clones the right to vote in the coming election. Since his family

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owned the biggest manufacturing company of carbons, once the carbons get the

right to vote, he could easily manipulate the carbons to vote for him. This is a

form of subjugation since though the method was diplomatic, Tirso Villamayor

used his position in his attempt to manipulate the laws in order to secure his

presidency. The clarity of Villamayor’s intention, and the refusal of the public to

see clones as human beings resulted in the drop of his ratings and rankings in the

national surveys. The pacification code is evident in Villamayor’s staged death

to regain the public trust. By staging an accident where he acted as a hero who

sacrificed his life to save Zarate, he was able to regain the loyalty of the former

and the affection of the public. Not only did the staged death hail him as a hero,

it also allowed him to come back and pretend he was a carbon. Pretending he

was a “carbon”, Villamayor was able to convince the public that the clones have

discernments and initiatives and therefore deserve the right to vote, and as a

result securing the passage of the law for the carbons’ rights. As Tirso-B and

Villamayor were viewed by the public as technically two different beings,

Villamayor’s pretension allowed him to run for another term. This text reflects

how politicians manipulate the truth in order to gain the trust of the public and in

turn secure their personal interests.

Lastly, Loenen-Ruiz’s short story, “And These were the Names of the

Vanished” is propelled forward by the subjugation-pacification code evident in

the relations of the Compassionate and the people of Lualhati. The subjugation

code is observable in the Compassionate’s forceful appropriation of Lualhati

and its people. With good will as their pretext, the Compassionate occupied

Lualhati and forced the people to think, act, talk, and dress like that of the

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Compassionate. The oppressive treatment and the violent culturation process of

the Compassionate—dominant force— towards the Lualhatians lead to the

latter’s uprising which prompted the former’s silencing tactics. This silencing

process which exemplifies the pacification code, come both in violent and

manipulative ways. On one hand, the violent pacification is demonstrated by the

military group called Pacifying Force which arrests, detains, tortures and

executes dissenters. On the other, the manipulative pacification is evident in the

fake independence of Lualhati, and culturation of the children orphaned by the

dissenters. The independence given to Lualhati was only for a show as though

they had been allowed its own government, the leaders of the said government

were still the ones chosen by the Compassionate, thus, it is still the latter that

governs the country. The fake independence was only given to placate dissenters

thereby making them obey the policies laid out to them. The next manipulative

pacification code, the culturation was done by conditioning the mind of the

public, especially the youth to become obedient citizens. Raised under the

Compassionate’s and Sarrat Norte’s supervision, the children grew up absorbing

the ways and mindset of, as well as the loyalty to the Compassionate. Though

not everyone got conditioned, the others were still silenced by either the feeling

of being indebted to the government or trapped in the unjust agreements. In this

text, the subjugation-pacification code is evident in the oppression, intimidation,

and silencing of the voices of the dominated.

Dissimilation and Assimilation/Re-assimilation Code

The last code in disconnection-connection pattern comes in the form of

dissimilation and assimilation. The dissimilation code in the speculative texts

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incites the detachment of the parts from the whole or the dispersal of members

from a group while the assimilation/re-assimilation refers to the events where

separate elements join or previously broken relations reconcile. Chikiamco’s

“Carbon”, Magno’s “Press Release”, Yap’s “Sink”, Koo’s “Anthropomorpha”,

and Cruz’s “First Play for and by Tikbalang Uproar on Opening Night” are

driven by dissimilation-assimilation/re-assimilation code.

Chikiamco’s “Carbon”, though also propelled by other types of

connection-disconnection code, is characterized by the assimilation motif. In the

beginning of the text, it was revealed that clones were being manufactured and

were already cohabiting with ordinary citizens. Though these clones resembled

their progenitors, they lack initiative, discernment and emotions which made the

public regard them as soulless servitude beings that couldn’t and mustn’t be

considered citizens. In order to secure another term, Villamayor used the carbons

by pushing a law that would give carbons right to vote. Due to the law he was

pushing for and more importantly to his staged death, he was able to present

himself as the clone, Tirso-B thereby convincing the public that carbons had

souls too. Though it is not really shown in the text, it is implied at the end that

public would be accepting the carbons, and the latter would be assimilated in the

society. The said assimilation of the carbons doesn’t signal the rise and growth of

the societal whole, rather it signals an impending collapse as the former aren’t

assimilated as functioning organs but mere political tools.

Like “Carbon”, Magno’s fiction “Press Release” is a social commentary,

but unlike the former, the “Press Release” is propelled by the dissimilation code.

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The text showed how the political ambitions of the ruling few divided one nation,

disabled their citizens, manipulated facts, and drowned the country in poverty.

There used to be one Maharlika, but the political schemes of Ricardo Gomez

divided it into two, the North Maharlika which is the whole of Luzon, and the

South Maharlika which is the Visayas and Mindanao. Blocked by a virtual wall,

the people of the two territories didn’t have the chance to see the socio-economic

condition of each, thus the manipulation of facts became easy, and the

propagated fake news about the South being poverty-stricken and chaotic were

accepted and unquestioned by the Northerners. With the absence of contact from

the outside, the citizens of the North believed that everything the government

was doing was for their welfare, and that no matter how disagreeable their socio-

economic condition, it was still a lot better compared to the life in the South.

While the first two texts are driven by assimilation and dissimilation

respectively, Yap’s “Sink” is driven by both the dissimilation and re-assimilation

code. In this fiction, Margo cut her interpersonal relations in order for her to

protect herself and her resurrected son—the robot, Jake—from the truth. Margo

created a wall between her and the outside world, yet the deterioration of the

robot and the inevitable second death of her son brought her back to reality. The

realization of the permanence of her loss made Margo rebuild her interpersonal

relations thereby re-assimilating herself to the society.

The narrative of Koo’s “Anthropomorpha” is propelled forward by

dissimilation-re-assimilation motif. The dissimilation motif is evident in the

divisive society that discriminates and separates morphing from non-morphing

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citizens. The morphing people called anthropomorphs had the genetic code of

Philippine mystical beings and due to an unexplainable reason, these genetic

codes switched on, causing their transformation. The society saw the

anthropomorphs as dangerous creatures, thus their very existence was made

illegal and only with a license could they live in peace. However, not everybody

was given a license as their beings were categorized from mild to severe

signaling whose existence would be tolerated and whose must be terminated. Due

to these discriminations, some anthropomorphs became activists while others

resorted to mutagenic operations. The former seek assimilation through societal

reforms while the latter seek assimilation through removal of their anthro

identities. The difference between the means by which the two groups of anthros

seek acceptance lead to the two levels of dissociation: anthros’ dissociation from

society; and, anthros dissociation from the other anthros.

The re-assimilation is evident in the anthros transformation to their mystic

forms. Luz’s transformation back to being marcuppo despite having had a

mutagenic operation illustrates a return to her identity, a re-assimilation with the

Philippine mystics. Also, towards the end of the text, the image of the marcuppo

swallowing the dead siokoy illustrates a symbolic re-assimilation of parts, of

beings belonging to the Pre-colonial past. Lastly, the image of the garuda lifting

the corpses by her talons and flying away reinforces the re-assimilation with the

creatures of the distant past and dissimilation from the beings of the modern

world.

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 The disconnection-connection pattern, coming in four variants propelled

the narrative flow of the selected speculative stories. Through the codes death-

rebirth, union-separation, subjugation-pacification, and assimilation-

dissimilation, the process of building, breaking and re-building of the self and

others, and of relations and associations were illustrated.

B. Enthralling element

The selected speculative stories are characterized by elements that evoke wonder

and mystery. These enigmatic elements can be traced in the fictions’ novum which

come in the forms of scientific extrapolations or fantastic events that result into a

sense of estrangement in the readers. The elements that incite enigma in the selected

speculative texts can be categorized into two, the scientific and the fantastic.

The scientific novums can be traced in the fictions, “Sink”, “Keeping Time”,

“Panopticon”, “Carbon”, “Press Release”, and “Sky Gypsies”. The novums in these

selected texts posit questions about the possible outcome of altering accepted realities

in the world through scientific and technological advancement. These extrapolated

alterations evoke sehnsucht, a feeling of awe and wonder towards things or situations

that are mysterious or unexplainable.

In “Sink”, the novum appeared in the characters of the Salesman and of the robot,

Jake. These two, through the re-presentation of the common change people’s accepted

concept of purchase, of technology, and of resurrection. The concept of purchase was

reinvented in the image of the Salesman from Greenhills. It plays on the idea that

consumers can find and buy anything in Greenhills. Stretching this idea, in the text’s

Greenhills, people can even secretly purchase the resurrection of their deceased love

ones. This leads to the reinvention of the concept of resurrection. The text, by loose

extrapolation about robotics, alter the idea of resurrection through the return of

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Margo’s son in the form of the robot, Jake. Through the reinvention of the common,

the texts presented a commentary on people’s excessive dependence on technology

that usually results in artificial relations and breaking of interpersonal connections.

The hermeneutic code in “Keeping Time” is traceable in its presentation of

reversal of situations through science incited novum. The novum comes in the form of

a nutrient breaking enzyme spread in the bodies of water all over the world. These

nutrient-breaking enzyme reversed the situations of the dominant or norm group and

the peripheral group. The dominant or norm group consist of people who were within

the cline of the ideal weight and were perceived by society as attractive. The

peripheral group consist of the over weights who were perceived as invisible if not

repulsive in the eyes of the public. The situations of these two groups were reversed

when the nutrient breaking enzyme sped up people’s metabolism increasing weight

loss rate thereby turning overweight to fit, and fit to emaciated.

The novum in the text, a reinvented concept of weight loss works as a dark humor

that serves as a springboard for social commentary. Physical appearance, specifically

the figure plays an important part in a person’s social, economic, and romantic

relations; thus, people of different colors and sizes flock to any method or product that

promise them weight loss. The text played on the desirability of weight loss and

turned it into something ugly and fatal. It doesn’t go to say that in real life, weight

loss has never had any negative results, but this text magnified its result into an

apocalyptic phenomenon. As the enzyme introduced to the bodies of water can break

down nutrients rapidly, the bodies of those who had consumed the water had no way

of storing nutrients in the body; hence, resulting to people getting skinny and dying

despite round-a-clock feeding. The dark humor here, is evident in human beings’

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clamor for speedy weight loss which they received through an epidemic that made the

very thing that they wanted the cause of their death. Since the ones who used to be

overweight had more to fats to shed off, they had longer time before they get reduced

to skin and bones; thusly, these people who were once in the periphery became the

new desirable, the envied.

Through the estrangement effect caused by the apocalyptic consequences of the

enzyme, the text was able to present a commentary on faddism, human beings’ vanity

and shallow adoration of the physical form.

The novum in the fiction “Panopticon” allows the text to re-present the differences

between the conditions of the upper and lower classes. The enigma in the text came in

the form of a scientific extrapolation about a virtual afterlife. The world woven in the

text shows that afterlife do exists, but is only for the rich; thus, when the poor die,

they die permanently while the rich can be uploaded to the virtual afterlife where

paradiso isn’t a place for the holy but the name of an expensive hotel. The story

rejected the permanence of death and deviated from the accepted perception of

afterlife thereby highlighting the privileges of the upper classes, and the sorry state of

the lower classes—there was no retribution for the abuses and injustices of the rich

and no consolation for the suffering and enduring of the poor.

While “Keeping Time” and “Panopticon” both presented a reconceptualization of

accepted realities in order to present a social commentary, the novum in “Carbon”

presented an extrapolation of what could happen if the conditions in the world are

altered by science. It inferred on how cloning, if made possible, can be used in

corruption and political manipulations.

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 The text extrapolated clones as soulless copies who don’t have discernment and

initiative. Their obedience without questions and objections make them a potential

tool of politicians for electoral schemes and other societal manipulations. This was

shown when Villamayor pushed for a law that would allow carbons to vote. Since

carbons don’t have discernment, and Villamayor’s family is the biggest manufacturer

of carbons, it was apparent how he could order or program them to vote for him. Also,

he used his carbon to take his place on his staged death, and pretended to be a carbon

himself to secure another term.

Like “Carbon”, Magno’s “Press Release” extrapolated on what the Philippine

society could be like had the historical facts been different and impossible activities

made possible by science or the supernatural. The alteration of the historical facts is

evident in three instances: the renaming of the Philippines, the change in the form of

government, and the split of the nation into two countries. By changing the name of

the country and the form of government while retaining the social atmosphere and

characteristics, the text distances itself from the real world allowing it to present the

socio-political issues of the country in a new light. This is evident in the part when the

Maharlika is divided into to two: The North—consists of Luzon governed by

Samantha Gomez-Lee—and the South—consists of Visayas and Mindanao governed

by Osmena. The division of the country was a result of the political scheme of the

deceased father of Samantha Gomez-Lee and former president, Richard Gomez who

made sure that power and position would be in the hands of their family. To erase the

opposition, Richard Gomez divided the Maharlika, taking Luzon the center of

commerce and walling out critics and dissenters in Visayas and Mindanao. For many

years, the government of the North shut off all communication coming from the South

as well as the other parts of the world. Because of that, the North was able to fabricate

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news about the socio-economic condition of the South to make the Northerners see

their own sorry condition as the ideal—since the former had it worse—thereby

deflecting dissenting views and budding uprisings.

The two novums that created awe and wonder in the text are the virtual wall and

the astral projection. The first novum, the virtual wall is a scientific imagining of

territorial borders. Though how the wall was built and how it was operated were not

established in the story, the existence of this novum re-present the idea of territorial

borders. The second novum, the astral projection, a process that allowed agents to

cross the virtual wall without getting caught, is an esoteric re-presentation of an

espionage. The idea of the existence of an astral body that can separate from the

corporeal and travel anywhere made possible the swapping of bodies of the top agents

of the North and the South, and see the real conditions of each other’s country. Since

the text implied that people who can astral project are rare, the execution of the

corporeal body of Barrera which housed the astral of Galici entailed that it would be

improbable for the truth about the North and South to come out.

Through the novums, virtual wall and astral projection, the story “Press Release”

presented an alternate world where the Philippines is divided by political ambitions,

impoverished by corruption and manipulated by media fabrication.

The next fiction, “Sky Gypsies” is a re-invention of seafaring, the livelihood of

the Philippine ethnic group, Tausugs. The hermeneutic code in this is evident in the

two novums, the spacefaring and the oxygen ore. The text, through the novum,

spacefaring extrapolates on the possible effects of the advancement of space

exploration to the livelihood of the Filipinos in the periphery. It showed how though

they didn’t have the technological advantage the westerners had, the Tausugs

ventured to spacefaring by translating their seafaring strengths and skills into outer

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space mining. However, the difference in wealth and technological advancement

amongst the people of the earth, specifically that of between the westerners and the

Filipino tribes created a social hierarchy even in space thereby resulting to the latter

becoming the subjects of the former. The text hinted through the second novum, the

impending end of the Tausug’s socio-economic dependence on the westerners. The

second novum, a rock-like object that contains oxygen can make space a lot easier for

spacefarers entailing that had it been in the hands of the businessmen and nation

leaders would result for their increase in profit and power. Possessing the oxygen ore

posed both danger and benefit to the Sama di Laut of the Tausugs. It is a threat to

them since if the oppressors knew that such thing existed, they would use force to take

it from the Sama di Laut. On the other hand, the ore could benefit them if harnessed in

the right way. It would not only enable a better space faring for the father and son

who pilot the Sama di Laut, it will also be of help to all of the other Tausug

spacefarers who would no longer need the help of the westerners’ oxygen providing

machine. The text’s mystery is achieved through the sense of awe and wonder that the

oxygen ore evokes.

The fantastic novum can be traced in the fictions, “Anthropomorpha”, “First Play

for and by Tikbalang Uproar on Opening Night”, “And These were the Names of the

Vanished” and “The Apologist”. The novums in these texts present alternative worlds

that though very similar to the real do not follow the same reasoning as that of the

real. This doesn’t mean that the texts’ narratives defy logic, rather, they create their

own world laws that make the fantastic events within probable. The mystery code

here is evident in the incorporation of the supernatural, the mystic and magic in the re-

presentation of the external world’s existing social issues. The mysterious and the

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unexplainable novums evoke awe while the reimagining of the banal through these

novums evoke wonder.

In “Anthropomorpha”, the hermeneutic code is evident in the two novums, the

anthros and the mutagenic operation. The first novum, the anthro is a melding of the

fantastic and scientific extrapolations. The text presented an alternative world where

Philippine mystical creatures were real and were the distant ancestors of the Filipinos.

The scientific extrapolation entered the picture when the narrative presented the

mystic as a genetic trait that had become recessive after the passage of many

generations. Fusing science and the supernatural, the text re-conceptualizes a

recessive genetic trait as something that may be reactivated. The trigger for the

reactivation was unknown, and only a small number of people became anthros:

human beings who transformed into mystic creature either by choice or by impulse.

The reactivation resulted in the anthros’ alienation from the society who saw them as

creatures who belonged to the ancient times, creatures that posed threat to the present.

In order to counter alienation and oppression, the anthros resort either to resistance or

mimicry. Those who chose resistance went to the streets to voice out their concerns

and ask for social acceptance and equal rights. On the other hand, those who resorted

to mimicry underwent mutagenic operations in order to remove their anthro form and

become completely human. How the mutagenic operation removed the anthro-ness

was left out of the text thereby creating a sense of enigma. Later on in the narrative,

through the character of Luz showed that even after a mutagenic operation, the

original anthro form would still come out, hence evoking a sense of both awe and

wonder at the nature of the mystics.

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 The next fiction, “And These were the Names of the Vanished” hermeneutic

codes could be traced in its fantastic novums, the people of Lualhati and the

Compassionate’s creature.

The first novum is the physiognomy of the people of Lualhati. Their physical

forms were not clearly described in the text, but certain details like the presence of

ring-like emotion indicators on their necks, wings and colorful bodies hinted that they

were some sort of esoteric beings. The existence of hints instead of complete details

about Lualhati people made these very people mysterious.

Like the first novum, the Compassionate’s creature’s details were left out and

what was provided were only descriptions from hearsays and guesses of the public.

The masses believed it has the power to kill a large number of people in seconds. The

mystery of this creature was heightened when at the end of the text it appeared as a

ball of light that swallowed Sarrat Norte and his son. What the nature of the creature

was, what it could do and where it brought the two caused the enigma of the narrative.

Lastly, the short story, “The Apologist” is a combination of mystery and macabre.

The mystery melded with horror is evident in the series of morbid murders happening

in the country. They didn’t know who the murderer was, but what they knew was that

the murderer was fond of skinning and mutilating his victims. What created a sense of

abject mortification was the revelation that the killer was the son of the prime

minister. That he was related to the most powerful man in the country made him

immune from the law and the punishments that entail breaking them. At the end of the

text, Sal’s last spin-off story for Ben showed not very much of an enigma but more of

an appalling evidence of invalidation of the victim’s suffering, romantization of

murder, and desensitization from abuses and injustices of the powerful.

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 The mystery code in the texts discussed were all traceable in their novums. The

novums in the short stories, be it mystic or scientific reinvent realities that elicit shock

and disbelief thereby detaching themselves from the very world they seek to imitate.

The presentation of alternate worlds where these novums are possible and logical

result to estrangement which causes people to question established and accepted

realities; and sehnsucht which leads people to wonder and desire something beyond

which is the present reality. Hence, the code of enigma in the speculative texts is a

tool both for social commentary and a trigger for revolt towards change.

C. Connotations

The semantic code refers to the extended meaning put on words or elements in a

text. It is often found in the characterization and theme of the texts which serve as the

discursive tool to get concepts across.

The selected speculative stories in this study are involved elements that have

denotative meaning and connotative significance in the narratives.

 Keeping Time by F. H. Batacan

 The conditions of Mike and Marisol’s respective

relations connote the society’s attitude towards physical

figure. Society has set standards for the ideal and

attractive physical figure that falling outside those

standards results in becoming at the receiving end of

shaming. In the text, both Mike and Marisol used to

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 receive remarks about their figure like “If you only lost

weight…”. The shaming and pity remarks lead to the

receivers’ identity getting melded if not reduced to their

appearance thereby resulting to an alienation from the

self and the society.

 Mike’s behavior even after losing weight connotes how

body-shaming results in how people were made to feel

their weight and their identity are one and the same. The

lines, “Mike enters the room sideways, sucking in his

gut. It is an old habit; even though he has shed more

than a hundred and forty pounds, he still feels like a fat

man” showed that Mike has been so used to feeling

needing to make his body as small as he can in order to

fit in the places he goes to, and situations he goes in.

Getting dumped and shamed for his figure made him feel

his identity and his body are one and the same that he

couldn’t see more to himself than what he looks like.

Thus, after losing weight, Mike could no longer

recognize himself, “In the mirror above the capacious

sink, he sees a stranger”. There, he sees not who he is

but who society wants him to be.

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  Mike’s failed marriage due to his weight connotes

human beings’ superficial relationships anchored on

physical attractions.

“If his wife were here, he reflects, if they had just met,

she would be all over him; he is now the exact physical

type she would have found irresistible”

Mike knew that when he lost weight that was the only

time that his deceased ex-wife could find him desirable.

And yet, the irony is that the very cause of his continuing

weight loss was also the cause of the death of his wife.

She was fit, and he was fat, but the ones who were fit

were the first ones to die.

 Mike doesn’t only symbolize the irony of life and the

turning of tables but also the depression that resulted from

body-shaming. Mike was already 300 pounds before his

wife left him, but it was their broken marriage that made

him binge-eat—a manifestation of his growing depression.

“…he ate his way into numbness, a lumbering giant laced

with deep and invisible scars”

 Amidst the sorry figures and faces of the people affected

by the enzyme, Mike was resigned, detached, and devoid

of hope for absolution. However, his encounter with

Marisol awaken in him a carnal desire which eventually

turned into an emotional desire. His carnal desire can be

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traced in the part where Mike was perusing the figure of

the unaware Marisol. Mike’s stealthy observation of

Marisol in the balcony conveys his long forgotten yet now

rekindled desire for intimate physical connection. It is

shown in the way he notes her shape, “Even from behind,

Mike notes that her body, bathed in the dim amber light

from the bedroom, is in very good shape…” and her skin,

“…she must be relatively young, her skin still elastic”.

The line, “he has to touch himself before he can get any

sleep” verifies his carnal desires.

 The Ministerial conference of world-renowned health

experts and epidemiologists at the World health

organization to discuss the epidemic caused by the enzyme

connotes that no matter how intelligent human beings are,

they are still vulnerable to death. The lines, “When this

conference reconvenes in three months as scheduled, many

of them will not be in attendance. The world’s best minds in

public health, their ranks thinning inexorably” showed that

time is fleeting and even before they can think of a way to

solve the problem of the man-made epidemic, it could

already be too late. The line also showed the hopelessness

of the situation since if the smartest and influential people

couldn’t save themselves how much more the less fortunate

ones.

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 The enzyme contamination of the water causing

emaciation and even death connotes vanity and greed.

Vanity is illustrated when the people insisted on having

their water treated with the nutrient-breaking enzyme in the

pre-text of health advocacy. It was shown in the lines,

“Many in the region had clamoured to have their water

treated, citing rising rates of obesity, heart disease,

hypertension, diabetes. Truthfully, vanity was just a great

motivator”

Greed, on the other hand was illustrated through the

manufacturers of the enzyme and the inhibitors. The ones

who made the enzyme rode on the vanity of the people

making a lot of money in the process. Without intensive

study on the side effects of the enzyme-water treatment,

these pharmaceuticals profited from the thoughtless

demands of the public.

The irony is made visible in the lines, “Even in this, Big

Pharma continues to make Big Money: money no one will

ever get to spend. This company is the one making

inhibitors that can slow down yet can’t stop water

contamination. The epidemic has made people rich, but this

very same epidemic has killed many of them and are still

killing a lot more.

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 In the text, Mike is an embodiment of the Angel of Death.

The lines “In the Bible, the Angel of Death is a messenger”

shows the former and Mike’s function in the world. Mike

goes from one place to another, attending conferences and

listening to developments and updates. Mike is one of the

few who really knows how the situation was far from

absolution. He is the bearer of the news as, “the Talmud

says he appears when there is no further remedy to be

found, no other appeal to be made.”

 In the text, Mike is an embodiment of the Angel of Death.

The lines “In the Bible, the Angel of Death is a messenger”

shows the former and Mike’s function in the world. Mike

goes from one place to another, attending conferences and

listening to developments and updates. Mike is one of the

few who really knows how the situation was far from

absolution. He is the bearer of the news as “ the Talmud

says he appears when there is no further remedy to be

found, no other appeal to be made.”

 Mike being the timekeeper of the world connotes that Mike

will be one of the few who will go last and who will see

how humanity perishes. In the text, Marisol was once told

by her one-night stand partner that “The fat shall inherit the

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 earth”. As the epidemic is caused by the enzyme that

speedily breaks down and sheds off nutrients and fat from

the human body, the fit and the superbods were the first to

get sick and die; thus the “fat” ones with more weight to

shed off have more time to live. Both Marisol and Mike

have more time to live and see how the enzymes ends

humanity, thus called timekeeper.

 Marisol’s character being so beautiful and alive connotes

hope. Though meeting her couldn’t and wouldn’t save Mike

from the looming death that awaits them all, her existence

offers a new meaning to the mechanical life he has been

living. Marisol’s character connotes that it’s not the number

of years left to live that makes life great but the way it will

be spent that will make it count. Though Mike says,

“There’s little time left” for them to live Marisol responds,

“There’s time enough to teach you how to blow smoke

rings” signaling there’s time enough for them to be

together, to love and to be happy.

2.Sink by Isabel Yap

 Margo’s character connotes the pain and struggles

humans undergo before they can finally move on from the

death of a love one.

Margo had been raising her son on her own after her

failed relationship with his father. Her life revolved around her

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son that his sudden death at the young age of eight devastated

her. He had been her only source of comfort, energy and hope

that she couldn’t process, couldn’t accept that he was

permanently gone. Her desperateness and inability to cope with

her loss surfaced when she met a mysterious salesman in

Greenhills who offered her solutions to her problems. That time

the only solution she could think of that would end her misery

was if her son would live again, thus, she asked the salesman to

“bring him back to me”.

Her inability and unwillingness to let go made plunged

her to the illusion of happiness she has with the robot Jake who

even though looks “just like the real thing” wasn’t and will

never be her real son, Jake.

It was the gradual deterioration of the robot son that

made Margo face the reality that “…she was never supposed to

have him back” thereby making her finally let go of her son.

 Salesman connotes temptation to succumb to illusion

and false happiness.

The Salesman symbolizes temptation because his

meeting with Margo made the latter cling longer to the hope of

having her son again. Though the Salesman did not directly

offer Margo to bring back her son, the very statement that he

could provide “Solutions for Anything” tempted her, made her

ask for the return of her son.

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 He wasn’t described as evil, but his appearance in the

most vulnerable moment of Margo’s life to give what she’s not

supposed to have suggests something malevolent about him.

Even the color black that was associated with him suggests

something mysterious if not evil as, “he was wearing a black

cap that shaded his eyes” and was even always carrying a black

suitcase. Also, though he was selling his goods in Greenhills, it

was odd that his stall was described to be empty signaling that

what he was selling weren’t objects or services, but answers to

the deepest most desperate desires a human being has, thus the

sign that says, “The Salesman, Solutions for Anything” he

offers to solve anything even “tragedies” like death.

The process by which the Salesman was able to bring

back Margo’s son was vaguely explained in the story, but what

was made clear was due to the life-likeness of the robot Jake,

Margo felt happy and alive again. However, this happiness that

she has been experiencing made her world smaller and

disconnected from real human connections as “Margo’s

mother didn’t know that Jake had come back, and neither did

Jake’s father” and “they didn’t visit any relatives” or visited

friends and welcomed visitors in. Her life with her robot son

resembles a role play, an illusion, a dream that’s bound to end.

No matter how real the robot seems, he’s not her son and she

must let him go. No matter how happy she was, she has to face

the reality.

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  The existence of the robot Jake connotes the human

beings’ tendency to look for substitutes that would fill in the

hollowness of one’s yearning. The robot Jake existed because

of Margo’s unwillingness and inability to let go of her dead

son. Though Jake was a substitute that resembles in all aspects

the real son, he was still a copy and could never be the real as

“he wasn’t growing anymore”, his memories had gaps and he

couldn’t do the things the real Jake could do like swimming.

Also, since he’s a machine he can’t be “flooded with too much

feeling” like a human being. And just like any other machine,

he could be in good condition but,

“the system is operating…but it seems like physically he will be

weakening, wearing down”

This in turn makes the robot Jake’s existence connote that

illusions and make-believes no matter how beautiful could

never give real and lasting happiness.

 The image of the ocean connotes both life and death.

The part where Margo watches the second Jake getting

swallowed by the ocean not only denotes the second death of

Jake but also connotes Margo’s acceptance and healing.

3.And These were the Names of the Vanished by Rochita Loenen-Ruiz

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  The Lualhati and its people symbolizes the Philippines

and the Filipinos. The Lualhati was colonized by the

Compassionate in the pretext of helping to improve the lives of

the former. During the Compassionate’s occupation, the people

of Lualhati who used to love dancing and colors, were educated

in the ways of the colonizers. The Luwalhatis were treated as if

they weren’t human beings

“They can be trained” and “and when they are trained, they

will make good and loyal citizens”

The things that show the Lualhati’s identity, be it a physical

or cultural trait were forcefully shed off from the masses:

“we learned their speech patterns and read their literature. We

wore prescribed articles of clothing and eschewed the lighter

and colorful wear that was more fitted to our physiognomy”

 The Compassionate symbolizes the atrocities and

manipulations inflicted by the colonizers to the Philippines.

Although the name denotes mercy and kindness, the

Compassionate connotes the opposite in the text. The

Compassionate feigned to educate, help, and improve the lives

of the Lualhatis, but in reality was only exploiting the territory,

the resources and labor forces for their own benefits.

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 “If the Compassionate truly wish us well” Piray said “They

would cease to deal with us as if we were nothing more than

mindless children”

Even if it was shown in the text that the Compassionate has

granted the Lualhati’s freedom allowing the latter to a leader

from its people, it was later revealed that the freedom and

independence weren’t real, and the new government was either

a puppet of the Compassionate or a new breed of local

oppressors.

“Why, if we are truly free, does our Leader-Elect allow for the

continued presence of the Compassionate’s pacifying forces on

our shores”

“and why, if they only wish us well, must we cede to them

rights and licenses to ancestral lands and the powers that live

there”

 The Pacifying Force connotes anti-subversion and

militarization in the country.

The Pacifying Force is a military group that disperses, attacks,

arrests and tortures activists, rebels and dissenters. Though the

name Pacifying Force denotes peacemaking,

“Ours is a government that wishes to ensure your safety and

your peace”

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the function of the Force isn’t to bring peace and order but to

annihilate oppositions in the government and instill fear to those

who even dare think of dissenting views

“Even now, there are dissidents and subversives who would

like nothing more than to bring the Chaos to our shores”

 Sarrat Norte symbolizes betrayal of one’s nation.

In the past, Sarrat Norte fought along with the other Luwalhatis

for the independence of their country. He was even decorated

for his valor in the struggle. However, when he became the

Leader-Elect, he turned out to be not the leader that the masses

wished him to be as he revealed to be nothing more than a

puppet of the Compassionate as shown by his words “We must

work together to achieve the vision passed on to us by the

Compassionate”. Thus, it has been emphasized that it was only

the face of the leader that has been changed, but the condition of

the people was still the same. No one was safe as “Only the

Leader-Elect and those who belong to the PF are untouchable”

 The Chaos denotes violence and disorder, but in the

text, it symbolizes the valor and sacrifices of the Luwalhatis

who fought against the Compassionate in order to achieve

independence

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 The Silence denotes calm and peace, but in the text it

connotes fear that enveloped the country. The PF didn’t make

the Luwalhati peaceful, rather it silenced the oppositions and

subversions in the country by killing or torturing those who

openly dissent, threatening those who might attempt to fight,

and brainwashing the young ones before they could even form

opposing views. People have been enveloped by uniformity and

by impersonal joyless order, thus the silence.

 The character of Piray symbolizes patriotism and

courage.

Amidst the violence against dissenters, Piray showed courage to

check and question the direction of the government:

“Why, if we are truly free, does our Leader-Elect allow for the

continued presence of the Compassionate’s pacifying forces on

our shores”

“and why, if they only wish us well, must we cede to them rights

and licenses to ancestral lands and the powers that live there”

She was one of the few who refused to pretend ignorance

about the follies of the administration and openly called out the

government to do its job

“it is not the people who serve the government, but it is the

government who must serve the people”

Towards the end of the story, Piray and the other

Luwalhatis who had been silenced for a long time marched on to

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 a revolution and drove a way Sarrat Norte and his son, the new

Leader-Elect Quinto,

“A nation, once awakened, will refuse to sink back into Silence

and subjugation.”

4. Anthropomorpha By Crystal Koo

 The Anthros connotes the minorities are often discriminated and

oppressed in the society for their mere difference.

The anthros are human beings with the gene trait of the ancient

mystical creatures of the Philippines. These mystical gene traits had long

been recessive and almost fading among the Filipinos, thus, the anthros are

the minorities. The very difference that they have from the majority is the

main reason why the society is threatened if not disgusted by their

existence. Their appearance in their anthro form in public was made illegal

so as not to cause distress the public.

The experiences of the anthros symbolizes the experiences of the

minorities like the ethnic groups, the LGBTQS and others, since like the

former these groups’ rights were often put aside if not stepped upon to

cater for the norm.

 Anthro license connotes bigotry and repression.

In the text, the anthros were categorized and labeled according to the

severity of their “threat levels” which determined whether they would be

given a license to live as who they were.

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 The line , “If she didn’t want to be arrested, she had to appear in

sapiens form in public” showed that they lived in a society where their

gene trait, which they didn’t have a choice in the first place, is considered

illegal.

While some anthros receive a license, the others don’t

“She applied for H.Anthropomorha-

RighttoAppearPubliclyInNaturalForm-LimitedWorkPermit-

LimitedHealthcare-ReproductionSubjectToApproval-

NoRightToInternationalTravel-NoRightToRunForPublicOffice license

but it was rejected.”

and this creates bad blood and rift between and amongst anthros which in

turn weakens their movements for equal rights

“give some of them rights and none for the others, give them classes,

and watch the fireworks”

 The mutagenic operation shows how society forces people to change who

they are in order to fit in. Since the anthros were being repressed and

discriminated because of their difference, many of them resorted to

permanently removing what made them different or unacceptable, thus, the

existence of mutagenic operations.

A lot of sapiens groups were in favor of legalizing the mutagenic

operations on the pretext that it would help the anthros. Ironically, while

they were clamoring for the legalization of the mutagenic operation, they

were silenced about giving rights to anthros instead. The situation here is

somewhat parallel to the surgeries that involve altering physical features

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 which the process may not be approved by the majority yet the aesthetic

results are rejoiced by the public eye.

 Dominic symbolize resignation and defeat

Dominic used to fight for the rights of the anthros and proudly claims

“Siokoy ako”. He convinced anthros that if they fight together, they would

see “a day when a license to exist was no longer necessary” and anthros

could freely roam the streets in their true forms.

The death of Romualdo, another leader of the movement made

Dominic’s faith crumble. Romualdo gave up the fight and found his way

out of the unfair society by ending his own life. The line“it gets a little

colder here because there’s a bit less anito fire to go around with” showed

how the courage and the desire to fight fades as each of their members

disappear. Hence, like Romualdo, Dominic wanted a way out “I want a

mutagenic operation” and give up not only the fight, but his identity for

the hope of living a better life.

 Tai connotes innocence and desire for acceptance.

Tai firmly believes the anthros deserve the same rights as the sapiens.

She supports the rallies and movements that seek to give anthros the

freedom to walk the streets in their mystical forms. She even tried to

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 convince those who had resorted to mutagenic operations to join their

cause

“what’s in our blood is stronger than what we think”

however, she felt betrayed and defeated when she found out that even the

leaders of their movement had given up: Romualdo committed suicide;

and Dominic, himself wanted a mutagenic operation.

 Luz’s character symbolizes both the desire for uniformity and the return to

true identity. Due to Luz’s anthro form, she had experienced

discrimination and oppression from her family. Her father hated her form

as shown by the lines

“turn into human form when you’re in public so you don’t rub it in

anyone’s face. Don’t make life difficult for us and don’t ever let me see

you that way again”

and her mom was scared of her and avoided her.

The feeling of having no right to live because of her difference drove

Luz to undergo mutagenic operation, an operation that would make her a

sapiens, that would make her the same as the majority. Though the

operation had stopped her transformations, Luz still struggled from the

need to fill in the role of a sapiens. It was a couple of encounters with Tai

—a believer of equal rights for anthros—that awakened her literal and

symbolic hunger which triggered her transformation. The literal hunger is

due to her marcupo physiognomy’s need to feed on its natural prey, and

the symbolic hunger is the desire to have the freedom to be her true self.

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  The image of the garuda carrying the corpse of the marcupo in its talons as

it flies to nowhere symbolizes the defeat of the cause, and the fading away

of the mystical beings

“…tightens her grasp on Luz’s slick, metallic skin and soars over the

geometry of the city, searching for a river on the way home”

5. Carbon by Paolo Chikiamco

 Villamayor’s character connotes the manipulative ways politicians

realize their desire to get if not to keep and elevate their position and

power. This is illustrated by two important moves of Villamayor: a.)

pushing for a bill that would give Carbons voting rights; b.) faking his

death; and, c.) undergoing visage-morphing operation.

President Villamayor pushed for a bill that would give Carbons

the equal rights with their progenitors. Although this seems a mercy-

driven act, underneath it reeks of political agenda as the bill includes

voting rights for carbons whose biggest manufacturer was the family

of Villamayor which has the

“ability to mass-produce a million voters by the May elections”

This move showed how the president’s intention to use the carbons to

secure another term.

Seeing that pushing for the bill antagonized Villamayor in the eyes of

the public, he decided to “die” in order to live again with a renewed

reputation. He was able to do this by conniving with Sergio-B in staging

an accident in the Agila station. The one who saved Zarate and died in

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 the accident wasn’t the real Villamayor but his carbon. His “death” made

him win back the heart of the masses including that of his Vice President

“forty-third president from politician to hero overnight”

After the accident, Villamayor was able to return and pretend he was a

carbon after he had undergone visage-morphing— an operation that

made him look ten years younger.

 The Carbons symbolize the blind followers and lackeys of politicians.

The text presented carbons as thinking beings who has “…has no

initiative, no empathy, no ambition” unlike their progenitors. They are

“capable of following orders to a tee” but are incapable of discernment and

making decisions beyond what is ordered of them

“soulless machines doomed to oblivion”

The carbons are an illustration of the political fanatics who can’t see

beyond and beneath what their political idols are promising or ordering

them. They follow wherever they are lead to thus like the carbons in the

text, they may have human flesh, but they are no more than machines for

the politicians’ gains.

 Zarate’s character symbolizes vanity and ambition

Zarate doesn’t have a clear political agenda, and his only main ambition

was to create a project that would glorify his name

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 “and by that time, we will already have become the third

Asian nation to demonstrate interstellar technology…”

It was his space-faring project that would bring him the honor and the

mark that he had always clamored for:

“Pontifico for progress”

 Carmen’s talk show connotes how media is used by the politicians to

manipulate the public. This has been shown by two elements: the live-

feed cast on the day of the Agila station tragedy, and the Carmen’s

interview of Tirso-B.

 The live-feed cast on the day Villamayor “sacrificed” his life to save

Zarate connotes how politicians stage situations and media to appear as

heroes in the eyes of the public

“forty-third president from politician to hero overnight”

The masses love drama. They love idea of superheroes, saviors who

can save them from all their problems

“the public loves grand gestures, larger-than-life-spectacles”

Parallel to this are the politicians’s publicity stunts like “sleeping in

banig”, “eating using their hands”, “using kulambo”, “using the

common street languages”, “visiting and hugging people in poverty-

stricken areas” and even “dancing and singing novelty songs” all in the

name of creating the image of being “one of the masses” or “a hero from

the masses”.

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  Carmen’s interview of the Tirso-B also connotes the use of media for

public manipulation. Carmen may not be aware of how her show

would be used by Villamayor, still she had been a tool for Villamayor

to get across to the public the message he wanted to convey: that

carbons are have initiative, wit, humour, discernment, emotions—all

of which indicating that they are as human as their progenitors and

therefore could be and must be given rights to vote and even run for

the presidential seat.

6. The Apologist by Ian Rosales Casocot

 Sal Fabellar symbolizes the politician’s apologists who act blind in the

face of injustice and impunity, and twist and turn the truth in favor of

their masters

“Sal is running phrases in his head, all sorts of possible spins

he can muster, to finesse into a catchy and harmless sound

bites every possible thing that is not exactly ready-made for

an explanation”

People like Fabellar invent lies after lies for the public to

swallow. Without remorse for the state of the country and its

people, they feed on the nation’s coffer, they live off the

nation’s decay

“he is the best PR man the Philippine renminbi can buy, in the

crumbling capital of New Duterte, and he doesn’t come

cheap”

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 Ben Salvacion’s character connotes abuse of power and impunity

Ben Salvacion shows the politician’s abuse of power and impunity.

Ben may not be a politician himself, but he was the son of the prime

minister who was the most powerful person in the country. That Ben was

portrayed untouchable in the story despite his apparent crimes illustrate

how power is enjoyed not only by the people in positions but as well as by

their family members, their relatives, their cronies and lackeys. Ben’s

character connotes how being connected to the government seat can make

one exempted from the claws of justice.

Truth belongs to those who hold power in the society. Being in the seat

of power, people like Ben could twist, turn and redress details to produce a

truth that favors them. Despite the pieces of evidence that go against this

truth, the public willingly swallows it. This is illustrated by the part where

Ben was in a talk show being interviewed about his killing spree

“the first thing he does, Ben Salvacion tells the pretty TV host,

is to wait for the right kind of urge to emerge”

He described his urge to kill as if it was as simple as an urge for snacks

or for new pair of jeans. Through the use of media, Ben’s blood thirst

named as “ravaging” was presented as something trivial if not romantic

“The studio cameras capture Ben’s eyes twinkling, the smile

easing to a bedimpled curve, the hand gesturing a cultivated

air of nonchalance, all of which say, Look at me, Im so silly Ive

even given it a name”

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 Through the right camera angles, studio effects, practiced charm “he gives

a lovely little laugh” and rehearsed lines, Ben’s bloodthirst was

romanticized, and his victims’ sufferings invalidated. The continuous

airing of this on media platforms desensitized the public to the point that

his murders were no longer viewed as crimes but normal if not a fashion

trend.

Ben’s character is parallel to how apologists and media can manipulate

the truth to create an image that would cover up the debased traits of the

leaders of the country.

 The ravaging connotes the abuses committed by the government leaders

and their cronies.

This term is used by Ben to name his urge to kill and mutilate his

victims. In the story, the ravaging was presented as a predation process

where Ben was the predator eyeing and hunting his prey before his kill;

thus, showing ravaging not solely as an image of personal defect, but more

importantly an image of power struggle. The ravaging symbolizes the

hunger of the influential and powerful individuals in the society to use

their power over the ordinary helpless people. They kill, they torture, they

mutilate and do other atrocities not because they need to, but because they

know they can, and there will be no retributions after.

7. Press Release by Leo Magno

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  Press Release connotes media manipulation and sociopolitical

conditioning.

In the text, “the media in their country is owned either by the president

or the intelligence chief, their families and friends”. This entails that the

news that the media had been delivering to the people were controlled by

the people in power, thus working as the “president’s mouthpiece”, and

“vanity publishing” information favorable to them.

Through the release of the government screened and scripted news, the

people were socio-politically conditioned. News about what was

happening outside North Maharlika and the rest of the world were

censored. And news about what was happening inside North Maharlika

were kept inside. Since the people couldn’t see life outside their territory,

they didn’t have a point of comparison, thus believing that the life that

they had—poverty-stricken and controlled—was the only kind of life there

was, hence, the absence of desire for revolt for change. Using the media

as a propaganda machine, all the frustrations and anger of the people were

conditioned to be directed to South Maharlikans. The North Maharlikans

were made to believe that beyond the virtual wall, the South Maharlika

was drowning in chaos and poverty due to their insurrectionist and

warmongers. The government through the media presented the South as a

threat, an enemy that would bring about the collapse of the North’s

“peaceful” life.

 Oliva symbolizes the media folks and journalists who are cornered and

hard-pressed to serve as the government’s mouth-piece.

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 “He knew he was merely copying the press release and

directly injecting the government’s words into the minds of the

people.”

These media folks and journalists, willingly or not, contribute to the

misinformation and socio-political conditioning in the country.

 The Virtual Wall connotes how a nation is divided by the political schemes

and manipulations of the government leaders. In the text, the wall was

built on the pretext of eradicating insurrectionist and warmongers to ensure

peace and safety in the country; however, the true intention of President

Ricardo Gomez and later on his granddaughter, Samantha Gomez-Lee was

to contain dissenters and oppositions in Visayas and Mindanao to ensure

that their family will stay in power in Luzon.

 Colonel Barrera and Colonel Galicia symbolize the people who sacrifice

their lives for their country but are used and betrayed by their government.

Colonel Barrera was depicted as someone brave, nationalistic and had

special abilities—qualities of an ideal soldier. It can be drawn out from the

text that like the other North Maharlikans, he could have been conditioned

to see the South Maharlikans as enemies. He embarked on an astral

projection in the belief that he was doing what would be good for his

country while ignorant of the genocidal plans of the North Maharlikan

government. Similarly, Colonel Galicia was an ideal soldier from the

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 South who had astral projection to the North and discovered the murderous

plans of Samantha Gomez-Lee

“I know what lies in the hearts of the enemies. I have seen their

plans; I have seen the horror in which they bask. I have heard

their lies, their manipulation, and how they lull their citizens into a

false sense of hope. I have seen how the control the flow of

information to deceive not only their citizens but the entire world”

 The encounter and the swapping of bodies of Colonel Barrera and Colonel

Galicia connotes that though Filipinos are divided by sociopolitical

conditioning induced by corrupt politicians, they are still the same—

clamoring for the same peace, security and economic stability for their

people.

“we knew we were from opposite sides of the virtual wall, but

there was a kindred spirit binding us”

Through Colonel Barrera and Colonel Galicia, the text shows that the real

enemies aren’t the people at the base. The people at the base are only

conditioned by the powerful to serve as pawns in their own political wars;

thusly, this implies that if the masses will only be awaken, their

frustrations, anger and energy could be hurled at the direction—that is to

topple over the oppressive government that shackles them.

 The character of Ricardo Gomez’s connotes how many of the Philippine

government leaders get elected despite not having the qualifications to run

the country. In the desire to show that they were “more than a mere

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 thespian”, many of them make moves or policies that would keep them in

power. In the text, Ricardo Reyes removed all his dissenters when

“Banished the influence of the southern separatist and contain them in the

Visayas and Mindanao’” thereby resulting in the founding of two different

territories, the North Maharlika and South Maharlika.

Samantha Gomez-Lee’s character symbolizes the manipulative, power-

hungry and corrupt government leaders. In the text, Samantha maintained

his grandfather’s lies about the purpose of the Virtual Wall and the socio-

economic conditions of the North and South Maharlika respectively. She

made the North Maharlikans believe that the South was in a constant state

of chaos and poverty; thus making the North Maharlikans believe that

though they were in a socio-economic downhill— “Torture of the

innocents, corruption, theft at the expense of childen who can not even be

provided with basic education and health care”—the South had it worse,

and the former would be in the same sorry state if not for Samantha

Gomez-Lee and the Virtual Wall.

Her greed for power and wealth is not only illustrated by her

stronghold of North Maharlika, but also her desire to expand her territory

by injecting toxic chemicals to the South Maharlikan waters that would

result to genocide.

8. Panopticon by Victor Fernando Ocampo

 Alfredo’s character is a connotation for grief and regret. Alfredo’s grief is

evident in the way the old man had fashioned the former’s clothes

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 “I will cut it from the cloth of your pain, that buried fabric spun

from the love you’ve lost, and sew it with the dark threads of your

doomed consummation”

Regret is evident as though Alfredo had been transitioned with a younger

body to the digital afterlife, his lost chances in love can never be retrieved

“the body can become young again, but the soul never”

thus the billions of years he had in the New City could be nothing but an

eternity of grief and sadness for him

 The character of Esperanza symbolizes the people who choose wealth

over love. This is illustrated by how she had chosen to marry Julio Salas,

“Julio had a lot of money” over Alfredo whom she loved and had had a

son with. Choosing opportunity over emotions resulted to Esperanza

landing on a lavish life

“For the last thirty years I’ve lived a blessed life, a life most people

can only dream of”

 Torre Paraiso, a neon-lit private integrated resort is a symbol for hell.

Although the term paraiso is a Filipino term for heaven, its characteristics

in the text have some similarities to people’s notion of hell. In the text,

only the world’s 1 % mega-rich can be transitioned to the New City and

live in Torre Paraiso. In the Christian belief, it is difficult for the rich to get

in heaven as their money is the root of evil. Following this pretext,

majority if not all of the rich may go to hell; thus, entailing that these

mega-rich people were in digital version of hell. The second evidence is

the way the resort was “divided into separate sections that celebrated

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 Christianity’s Seven Deadly Sins: Envy, Greed, Gluttony, Sloth, Lust,

Wrath and Pride”. The third evidence is the way people, despite having all

the luxuries, were trapped in the digital platform for billions of years doing

the same thing over and over again. The fourth evidence is the neon light

of the resort. As neon colors have very warm tone and high brightness, the

image of Torre Paraiso looked like burning.

 The virtual World connotes people’s attempt to match everything with

money. The text showed how the rich people wanted to extend their

existence buy paying for their soul to be downloaded and transitioned into

a digital afterlife

“feels so real, correct or not? This place is almost the real universe.”

the line above shows that though money can buy technology, and

technology can simulate reality, the two still cannot produce a real

afterlife, real happiness.

 The process of transitioning connotes social hierarchy.

“your level of comfort, your level of reality, depends on the size of

your wallet”

There are different types of futures for the different social classes, “If

you’re rich, you live it up in the New Cities…” but for the poor “You just

die, end of story” while those who are in the middle “can pay soul-

hackers” to build them an afterlife.

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9. Sky Gypsies by Timothy James Dimacali

 The Sama Lauts’ shift from seafaring to spacefaring connotes how the

demands of modern society are pulling in even the Filipino ethnic groups to

venture in scientific and technological advancement. In the text, though the

Badjaos’ equipment were ancient,

“The outsiders look down on us, but we are rich beyond their

imaginings”

they were able to use their navigation skills in seafaring to survive the

challenges of spacefaring. Hence, the Badjaos connote skills, resistance,

courage and strength.

 Tuhan symbolizes the religious of the Sama-Lauts. The Sama-Lauts view

Tuhan as their god who resides in the sky. Their prayers for good harvest,

their respect for the planetoids and their gratitude for finding the oxygen

ore show their strong ethnic faith

 The Karumaga Sails’ adventure in space symbolizes the melding of the

Filipino traditional means of survival or livelihood with the scientific and

technological advancement that lead to spacefaring

 The Outsiders stands for the corrupt authorities that take advantage of the

helpless laborers. In the text, the outsiders were patrolmen or Martian

Union police assigned for monitoring space-faring and maintain order in

space. Instead of using their position for the good of many, they used their

power to take advantage of the weaker sails. In the story, since Sama Lauts

got their ion generators—tool for breathing and navigating in space—

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 from the Outsiders, the former avoided revolting against the latter’s

oppressive ways.

 The mysterious ore that Mandali found towards the end of the story

symbolizes hope, independence and progress for the Sama Lauts and other

Badjaos. The mysterious covered in dark tar-like substance with wisps of

blue contains oxygen that is integral for sky harvesting or spacefarering.

The ore provided hope as that very stone and the possibility of harvesting

more of it would mean the Sama Lauts would no longer needed the ion

generators of the Outsiders. This, then could lead to the Sama Lauts

independence in space endeavors thereby shedding off the need to pay

tolls from and getting bullied by the Outsiders.

10. First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night By Vida Cruz

 Jerald Bulan’s character connotes intensive desire for perfection.

Bulan, a two-time Palanca winner aspired to create a theater production

literally and figuratively bigger and more real than life. He desired for

elements and effects that would look and feel real thereby driving his staff

to overwhelming amount of work which still had not pass his standards

“Humans can’t deliver perfection, so many of the previous

members left”

To achieve his thirst for perfection, Bulan’s endeavor transformed from

artistic creations imitating life turn into life imitating the functions of art.

Thus, he had chosen the boundless power of mythic beings in place of the

creative limitations of his human staff

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 “there are a thousand and one things I would not have been able

to achieve had I stuck to human made props”

Also, Jerald Bulan’s endeavors show that perfection is unreal and

unattainable that though one could get near it, one could not

completely possess it; thus the pervasive plunges towards it may lead

to madness

“Jerald Bulan has not only crossed over to insanity—he

dances the cha-cha with it”

 Elysia Bernadino’s character symbolizes the creative yet limited

capabilities of human beings. Elysia was the one leading the props

production for the theatrical play of Bulan. Her works were intricate

and realistic, however, despite her talent, her arts can only imitate life

but cannot reproduce life as life contrary to what Bulan demanded.

Elysia’s character connotes how the very limitations of artists make

artists artists, and the very imperfections of art make art art.

 Jerald Bulan’s musical, “Noladi” connotes that perfection isn’t human

for human beings are naturally imperfect.

The play production was peopled with mythic beings from the actors to

props men, to staff, even up to maintenance and security. The play was

implied to be perfect from all angles, and yet it wasn’t human creativity

that produced it, but supernatural forces. This implies that perfection is

unreal and could kill creativity. Through the play, “Noladi”, this short

story calls out to artists not to trade their creativity for perfection.

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  The refusal of the duwende’s father to be involved in the play connotes

the separation and division between the mortal and the mystical beings.

“Kung nandito si Ama, sasabihin niya sa iyo na walang

kabutihang mapapala sa dulang ito—ngunit para sa akin,

nasisiyahan ako na sa wakas, may pagkakataon ang tao na

intindihin ang buhay ng isang hiwaga gaya ng Tikbalang”

 Madirawen, a tikbalang, symbolizes non-human perfection.

“Hindi kukulang sa lubos na kahusayan ang hinihiling ni

Direk sa buong produksyon”

 The Kapre and Madirawen’s participation in Bulan’s play signals that

perfection comes with a price. Though it wasn’t indicated how Bulan

convinced the Kapre to help in his production, the cryptic response of the

mystic creature

“…higit pa sa sapat ang ipinangakong bayad ni Bulan”

connotes impending danger directed to either Bulan or the other mortals.

Like the Kapre, Madirawen was also promised by Bulan something in

exchange for her taking the role of Noladi. From these two, it can be

presupposed that Bulan may have also promised something to the other

mystic creatures, and though the price was kept a secret, the perfection of

his play entails a price he himself couldn’t pay alone.

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D. Symbolic Code

The symbolic code refers to the elements that give meaning through binary

opposition. The selected speculative stories are structured on the basis of themes and

events anchored on oppositional relations. Through these relations the stories

illustrate the contrast in the conditions of the people in the central and peripheral

positions.

The position of power vs. the masses.

The clash between those in the seat of power and the masses surfaced

as one of the underlying themes of the selected speculative stories. This

opposition is illustrated in the short stories, “Apologist”, “And These were the

Names of the Vanished”, “Press Release”, “Sky Gypsies” and “Panopticon”.

In Casocot’s “Apologist”, the position of power manifests as a predator

who preys upon the powerless masses. The power and influence of Ben’s

Salvacion’s father—a prime minister—situates Ben in the position where he

could freely hunt, kill and mutilate commoners without getting arrested and

punished. The line between the influential people—relatives and lackeys of the

country’s leaders—and ordinary people bleeds bold through romantization of the

powerful’s crimes, and invalidation of the victims’ voices.

As in “The Apologist”, the tone of power vs. the masses also appeared

in Loenen-Ruiz’s “And These were the Names of the Vanished”. In this text, the

tone of power vs. masses comes in two forms: the colonizers vs. the colonized,

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and the colonized vs. the colonized. The first opposition is evident in the clash

between the Compassionate and the Luwalhatis. The Compassionate colonized

the Luwalhatis and forced the latter to dress, act, talk and think like the former,

all in the pretext of educating and saving the latter from their own uncivility. The

second instance of the opposition comes in the clash between the colonized and

their own people. In the text, after winning the revolution against the

Compassionate, the Luwalhatis expected that they would have their country

would be independent from the claws of the former; however, the very people

who 2fought beside the rebels and insurrectionists against the colonizers assumed

the place left by the colonizers and become the tyrants themselves. As a result, it

was only the leader that had been changed, but the condition of the people had

not if not became worse.

The third short fiction that demonstrates the tone of power vs. masses is

Magno’s “Press Release”. This text shows how the position in the binary dictates

whose truth becomes the nation’s truth. The people who holds the power in the

government controls the media thereby controlling the truth released to the

public. In the story, Samantha Gomez-Lee, the president of North Maharlika

controlled the information coming in and out of their territory. By doing this, she

was able to project North Maharlika as peaceful and economically stable in the

eyes of the rest of the world. Also, by fabricating the information from the

outside coming in to North Maharlika, their government was able to make the

masses believe that there was nothing wrong in their socio-economic condition.

Subsequently, by manipulating the information released by the media, the

government was able to redirect the frustrations and anger of the masses from

inefficacies of the former towards a different enemy: the insurrectionists in South

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Maharlika. This served two purposes for the government: first, it deflected the

check and balances; and second, it would make the people—in the shroud of

nationalism—willing pawns in overtaking the South.

The fourth fiction that shows power vs. the masses is Dimacali’s “Sky

Gypsies”. While the first three showed political positions as the source of power,

in this text, the source of power is technological advancement. The

technologically advanced Outsiders vs. the traditional Sama-Lauts in the quest

for harvesting platinum and other ores in the planetoids and asteroids in the outer

space. The latter used to be seafarers before they ventured into spacefaring, and

due to “centuries and generations of living at sea” they have developed “genetic

sturdiness against most of the cellular degradation typical of prolonged exposure

to solar radiation” which made them fit for skyharvesting. However, the

physical strength of the Sama-Lauts was not enough for them to compete with

and fight with the complex and advanced ships of the Outsiders. Also, since the

Sama-Lauts didn’t have the mechanism to produce oxygen, they relied on

Outsider technology for the air they breathed. This situation placed the Outsider

in a privileged position which made it possible for them to intimidate and rob off

the harvest of the Filipino farers. The end of the text hints on the possibility of

the clash to even out due to the discovery of an ore that could provide the Sama-

lauts oxygen.

The first three short stories presented power in the form of political

position, and the fourth short Sstory showed it in the form of technological

advancement. The last text, Ocampo’s “Panopticon” illustrated power in the form

of wealth, thus creating the tone of rich vs. poor. In the story, Esperanza’s money

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 was able to buy herself and even Alfredo a virtual afterlife thereby illustrating

that not only the comforts on earth but also in the afterlife could money acquire

“If you’re rich, you live it up in the New Cities…” but “If you

are poor, you wouldn’t even know these exist. You just die, end of

story”.

The Real vs the Unreal

Human beings’ struggles in the middle of the real and unreal emerged as one

of the underlying tones of the selected speculative stories. The real vs. unreal

binary appears in three forms: authentic vs. artificial, real vs. art, and truth vs.

lies.

The authentic vs. the artificial is illustrated in Yap’s “Sink”, Fernando’s

“Panopticon” and Chikiamco’s “Carbon”. In the fiction “Sink”, the tone

authentic vs. the artificial is presented through the resurrection of Margo’s son in

the form of a robot. The death of Margo’s son left her devastated that when a

mysterious salesman offered her a solution to all her problems, she didn’t think

twice of asking him to bring her son back to her. Mr. Salesman constructed the

robot Jake who looked and act exactly like the real Jake except for some

limitations in the memory and physical capacity. Although the robot Jake

provided Margo with happiness, he still could never be the real Jake. The life

Margo created around this robot son was made of an illusion that couldn’t be

sustained for a long time. Thusly, though the machine version of Jake seemed to

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have survived the flesh and blood Jake, like the latter, the former couldn’t last

forever.

The next illustration of the binary real v. unreal appeared in “Panopticon” in

the form of real vs. virtual life. Like the “Sink”, this story incorporated

technological extrapolations to create an alternative view of life and death. The

text emphasized the impermanence and imperfections of life by drawing a virtual

afterlife of neon-lighted five-star resort complex that could last billions of years.

The former was the only life that poor could have while the latter was reserved

for the wealthy who could afford it. Although the latter was filled with the glitz

and glamor, and eternity that the wealthy could buy, it can be drawn that

existence in this eternal virtual afterlife is artificial and pointless compared to the

limited yet real life on earth.

The clash between the real and the unreal is also evident in the Chikiamco’s

fiction, “Carbon”. Similar to the first two, extrapolations on scientific and

technological advancements incited the binary opposition in this story. The story

is set in futuristic Philippines where cloning is possible and clones are widely

manufactured. The story’s opposition involves the real human beings or

progenitors vs. carbons or clones. Conveying the inability of science to play God

and recreate life, the text presented the carbons as with perfect human appearance

and impeccable work efficiency but lacking of wit, humour, initiative, conscience

and all other sentiments that make human beings human.

The fourth fiction that has the tone of real vs. unreal is Cruz’s “First Play for

and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night”. Contrary to the previously

discussed stories where the real is conveyed as more desirable over the unreal,

this text emphasized how in the perspective of art, creativity is born out of the

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unreal. Through the character of Bulan, the short story presented the dilemma of

whether to pursue perfection through clamoring for the real, or allow

imperfection when clamoring for creativity. In the text, Bulan reversed the

function of art—instead of art imitating life, he forced life to imitate art—

attaining non-human perfection at the cost of throwing away his and his staff’s

imagination and creativity.

Norm vs Strange

The selected speculative stories operate on the contrast between the norm

and the strange. This is demonstrated through Coo’s “Anthropomorpha” and

Cruz’s “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night”.

The opposition, the norm vs. the strange appeared as the underlying tone of

the speculative fiction, “Anthropomorpha”. In the narrative, the Filipinos were

divided into two types of beings: the sapiens and the anthros. The sapiens were

described as having only the genetic make-up of human beings while the anthros

were described as human beings with the genes of the ancient Philippine mystical

creatures. The sapiens were seated at the position of the norm, the ideal, the

desirable and the acceptable while the anthros were deemed strange, threatening,

hideous and unacceptable. Belonging to the unaccepted minority, the anthros

were required to apply for a license to simply exist. Because of the position the

anthros were in, some of them revolt against the system, others resort to

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 removing their anthro-ness by undergoing mutagenic operations while the others

choose to give up and die.

E. Cultural Code

The cultural code refers to anything in the text which pertains to an external

body of knowledge common to a particular field, place or group such as science,

culture and history. The selected short stories have cultural references, symbols and

allusions. For instance: -

1. In Isabel Yap’s “Sink”

Greenhills:

Greenhills Shopping Center is a huge shopping complex—boasting

more than 2000 stores—located at San Juan, Philippines. It is known for

its rows and rows of stalls selling copies and replicas of clothes, shoes,

bags, electronic gadgets and other items for a cheap price.

 Quiapo:

Quiapo is an old downtown district of Manila. It is known for its wide

array of stores and stalls that sell excellently forged items like electronic

gadgets, appliances, clothes, shoes, and even fake diplomas and other

kinds of certificates for a very low cost.

 Robot:
Its origin is the Czech word, robota which means ‘forced labor’. This

term was invented by Josef Capek, but it was first used by his brother

Karel Capek to name his 1920 play, R.U.R. The word robot is used to

mean a machine designed by human beings to replicate human activities

and movements.

2. In F.H. Batacan’s “Keeping Time”

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  World Health Organization:

It is an international organization whose main objective is “the

attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health”.It

manages international health work that would warrant “valid and

productive technical cooperation among its members.”

 Makati:

It is a city in the Philippines known for its skyscrapers and shopping

malls. It is considered as the country’s financial hub.

 Manila:

It is the capital of the Philippines. It is highly urbanized and densely

populated.

 1970s Biafra:

It was a breakaway state that existed in West Africa from May 30,

1967 to January 1970.

 Catabolysis:

It is a biological condition wherein the body breaks down fat and

muscle tissue in order to stay alive. It is a severe form of malnutrition

that happens where there are no longer nutrients to nourish the body.

 Angel of Death from:

The Angel of Death is identified in the Talmud as someone who

bears evil forces which were responsible for Adam’s fall and his

descendants’ death.

 BMI:

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 According to National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (n.d.), Body

Mass Index refers to “the measure of body fat based on height and

weight that applies to adult men and women”.

3. Rochita Loenen-Ruiz’s And These were the Names of the Vanished

 Luwalhati:

It is a Filipino word meaning in a state of peace. In the text it refers to

the people and the territory occupied by the colonizers, the

Compassionate.

 Compassionate:

This word is an adjective that means showing sympathy or caring for

others. In the text, it was used to refer to the colonizers.

4. Crystal Koo’s Anthropomorpha

 Anthropomorphism:

It pertains to the idea that nonhuman entities like animals, gods and

goddesses, objects have human characteristics like emotions, actions

and physical traits.

 Mutagenic operations:

It is derived from the word mutagen which pertains to a physical or

chemical agent that alters the genetic makeup of an organism.

 Kapre:

It is a Philippine mythical creature characterized to be tall, big,

hairy and muscular tree-dwelling creature.

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  Siokoy:

It is a Philippine mythical sea creature characterized by green skin,

scales, fins and webbed limbs.

 Garuda:

It is an Indian mythical creature described to be a huge magical

bird with the mixture of human and eagle features (Cartwright, 2015).

 Marcupo:

In Philippine Mythology, specifically among the Hiligaynons, a

marcupo is described to be a giant serpent with red crest on its head,

sharp tusks and a forked tail.

5. First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night By

Vida Cruz

 Tikbalang:

It is a Philippine Mythological creature described to be half human

and half horse. It has the head of a horse, a torso of a human being and

a pair of extraordinarily long and strong limbs resembling the rear

limbs of a horse.

 Duwendes:

In Philippine folklore, they are commonly described as small old

men with a body of a child dwelling underneath mounds of soil or

anthills.

 Kapre:

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 It is a Philippine mythical creature characterized to be tall, big,

hairy and muscular tree-dwelling creature.

 Palanca Awards:

The Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature is a

prestigious award-giving body that honors and awards the bests

Philippine literary works.

6. Ian Rosales Casocot’s Apologist

 Manny Pacquiao

Manny Pacquiao is a Filipino professional boxer and a senator of

the Philippines.

 PR man:

PR man or publicity relations man is someone employed to manage

and arrange how and what the image of a person would be presented to

the public.

 New Duterte:

The term New Duterte which was used in the text as a name of a

place was based on the name of the 16th and current president of the

Philippines, President Rodrigo R. Duterte.

 President Marcos:

He was the Philippine’s tenth president from 1965 to 1986. He put

the Philippines under Martial law and ruled as a dictator from 1972 to

1981.

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 Maharlikan Parliament of the Federal Republic of the

Philippines

Maharlika:

Dr. Rolando Borrinaga, a historian from the National

Commission for the Culture and the Arts, corrected the

misconception that Maharlika means nobility and stated that the

term actually means free man (Asian Journal, 2019). The use of the

term Maharlika to refer to the Philippines in the text may have been

influenced by the current president’s vocal expression of wanting

to replace the country’s name.

Federal:

It refers to a type of government that divides and distributes

power between members and institutions (Follesdal, 2018). The use

of the term Federal Republic in the text may have been influenced

by the president’s and his supporters’ desire to transform the

Philippines unitary form of government to federalism.

 Malacanan:

The Malacanan is the official residence and workplace of the

president of the Philippines.

 The Mocha Uson Post:

The Mocha Uson Post is derived from the Mocha Uson Blogsite.

Mocha Uson or Esther Margaux Justiniano Uson was a former dancer,

singer and model turned pro-Duterte blogger.

 Natural Born Killers:

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 It refers to Oliver Stone’s 1994 film about a couple, Mallory and

Mickey Knox who went on a killing spree. The movie, instead of

focusing on the couple, presented how the media romanticized and

celebrated the murder spree of the couple.

 Synesthesia:

Synesthesia is a term derived from the Greek and mean joint

sensations. It pertains to the condition in which a person experiences a

blending of two or more senses (Cohut, 2018).

 Siddharta:

Siddharta, a novel written by Herman Hesse deals with the spiritual

journey of self-discovery of man named Siddharta in the time of

Buddha.

7. Paulo Chikiamco’s “Carbon”

 Progenitors:

It comes from the Latin which progignere which means “to beget”.

It pertains to a person or thing from which a person, animal or plant

originates.

 Clones:

It refers to an artificially produced genetically identical copy of an

organism. The word clone was coined by Herbert J. Webber from the

Greek klon which pertains to the process of creating new plants by

cuttings, bulbs and buds.

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8. Timothy James Dimacalli’s Sky Gypsies

 Sama Laut:

According to Nimmo (2001), Sama Dilaut is a subset of a bigger

ethnic group called Sama. Sama Dilaut means Sama of the Sea which

is used by the sea dwellers to differentiate themselves from shore-

dwellers. The Samas which are also known as Bajaus (or Badjaos) are

from the Sulu archipelago and eastern Borneo. Mandali and Sanno’s

sea-faring turned space-faring skills are based on the Sama Dilaut as

the latter dwell in, and get their means of survival in the sea.

 Tuhan:

Tuhan is a malay word which means the highest or god. The

supplication of Mandali to Tuhan, “Guide our rudders to the water of

true life, atahah kalluman” shows that the Samas believe in the

existence of a god that oversee and protect human beings. The father

and son’s persistent supplication and gratitude towards Tuhan shows

Filipinos’ religiosity.

 Filipino languages:

The text shows one of the Filipino languages through the

characters’ use of the words “shaitan” which means “evil”, and the

expression “atahah kalluman” which means “help our livelihood”.

9. Leo Magno’s “Press Release”

 Richard Gomez:

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 He is Filipino athlete, model and actor turned politician who is

now the mayor of Ormoc City.

 Astral Projection:

It is a term used to describe the ability of a soul or

consciousness called “astral body” to go outside of the physical

body and travel throughout the universe.

 Sergio Osmena Jr. :

He is the son of the fourth President of the Philippines, Sergio

Osmena Sr. He has served as a senator in the Philippine government.

10. Victor Fernando Ocampo’s “Panopticon”

 Panopticon:

It is a type of prison building designed by the social theorist Jeremy

Bentham in the 18th century. This type of building has a tower at the

center from which it is possible to see each cell in which a prisoner is

locked in. This system or structure creates a sense of omnipotent and

permanent surveillance.

 Dead stars:

It alludes to the short story titled, “Dead stars” written by Paz

Marquez Benitez. It is from this story that the plot and characters of

Panopticon were derived and reinvented.

 The Seven Deadly Sins:

The seven deadly sins are the classification of sins and

immoralities committed by human beings. According to the Christian

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 belief, the seven deadly sins are: avarice, lust, envy, gluttony, pride,

sloth and wrath.

 Torre Paraiso:

Torre Paraiso is derived from the Filipino word paraiso which

means paradise.

 New Tundon:

New Tundon’s name is taken from Tondo, a place in downtown

Manila Philippines. It is the most densely populated, and culturally

diverse district in Manila.

Narrative Structure

The syntagmatic analyses of the selected texts reveal that the stories are propelled by

actions of Disconnection and Reconnection (D-R) which appear in varied forms like death-

rebirth, separation-reunion, subjugation-pacification, and dissimilation-reassimilation.

Subsequently, the examination of the texts reveals that the disconnection and reconnection

phases are incited by an enthralling element or novum which is either a fantastic entity or a

scientific object that shakes the established order in the imagined world. Following this

discovery, the narrative of the selected stories follows a Disconnection-Novum-Reconnection

(D-N-R) pattern.

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 In the D-N-R pattern, the novum acts as a switch that incites the flow of a story. Each

selected Philippine speculative text is situated in an imagined world with its established set of

rules—a meld of the real and the invented—which dictates the mode of life of the people that

inhabit that world. The novum as a switch has two functions in the speculative fiction’s

narrative: a.) as a signal for the implicit system of the alternative world; and, b.) as a force

that destabilizes the rules in that alternative world. For the first function, the novum, be it a

mystic entity or an extrapolated scientific invention signifies the existence of a system that

allows for the possibility of such entities. An illustration of this is the short story, “Carbon”

where clones called carbon cohabit with their progenitors. The carbons were manufactured

for the purpose of assisting human beings; thus, their role in the story is for servitude. As in

the text, Tirso Villamayor used a carbon to stand in his place in his staged death in order to

regain his popularity amongst the voting public. Now by stepping back from the apparent role

of the carbon in the lives of the characters and shifting the focus towards the clones’ role in

the structure of the text, the clones sit at the frontier of world-building and situates the

narrative in a world where scientific and technological advancement are at peak to the point

that mass cloning is even possible. The said function of the novum is also traceable in

Anthropomorpha’s mutagenic operation, Sky Gypsies’s spacefaring, Panopticon’s virtual

afterlife, and Press Release’s virtual wall and astral projection. The second function of the

novum is as a force that destabilizes the established rules in the alternative world. The novum

comes either in a fantastic or scientific form upsetting order and giving the characters a

chance to defy the system. This function is illustrated in Sink’s robot Jake. The robot Jake

rings of Margo’s defiance of the established concept of life and death, be it in the text or in

the real world. Also, the existence of the salesman from Greenhills who offered Margo an

answer to all her woes shows a stretching of the limitations of human inventions, thus another

form of defiance.

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 Though it has been revealed that the selected stories followed the D-N-R flow, the

stories’ components aren’t completely the same. The Table below shows that variations of the

D-N-R flow in each story.

(J)Journey

Novum (N)

new Novum orNovum

(D)Disconnection

Reconnection/Connection/

(R/D)Reconnection/
disconnection
Texts

disconnection
“Sink” death of trip to mysterious  reunion second reconnection

her son Greenhills salesman with Jake death of with reality

 disconnect Jake

ion from

family and

friends

“Keeping Time” numerous WHO enzyme meeting

deaths related trips someone

abroad special
“And these were separation the reunion with The monster Free from

the names…” of Piray monster the sister sarrat norte

and her

sister
“Anthropomorpha” anthros Luz Luz blended The result of The anthros

were underwent with the the reunited

discriminat mutagenic sapiens, but operation

ed operation lost her reversed

identity
“First Play for Bulan He went to Madirawe Disconnecte

and by…” ended his Palawan n and d from

partnership other human

and mystical beings

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 friendship beings

with his Attached to

human the mystics

creative

staff
“Panopticon” Alfredo A journey to Virtual Reunited

died find the afterlife with

virtual high- Esperanza

end hotel, and his son

Paradiso
“Press Release” Division of Virtual War Astral death

North and Wall between the projection

South two

Maharlika territories
“Carbon” Villamayor carbon / operation regain public

lost the trust

favor of the

voting

masses
“The Apologist” murder Ravaging The public apologist Became a

were fashion/lifest

horrified yle icon

“Sky Gypsies” Leaving Space- Ion for Outsiders vs Oxygen ore Return home

earth faring breathing sama di laut

Though the narrative flow of the selected speculative stories follows the core pattern, D-

N-R, derivatives are formed by considerable or slight variations in the components and

arrangement of the components in the texts. The expanded form of the D-N-R pattern

observed in the texts studied is D-J-N-CRD-nN/Fn-RD (Diconnection-Journey-Novum-

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 nN/f
D J N CRD RD
N

Connection/Reconnection/Disconnection-newNovum/failedNovum

Reconnection/Disconnection) in which components may change position in the sequence.

The speculative short story begins with an event characterized by any form of

disconnection like breaking of relations, silent drifting apart, and impermanent or permanent

disappearance of something or someone. This disconnection is either the result of an entrance

and interference of a novum to the established conditions in the speculative world or the

cause of the appearance of the novum that shakes the equilibrium in the said world.

Following the disconnection is the journey code in which an important character may embark

on a long journey to a distant land or on a quick visit to the next village. In either cases, the

character leaves with a mission which could appear in various forms like the need to retrieve

an item, to spy on an enemy, to experience transformation, to possess the object of desire and

many others. The culmination of the journey may happen at the same time as the appearance

of a new novum, or the entrance of the CRD code (connection-reconnection-disconnection).

The CRD code refers to any event in the text in which the character builds a new relation,

repairs broken relations or severs an already weakening bond. Some texts end at the CRD

code while the others proceed on from here. In the texts that proceed from this point, the

subsequent part could be the collapse of the initial novum or the appearance of a new one

which could result in either the reconciliation of the previously severed relations or the

ultimate destruction of the already brittle ones.

Text Pattern

1.Isabel Yap’s “Sink D-J-N-CRD-fN-RD

2.F.H. Batacan’s “Keeping Time” D-J-N-CRD

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 3.Rochita Loenen-Ruiz’s “And These were the Names of the Vanished” D-N-CRD-nN/fN-R/D

4.Crystal Koo’s “Anthropomorpha” D-N-CRD-nN/fN-R/D

5.Vida Cruz’s “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening D-J-N-CRD

Night”

6.Victor Fernando Ocampo’s “Panopticon” D-J-N-CRD

7.Leo Magno’s “Press Release” D-N-CRD-fN-RD

8.Paolo Chikiamco’s “Carbon” D-N-CRD-fN-RD

9.Ian Rosales Casocot’s “Apologist” D-N-CRD-fN-RD

10.Timothy James Dimacali’s “Sky Gypsies” D-J-N-CRD-fN-RD

Recurring Features of Philippine Speculative Fiction

A. Patterns of connection-disconnection

The connection-disconnection code in the selected texts conveys

disgruntlement of the established systems and relations which may be caused by

prevailing injustices and personal motivations. The human beings’ disgruntlement

of the established order surrounding them results in sehnsucht thereby causing

broken relations, revolt and insurgency.

The disgruntlement in the established system is illustrated by the texts “And

These were the Names of the Vanished”, “Anthropomorpha”, “Press Release”,

and “Sky Gypsies” in which the characters live under the unjust established social

and political order. In “And These were the Names of the Vanished”, the

colonizers and their local representative elected as Lualhati’s leader subjected the

people to an oppressive government that deny them the right to maintain their

ethnic and cultural identity. Similarly, in “Press Release”, the government leaders

divided the nation for their own political gains and plunged their citizens into

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poverty all the while directing the blame to their political opponents. In the

“Anthropomorpha” and “Sky Gypsies”, the discontent is stemming from the social

hierarchy that creates an oppressive and repressive environment for the ones at the

bottom of the order. In the case of the “Anthropomorpha”, it was the anthros—

human beings with reactivated recessive mystical gene trait—who because of their

very identity were humiliated, excluded and deprived of the right to appear in

public, get a job, access government funded social benefits and more. On the other

hand, the “Sky Gypsies” illustrates the sense of disgruntlement experienced by a

Filipino ethnic tribe due to the technological advancement monopolized by

Western groups thereby rendering them vulnerable in space-faring and

economically dependent on the former. While the first four texts illustrate

disgruntlement of the social and political order, the text, “Keeping Time”

illustrates disgruntlement leaning on desperation resulting from the impending end

of human race due to human beings’ vanity and greed.

Unlike the first five texts which showed disgruntlement of the environment,

the short stories, “The First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on

Opening Night” (“The First Play…” from here on), “Sink”, “Panopticon”,

“Carbon”, and “Apologist” illustrate how the disgruntlement of the laws of nature

result in damage if not end of relations. In “The First Play…”, what ruined the

human relations of Bulan was his disgruntlement of the limitations of the human

creativity and capabilities. As his human creative staff cannot actualize Bulan’s

ambition, he resorted to severing his ties with them in favor of his newly found

relation with the mystical. In “Sink” and “Panopticon” the disgruntlement of the

characters rooted from the limitations of the human body and the inevitability of

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death. That Margo, in “Sink” could not accept the death of her son, she tried to get

him back through the use of technology. Similarly, in “Panopticon”, human beings

seem to be dissatisfied with the brevity of life and the inevitability of death that

they implored the use of technology in extending life and creating a virtual

paradise that only the rich can afford. “Carbon”, on the other hand showed how

Villamayor’s political greed lead him to use clones for him to secure glory,

position and power. The last text, “The Apologist” illustrates the concept of

disgruntlement differently from the previous discussed texts. In “The Apologist”,

it is more of sick exercise of overflowing power rather than discontent that made

Ben Salvacion kill and mutilate his victims like animals. Like Villamayor, Ben

holds power and influence, but unlike the former, he doesn’t have political

ambition nor acquisitive urges. He instead wallows in the excessive power that

makes him untouchable, unaccountable for his actions. It’s the people like Ben

who creates the sense of disgruntlement bordering on horror and anguish amongst

the masses who are on the receiving end of his depravity.

The sense of disgruntlement enveloping the characters in the selected

speculative stories results in sehnsucht. Sehnsucht means desiring and insatiable

craving (Scheibe, 2005; Gerdin, 2013) for that which that cannot be provided by

reality (Bersani, 1976) which causes human beings’ revolt against the prevalent

systems characterizing and dictating the said undesirable reality through what

Eizykman (1974) calls the “idealization of the possible”—the extrapolation of the

“what ifs”. Once human beings start wondering about an alternative state of

existence, they are already taking their first steps in untangling themselves from

the world that repress if not oppress them. As the possibilities they conjure

become more vivid in their mind, the stronger their will to break unsatisfying

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 relations and revolt against unjust systems. Subsequently, through the destruction

of the old order, a new (or renewed) one is erected, and through the end of old

relation, a new (or renewed) bond is formed.

The understanding of the narrative patterns of the speculative stories can help

the teachers in elevating the discussion from parts of plot (exposition, rising

action, climax, falling action, denouement) to the correlations of the functional

units in the texts that account not only for what the stories mean but how they

mean what they mean.

B. Novum

The novum refers to any element in fiction that defies the rules of the

naturalistic world. It may be an ordinary object, character, event or place

presented as extraordinary (Riviere, et. Al, 1986; Turan, 2006; Cabrera, 2017) or a

strange element presented as ordinary. The novum has two functions in the

selected speculative texts: a.) as agent for satiating the sehnsucht; and, as agent for

cognitive estrangement.

1. Agent for satiating sehnsucht:

Due to the unjust systems and oppressive environment that create a

sense of disgruntlement, human beings develop an intense desire for an

alternative state of existence. The narrative of speculative fiction attempts

to satiate this gnawing desire through the use of a novum—an element that

defies the natural order in the accepted reality. The novum works like a

gear moving centrifugally affecting other elements in the narrative thereby

altering a fictional world’s logic and eventually its reality.

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 2. Agent for cognitive estrangement:

The novum—an ordinary element presented as extraordinary or an

extraordinary element presented as ordinary—causes the readers to

experience cognitive estrangement. Cognitive estrangement pertains to the

momentary disconnection from a critical grounding of reality due to

exposure to something shockingly defiant of what has been accepted as

reality. The novums in the selected speculative texts make the readers look

at things differently, thus breaking the paralyzing effect of habitual

exposure and interaction to one reality. The break in the habit leads people

into questioning the validity of the rules, weighing the fairness of the

system, defying what used to be blindly followed, and seeking a means to

repair if not completely replace the order.

The information unraveled about the novum can be of help to teachers

in discussing the resistant overtone of the speculative texts. The teacher

can direct the learners’ attention on the defamiliarized or mysterious

elements in the texts that defy the natural order in the real world.

C. Connotations

The selected contains elements and themes that connote societal issues

and stance about the said issues. The texts show six types of groups in the

Philippine speculative world: 1.) the people in the seat of power; 2.) the

lackeys of the influential people; 3.) the masses; 4.) the marginalized; 5.)

the enablers of the powerful; and, 6.) the insurrectionists.

The texts, “Apologist”, “Press Release”, “Carbon”, “And These were

the Names of the Vanished” (ATNV from here on), “Sky Gypsies” and

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“Panopticon” presented the people in the seat of power, their lackeys,

enablers and the masses.

In the text, the “Apologist”, Ben Salvacion’s ruthless murders and

mutilations demonstrate the depravity and impunity of those who hold so

much power in their hands. In the same text, Sal Fabellar’s and the

media’s twisting and romanticizing of the Ben’s crimes connote the

enabling of impunity. This text shows that though power in the hands of

the corrupt is dangerous, what is more dangerous than that is the existence

of people who despite the knowledge of the truth tolerate or worse enable

corruption. The masses, as what the text presents, becomes the prey of the

predation of the powerful. Similarly, the text, “Press Release” connotes

the corrupt people in position, enablers, and the suffering masses.

In “Press Release”, Samantha Gomez maintains her political position

and her cronies’ business by using the blind followers and the controlled

media in directing the blame for socio-economic crises to the opposition

and the insurgents. Parallel to the first two texts, the character, Villamayor

in “Carbon” connotes the people in the seat of power. Villamayor

represents the government leaders who use drama, deception and cheating

in order to stay in position and keep their power. Like the first three,

“ATNV” connotes subjugation from the people in the seat of power. The

difference, however, is that the subjugation comes in two blows: cultural

and political.

The Compassionate, the dominant group in the text, culturally

repressed and forcefully transformed the Lualhatians according to the

image of the former. The text also showed how political power vested by

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the colonizers transformed the insurgents into the Compassionate’s little

tyrants or new colonizers. The last two texts, “Panopticon” and “Sky

Gypsies” connote the correlation of socio-economic power and

technological advancement. In “Panopticon”, the rich have the power to

extend their lives and buy themselves a space in a virtual paradise. The

text rings with the statement that both earth and heaven belong only to the

rich, and if the poor want them, they must either take it through degenerate

means or earn the favor of the wealthy. Conversely in the “Sky Gypsies”,

financial power fuels technological advancement as illustrated by the high-

tech spacecraft and tools of the western spacefarers. That the Filipino

ethnic tribe, in the text, lacks advanced ships, machineries and tools, they

become dependent on the equipment of the westerners which render them

vulnerable to the space intimidation and ore robbery.

While the six stories previously discussed connote power and power

enablers, “Anthropomorpha”, and “Keeping Time” connote the struggles

of the marginalized in a society that promotes physiology-based

exclusivity. The anthros in the “Anthropomorpha” connotes the outcasts in

the society, the ones whose identities are forced into hiding lest they face

the prejudice and hostilities of the public. The experiences of the anthros

connote the experiences of the lgbtqs, the HIV positives, and the displaced

ethnic groups. These people are pushed into the periphery by the biases of

the majority who either overly romanticize the former’s cases for publicity

or deprive the former of the equal opportunities in life. Conversely,

“Keeping Time” presents how people are marginalized because of their

physical attributes, specifically their shape, size and weight. “Keeping

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 Time” through Mike, amplified how society’s ideal body standards reduce

people’s worth to the kind of physique that they have thereby corrupting

peoples’ self-concept and relations.

The stories, “Sink” and “First Play” differ from the first eight fictions

as these two connote more of revolt against the natural order rather than

revolt against political and social forces. In “Sink”, Margo represents the

people who can’t accept the inevitability of death, and the limitations of

technology. In the “First Play…” on the other hand, Bulan represents

unrealistic ambition, and contempt of the limitations of human abilities.

Through the texts’ connotative elements, the speculative stories

illustrated defiance of the natural system, technological dependence, socio-

economic and socio-political subjugation, and insurrection.

The findings above illumined that in tackling the societal implications

of the speculative stories, the teachers can direct the students’ attention on

the characters’ motives, goals, weaknesses, and strengths.

D. Privileged and Underprivileged groups

The clash between the privileged and underprivileged groups in

Philippine speculative stories demonstrates resistance against the subjugating

influence of the dominant groups in the society.

The texts present the binary contrast of the rich versus the poor, the

technologically advanced versus the traditional, the rulers versus the ruled, and

the norm versus the strange. The texts present how one side of the binary

dominates, oppresses and represses the other. By illustrating these, the

speculative texts draw attention of the readers to the injustices of what is often

233
 dismissed as the natural order of the society and the world. Through scientific

and fantastic extrapolations, the speculative narrative attempts to even out the

platform for the contrasting parties, to give voice to the voiceless, to overturn

the hierarchy and to rage against the forces that benefit on and enable the

prevalence of the said hierarchy.

The information illumined above can help teachers discuss the

relevance of this literary category in analyzing the issues, sentiments, and

experiences of the Filipinos in the society.

E. Cultural references

The selected speculative fictions demonstrate Filipino-ness not only

because of tackling significant social issues, but because of the presence of

elements that allude to distinct Filipino culture. This was achieved through

alluding to Filipino myth, well-known places in the country, literature, history,

ethnic groups, politics and celebrity.

The stories, “Anthropomorpha”, and “First Play” both allude to

mystical creatures of Philippine mythology like garuda, siokoy, marcupo,

kapre, tikbalang and many more. The allusion to these creatures show the

richness of the pre-colonial oral literature and belief. Also, this opens windows

to exploring pre-colonial Filipinos’ making sense of the world around them,

and their belief in the interlacing of the forces in nature and human beings’

everyday lives. Thirdly, the allusion does not only provide understanding of

the Filipinos past, but unearth the slowly overshadowed—by foreign

influences and modernization—Filipino identity.

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 The stories, “Keeping Time”, “Apologist”, “Press Release” and “Sink”

depicted Filipino urban life by alluding to the well-known places in the

Philippines. First, “Keeping Time” referenced Philippines’ business centers

like Manila and Makati. Next, “Apologist” referenced nightlife establishments

like Malate, Manila. “Press Release” referenced Luzon, Visayas and

Mindanao in show political divisiveness. Lastly, “Sink” referenced Greenhills

—the commercial center for all sorts of items you can think of, authentic or

not—and, Quiapo, the center for product imitations and forgery. The allusion

to these places help set the atmosphere and context of the narratives. Also,

through these allusions, the different angles of Filipino life are unfolded.

The speculative texts, “First Play…”, and “Panopticon” alluded to

Philippine literature. The “First Play…” does not only referenced Philippine

epic and mystical beings, it also draws attention to the Palanca Awards, the

most prestigious literary award-giving body in the Philippines. The allusion to

Palanca shows the intensity of Bulan’s ambition, and represents every Filipino

writers’ desire—and even journey—to become a Palanca awardee. While the

“First Play…” focuses on the endeavors and temptations of Filipino writers,

the “Panopticon” focused on the reinvention of the classic Philippine short

story, “Dead Stars”.

The next fiction, “And Those were the Names of the Vanished” used

as reference the colonization of the Philippines. Through the image of the

Compassionate, the texts should how the colonizers, in the pretext of civilizing

and educating the Filipinos, repressed if not obliterated Filipino identity. The

text also referenced the three ways the colonizers deflected resistance: by

violent intimidation through the Pacifying Forces, by cultural reframing

235
through education, and by division through the use of Filipinos as oppressors

of fellow Filipinos.

The text, “Sky Gypsies” brought to attention the Philippine ethnic

group, Tausug. Through defamiliarization of seafaring—by means of

interlacing it with space travel—the text presented the physical robustness,

agility, adaptability, courage and resiliency of the ethnic groups, reasons why

despite being left behind by the technological advancement happening in

major cities in the Philippines and the world, they still survive and thrive.

The last two stories, “Apologist”, “Press Release” and “Carbon”

alluded to the political atmosphere and figures, as well as the celebrities in the

Philippines. The “Apologist” by alluding to Manuel Pacquiao, both a boxing

celebrity and a senator, showed Filipinos’ tendency to meld concepts of idols

with government position qualifications and political integrity. The text

narrates how celebrities like him can deliberately or unwittingly use legislation

as a platform to ensure unaccountability from future violations of the law. The

text also referenced the political atmosphere in which the people in position as

well as their lackeys become untouchable by the justice system. More

importantly, the text referenced how the media is used by the political figures

to manipulate the masses’ perception of them. The text, through Sal Fabellar,

alluded to the political apologists who twist, trivialize, romanticize and even

deny the crimes of their masters thereby pacifying dissent, and enabling the

crimes to perpetrate. Conversely, the “Press Release” referenced the celebrity

Richard Gomez to create a narrative that shows how showbiz personalities

flock to government positions in order to gain power, influence and wealth.

236
 Also, the text shows if not satirizes the Filipinos’ tendency to choose leaders

based on their showbiz images. On top of the allusion to celebrity, the text also

alluded to the rampant media manipulation and image framing of politicians in

the Philippines. Moreover, the text alluded to the rampant blame game and

dirt-throwing of politicians in the Philippines, in which one government

official’s mess is either blamed on another official or covered up by

unearthing another’s debauchery. Parallel to “Apologist” and “Press Release”,

the text “Carbon” showed how government leaders manipulate and deceive the

public to stay in power. The text alluded to the electoral campaign atmosphere

in the country in which politicians either cheat to secure votes, or stage drama

to gain the esteem of the voting Filipinos.

Philippine Speculative Fiction vs. Speculative Fiction in General

Speculative fiction includes science fiction, fantasy, magic realism, steampunk, and

alternate worlds and histories (Howze, 2017; Hunter,2013; Krake,2017; Lilly, 2002; Nacino,

2015; Shimkus, 2012; The Speculative Fiction Foundation, 2004). Speculative fiction in

general are characterized by resistance and social commentary (Neugebauer, 2014: Oziewicz,

2017; Suvin, 1975) accomplished through the existence of a defamiliarized object. Based on

the findings of the study, Philippine Speculative stories possess the said characteristics,

however, what set the latter apart from the former is the Philippine speculative stories’

narrative pattern and features.

Generally, speculative stories follow a hero-on-a-mission-pattern, but the Philippine

Speculative fiction, based on the findings follow a D-N-R (Disconnection-Novum-

Reconnection) pattern. The disconnection code conveys disgruntlement of the established

systems and relations which may be caused by prevailing injustices or personal motivations.

237
The reconnection/connection conveys desire to re-create or re-build upon the rubble of the

broken order. The disconnection-reconnection pattern comes in the following variations:

death-rebirth, union-separation, subjugation-pacification, dissimilation and assimilation.

At the center of the breaking and building of relation is the novum. The novum in

the Philippine Speculative fiction appear in the form of an object or a person with delayed if

not totally denied information. In these texts, the novum are either from scientific ventures of

the Filipinos (see discussion on “Sky Gypsies”, “Carbon”, “Sink” and “Press Release”), or

from the mystical, superstition-bound culture of the Filipinos (see discussion on

“Anthropomorpha”, “First Play for and by Tikbalang Triggers Uproar on Opening Night by

Vida Cruz”, and “Press Release”).

The next distinct trait of Philippine Speculative fiction is it channels its subversive

overtones through its connotative characters, and the binary oppositions in the conflict.

The character connotations or representations in the texts are the following:

a. ) the people in the seat of power; b.) the lackeys of the influential people; c.) the

masses; d.) the marginalized; e) the enablers of the powerful; and, f.) the

insurrectionists.

The conflicts in the texts show a clash between the privileged and

underprivileged groups in which the resistance of the peripheral against the central is

for the equalization rather than reversal of position.

Lastly, the selected speculative stories bared Filipino nuances through the allusion to

Filipino myth, locations, literature, history, ethnic groups, politics and popular culture.

Model for Teaching Philippine Speculative Fiction

The study unraveled the narrative patterns, connotations, binary oppositions and

cultural allusions in the selected Philippine Speculative fiction in English.

238
 The study shows that the plots of the said texts follow the D-N-R

(Disconnection-Novum-Reconnection) structure. The said pattern shows the recurring

building and breaking of relations and systems incited by a defamiliarized or mysterious

entity in a story. This discovery is invaluable in going beyond the teaching of the basic

parts of a text’s plot (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement),

and elevating the discussion to the correlation of the functional units in the story which

is responsible refracting systems defied by the text.

Under the paradigmatic lens, the selected speculative stories showed to have

connotative characters that reveal a larger message about societal relations. This means

that the themes and societal implications of a short story can be tackled by directing the

discussion on the characters’ motives, goals, strengths and weaknesses.

Also, under the paradigmatic lens, the text bared the clash between the

privileged and underprivileged. This discovery can help teachers discuss the conflicts in

the story, and the societal implications of the said conflicts. This can be discussed in the

classroom by directing the learning tasks, and probing questions towards the roots of

the conflicts, the complication process, the characters involved in the conflict, the

presence and absence of resolution to the conflict. This may also be further enriched by

interfacing the discussion with authentic materials that account for actual parallel events

or conditions in the society.

Lastly, the allusion of the stories to the Filipino tradition, history, literature,

scientific engagement, social atmosphere, and popular culture allows the learners of

literature see themselves reflected and refracted in the texts. This doesn’t only help in

engaging the readers, but this also help them in examining Filipino experiences amidst

the established orders in the society. This may be done through directing probing

239
 questions and activities to the allusions, and interfacing them with materials from other

disciplines that affirm the deemed Filipino-ness.

Finally, the study sought to construct a pedagogical model for the teaching of

the Philippine Speculative Fiction. The model aims to aid both learners and teachers of

literature to draw the narrative structure and features of Philippine speculative stories

which are integral in grasping the surface and deep meaning of the texts.

The proposed model for teaching offers a five-phase procedure:

1. Close-textual reading of the texts to arrive at the surface meaning

2. Analyzing the texts syntagmatically to determine the significant units, and their

position and relations in the stories, thus, revealing the narrative structure

3. Analyzing the texts paradigmatically to understand the symbolisms,

connotations and references that build the meaning or meanings of the texts

4. Identifying the prevailing issues that surround the Filipinos in the 21 st Century

and determining Filipinos’ response towards them

5. Understanding the Philippine Speculative fiction as a literature of resistance.

Fig. 2

240
 This diagram illustrates the flow of the instruction. This diagram is expanded into a

pedagogic model for teaching (see the pedagogic model on page 237) that shows steps,

activities and questions that can be adopted and adapted for classroom discussion.

241
 Chapter 4

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter contains the summary of the study, the summary of findings,

conclusions, scope and limitations, and recommendations.

Summary of the Study

The study examined the narrative structure and distinct features of the selected

Philippine Speculative Fiction using the Structuralist method of analysis of Roland

Barthes, specifically the five Barthean codes (the proairetic, hermeneutic, connotative,

symbolic and cultural) to serve as basis for designing a pedagogical model. The

qualitative research design and descriptive-analytical method were used in examining

and discussing the selected texts. The syntagmatic analyses of the said texts, the

Philippine speculative stories follow a pattern of novum incited connection and

reconnection. While the paradigmatic analyses of the texts show that the said stories are

characterized by binary oppositions, connotative elements and cultural allusions. The

result of the study contributes to the enrichment of literature instruction in senior high

school, and in the development of creative and critical thinkers, problem-solvers, and

socially aware and involved individuals.

242
Summary of Findings

The result of the study shows the narrative patterns, connotations, binary

oppositions and cultural allusions.

The study shows that the plots of Philippine Speculative fiction follow the

structure D-N-R (Disconnection-Novum-Reconnection). The said pattern shows the

recurring building and breaking of relations and systems incited by a novum—either an

agent of sehnsucht, or of cognitive estrangement.

Under the paradigmatic lens, the selected speculative stories have connotative

characters that reveal a larger message about societal relations.

Next, the presentation of the clash between the privileged and underprivileged

groups demonstrates the dissolution (or desire for dissolution) of hierarchy and the re-

positioning of the subjugated.

Lastly, the selected speculative stories alluded to Filipino cultural, historical,

literary, scientific, and popular culture references.

Buttressed on the enumerated findings, the Philippine Speculative Fiction,

through cognitive-estrangement inducing scientific and fantastic extrapolation,

functions both as a social commentary and insurrectionary tool.

Scope and Limitations

This study will focus on examining the speculativeness of the selected Filipino

short stories. Also, this study will attempt to create standards and tools for reading and

teaching Philippine Speculative stories by unravelling the distinct Filipino

characteristics of Philippine speculative fiction. The analyses of texts in this study will

243
 encompass plot structure, characterization, theme, symbols and cultural references in

the selected short stories. The speculative stories that will be used for this study will be

from Dean Alfar’s collection of speculative fiction. The target outputs of this study are

plot structure diagram and list of traits that served as basis for designing a pedagogic

model for teaching Philippine Speculative fiction.

The study is delimited to the analysis of short stories and will not include

novels, graphic novels, poems and other literary forms that may exhibit

“speculativeness”. The study will only focus on the contemporary short stories—short

stories published from year 2000 up to the present. Also, in the analysis of the elements

of the selected short stories, the study will employ the structuralist method of analysis,

specifically Roland Barthes’ five narrative codes. Other important areas that the study

cannot address are suggested to be explored in future studies.

Conclusion

After the structuralist analyses of the selected Philippine speculative fiction, the

following conclusions were drawn:

1. The features of Philippine speculative fiction include novum, disconnection-

Through cognitive
reconnection motif, insurrectionary theme, connotative elements, cultural
estrangement incited by
allusions. the novum, Philippine
2. The recurrence of breaking and building of relations speculative
show the necessitytexts
and
challenge the readers to
inevitability of breaking a defective system in order for a new one to rise.
question the validity of
3. Through cognitive estrangement incited by the novum, Philippine
the established realities
speculative texts challenge the readers to question thearound
validity ofthem
the thereby
creating
established realities around them thereby creating a door a door for
for resistance.
resistance.

244
 4. Through the use of the novum, Philippine speculative stories evoke a sense

of cognitive estrangement towards what are often accepted and dismissed as

ordinary and irreversible.

5. Through cognitive estrangement, Philippine speculative texts challenge the

readers to question the validity of the established realities around them

thereby creating a door for resistance.

6. The pedagogical model created in this study can be used by senior high

school literature teacher as a guide for instruction.

Recommendations

Based on the above conclusions that were drawn from this study, the following

recommendations are offered:

1. Other speculative stories written by Filipino writers can be analyzed using the

structuralist’s approach to affirm the features discovered by this study or to reveal

other narrative patterns and codes that characterize Philippine fiction.

2. The Philippine speculative fiction as postcolonial literature genre may also be

examined.

3. Graphic speculative novels may also be studied to reveal the interaction of visual

codes and patterns with the narrative codes and patterns.

4. Modules on teaching speculative fiction may be developed based on this study’s

findings and through the use of any instructional material development

framework.

5. New strategies and methods of teaching speculative stories and other 21st century

literature may be explored to contribute to literature education.

245
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