GEE REVIEWER Subjective Relativism- Each person decides right and wrong for himself or
CHAPTER 1 CATALYST FOR CHANGE herself
Information age
-Characterized by unprecedented access to information
-Catalysts
Low-cost computers
High-speed communication networks
Examples of advances in past two decades
-Cell phones -Email
-World Wide Web -MP3 players
Technology and Values
-Dynamic between people, technology
-Different ways people are affected by technology
**Physical changes (e.g., pains accompany the use of laptops)
**Psychological changes (e.g., cell phones make you feel safer)
-Technologies can solve problems, create new problems
Control over New Technologies
-People can control whether to adopt new technology
-People can influence rate at which technologies are developed
3 important aids to manual calculating are:
tablet, the abacus, and mathematical tables
Mechanical Calculators -Gilded age and new larger corporations, calculator
adoptions (social change)
Cash register- store owners and response to problem
Tabulators- data processing systems **punched cards
Data processing system- received input data, perform, produces output
First Commercial Computers
-Precursors- both program and data stored in it memory
-Remington Rand – UNIVAC
-IBM – dominated mainframe/ large base.
Programming Languages
-Assembly Language- symbolic (machine language prog)
-FORTRAN- higher level language/ scientific
-COBOL- business app
-Time-Sharing Systems – divide comp among multiple user
-BASIC – teaching programming
-Transistor -vacuum tube
-Semiconductor – Faster, Cheaper, More reliable
-Integrated Circuit - containing transistors, capacitors, and resistors
IBM System/360
Before System/360- mainframe/ pc were incompatible
System/360- pc are compatible
Microprocessor- single semiconductor chip
Telegraph-to transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses that can
be converted into data.
ARPANET- Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
Internet- network of networks communicating using TCP/IP
Broadband- High-speed Internet connection
Information Technology- Devices used in creation, storage, manipulation,
dissemination of data, sound, and/or images
Email- Spam has become a real problem
Web- Free access to huge amounts of information
CDs, MP3s, MP4s- CDs, MP3s, MP4s
Credit cards- Convenience over cash and checks
CHAPTER 2 ETHICS
Two ways` to view world:
-Selfish point of view: consider only own self and its core values
-Ethical point of view: respect other people and their core values
Society- under a system of rules
Morality- A society’s rules of conduct (good or bad)
Ethics- (philosophical study of morality- guidelines)
**rational and systematic analysos
**A way to decide the best thing to do
Relativism- No universal norms of right and wrong
Cultural Relativism- What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s
actual moral guidelines
Divine Command Theory
-Good actions: those aligned with God’s will
-Bad actions: those contrary to God’s will
**Holy books reveal God’s will.
**We should consider holy books as moral decision-making guides.
Kantianism- Focuses on the critical importance of Good will- the desire to
do the right thing (Immanuel Kant)
Kantian Evaluation (1st Formulation) -You may claim credit for work
performed by someone else.
Utilitarianism -contrast to Kantianism. **An action is good if it benefits
someone. Focuses on the consequences.
Act utilitarianism- Add up change in happiness of all affected beings
Rule Utilitarianism- Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to moral
rules
Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes- “State of nature” (We implicitly accept a social contract)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau -In ideal society, no one above rules
Kinds of Rights
Negative right- Free Expression
Positive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalf
Absolute right: A right guaranteed without exception
Limited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances
CHAPTER 3 NETWORKING
Email-transferred between computers
Email address: Uniquely identifies cyberspace mailbox
Spam: Unsolicited, bulk email
Spim: is an unsolicited, bulk instant message.
Direct Censorship- Government monopolization, Prepublication review
,Licensing and registration.
Self-censorship- Most common form of censorship
Challenges Posed by the Internet
Many-to-many communication (millions can post pages)
-Dynamic connections- Millions of PCs are connected to internet
yearly
-Huge numbers of Web sites- No way to monitor them all.
-Extends beyond national borders, laws
-Can’t determine age of users
Identity theft: person uses another person’s electronic identity
Phishing: use of email or Web pages to attempt to deceive people into
revealing personal information
Chat room: supports real-time discussions among many people connected
to network
Instant messaging (IM) and chat rooms (which is similar to IM) replacing
telephone for many people
Contributing Factors to Computer Addiction
Social factors -Peer groups
Situational factors
-Stress -Lack of social support and intimacy
-Limited opportunities for productive activity
Individual factors
-Tendency to pursue activities to excess -Lack of achievement
-Fear of failure -Feeling of alienation
CHAPTER 4 INTELECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual property: any unique product of the human intellect that has
commercial value
Property Rights: -to property in their own person
-to their own labor
-to things which they remove from Nature through their labor
Protecting Intellectual Property
Trade Secret- gives company a competitive advantage (Identifies goods)
Service mark: Identifies services
Patent- A public (not secret) document that provides detailed description of
invention
Copyright- Provides owner of an original work five rights
-Reproduction
-Distribution (copies of the work to public)
-Public display (copies of the work in public)
-Public performance
-Production of derivative works
Fair Use Concept- Sometimes legal to reproduce a copyrighted work
without permission
Digital Recording Technology- Copying from vinyl records to cassette
tapes introduced hiss and distortions (bad quality)
Peer-to-Peer Networks- Transient network
Napster- Peer-to-peer music exchange network
BitTorrent- Broadband connections: download much faster than upload.
Violations of Software Copyrights
Copying a program to give or sell to someone else
Preloading a program onto the hard disk of a computer being sold
Distributing a program over the Internet
Open-Source Software: measures being taken to enforce copyrights
(infringe our liberties)
-No restrictions preventing others from selling or giving away software
Examples of Open-Source Software
BIND – give DNS for entire Internet
Apache – runs half of Web servers
Sendmail – moving e-mail via internet
Perl, Python, Ruby, TCL/TK, PHP, Zope, GNU (General Public License)
compilers for C, C++, Objective-C, Fortran, Java, and Ada
CHAPTER 5 PRIVACY
Defining Privacy- related to notion of access
Access- Physical proximity to a person // Knowledge about a person
Edmund Byrne: Privacy is a “zone of inaccessibility”
Edward Bloustein: Privacy violations are an affront to human dignity
Benefits of Privacy
-Individual growth (maturity)
-Individual responsibility
-Freedom to be yourself
-Intellectual and spiritual growth-
-Development of loving, trusting, caring, intimate relationships
Morton Levine- Property rights (Home) →Privacy rights
Privacy and Trust -emphasis on community
Disclosing Information
Public record: information for public access (birth certificates)
Public information: information revealed to an organization that has right to
share it (Telephone directory)
Personal information: undisclosed information (religion, wealth)
Types of disclosures
-Voluntary, -Involuntary : body and luggage search at airport
-Statutory : Record of arrests and convicted persons
Census Records: required to ensure every state has fair representation
OneDOJ Database: Gives state and local police officers access to
information provided by five federal law enforcement agencies
Wiretaps: relates to interception of telephone conversations
Bugs are hidden microphones used for surveillance
**Wiretapping and bugs are not legal // FBI continues secret wiretapping
Operation Shamrock- was a covert, domestic intelligence gathering
operation that monitored telegraph communications.
Kennedy- Organized crime figures “watch list”
Johnson and Nixon -Vietnam war protesters
Nixon- War on drugs, Monitoring phone calls
Data mining- Searching for patterns or relationships in one or more
databases
Secondary use: information collected for one purpose used for another
purpose
-Information about customers is a valuable commodity
IRS Audits: matching and data mining to look for possible income tax fraud
Syndromic Surveillance System: Looks for patterns that might indicate an
epidemic, bioterrorism, or an environmental problem
Opt-in: give permission for the organization to share info with another
organization.
Opt-out: explicitly forbid an organization from sharing info
Encryption: Valuable tool for maintaining privacy
CHAPTER 6 COMPUTER AND NETWORL SERCURITY
Virus: piece of self-replicating code embedded within another program (host)
How viruses spread
-Diskettes or CDs -Email -Files downloaded from Internet
• Well-known viruses
-Brain -Michelangelo -Melissa -Love Bug
• Viruses today
-Commercial antivirus software -Few people keep up-to-date
Worm
-Self-contained program -Spreads through a computer
network
-Exploits security holes in networked computers
Famous worms
-WANK -Code Red -Sapphire (Slammer) -Blaster -Sasser
The Internet Worm
Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.- Released worm onto Internet from MIT computer
Trojan horse: program with benign capability that masks a sinister purpose
Remote access Trojan: Trojan horse that gives attack access to victim’s
computer. (Back Orifice // SubSeven)
RAT servers often found within files downloaded from erotica/porn Usenet
sites
Bot: A software program that responds to commands from a program on
another computer
Some bots support legitimate activities
-Internet Relay Chat -Multiplayer Internet games
Other bots support illegitimate activities
-Distributing spam -Collecting person information for ID theft
-Distributed denial-of-service attacks
Authorization: determining that a user has permission to perform a
particular action
Authentication: determining that people are who they claim to be
Firewall: a computer monitoring packets entering and leaving a local area
network
Mon 29-11 Hackers- Meaning of “hacker” changed
-Explorer -Risk-taker -Technical virtuoso
-Make a system do something never done before
Phone phreak: someone who manipulates phone system to make free calls
Most popular methods
-Steal long-distance telephone access codes
-Guess long-distance telephone access codes
-Use a “blue box” to get free access to long-distance lines ---
mimic the actual frequency
**Access codes posted on “pirate boards” by phreaks to share codes and
credit card No.
**Maximum penalty: 20 years in prison + $250,000 fine
Denial-of-service attack: an intentional action designed to prevent
legitimate users from making use of a computer service
Goal of attack: disrupt a server’s ability to respond to its clients
**About 4,000 Web sites attacked each week
Asymmetrical attack: a single person can harm huge organization
(multinational organization) **may prove popular with terrorists
SATAN- Security Administrator Tool for Analyzing Networks -Software engineers have opportunities to do good or do harm
-Allows administrators (especially novices) to test their systems -Software engineers ought to be committed to doing good
-Eight principles identify key ethical relationships and obligations
Benefits of Online Voting: within these relationship
-More people would vote -Code should be seen as a whole, not a collection of parts
-Votes would be counted more quickly -Concern for the public interest is paramount
-No ambiguity with electronic votes Software Engineering Code: Principles
-Cost less money -Public
-Eliminate ballot box tampering -Client and employer
-Software can prevent accidental over-voting -Product
-Software can prevent under-voting -Judgment
-Management
CHAPTER 7 COMPUTER RELIABILITY -Profession
Data-Entry or Data-Retrieval Errors: A computerized system may fail -Colleagues
because wrong data entered into it. -Self
-A computerized system may fail because people incorrectly interpret data Origin of Virtue Ethics
they retrieve. Aristotle- Happiness results from living a life of virtue
Issues with DRE Voting Machines Intellectual virtue: developed through education
-Voting irregularities Moral virtue: developed by repeating appropriate acts
-Failure to record votes -Overcounting votes ***Deriving pleasure from a virtuous act is a sign that the virtue has been
-Misrecording votes acquired
-Lack of a paper audit trail Some virtues: Benevolence, courage, fairness, generosity, honesty, loyalty,
-Vulnerability to tampering patience, tolerance
-Source code a trade secret, can’t be examined Strengths of Virtue Ethics: Provides a motivation for good behavior
-Possibility of widespread fraud through malicious programming -Provides a solution to the problem of impartiality
Uses of Computer Simulations Weakness of Virtue Ethics: No methodology for answering moral problems
-Model past events (Evolution of the universe) Alternative List of Fundamental Principles
--Understand world around us (Search for Oil) -Be impartial.
Predict the future (weather predictions) -Disclose information that others ought to know.
Software Engineering (4 STEPS PROCESS) -Respect the rights of others.
• Specs: determine the functions to be performed -Treat others justly.
-Determine system requirements -Take responsibility for your actions and inactions.
-Understand constraints -Take responsibility for the actions of those you supervise.
-Determine feasibility (Budget and schedule) -Maintain your integrity.
End products: -Continually improve your abilities.
-High-level statement of requirements (Summary) -Share your knowledge, expertise, and values
-Mock-up of user interface Whistleblower: Tries to report harmful situation through authorized channels
-Low-level requirements statement (Detailed) -Rebuffed by organization
• Development: produce SW that meet specs. -Makes disclosure through unauthorized channels
-Create high-level design Whistleblowing harms organization
-Discover and resolve mistakes, omissions in specification -Bad publicity -Ruined careers -Erodes team spirit
-CASE tools to support design process Whistleblowing harms whistleblower
-Object-oriented systems have advantages -Retaliation -Estrangement
-After detailed design, actual programs written
-Result: working software system CHAPTER 9 WORK AND WEALTH
• Validation: testing the SW Telework: Arrangement in which employees work away from traditional
-Ensure software satisfies specification place of work
-Ensure software meets user’s needs Advantages of Telework
-Challenges to testing software -Increases productivity -Reduces absenteeism
-Test modules, then subsystems, then system -Improves morale -Saves overhead (offices, …)
-Helps environment -Saves employees money
• Evolution: Modify SW to meet change requirements Disadvantages of Telework
Shrinkwrap Warranties: Some say you accept software “as is” -Threatens managers’ control and authority
Some offer 90-day replacement or money-back guarantee -Makes face-to-face meetings impossible
-Sensitive information less secure -Team meetings more difficult
CHAPTER 8 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS -Teleworkers less visible (forgotten for promotion)
Software Engineers: Certification and licensing not needed -Teleworkers “out of the loop” -Isolation of teleworkers
-Without these, other characteristics are irrelevant -Less likely to contact them from employees at offices
-No college education needed -No apprenticeship needed -Teleworkers work longer hours for same pay
-No membership in professional society needed Temporary Work: Long-term employment for one firm less common
-No continuing education needed Monitoring: Identify inappropriate use of company resources
-Most software engineers are part of teams Globalization: process of creating a worldwide network of businesses and
-Software engineers have ability to harm public markets
Software Engineering Code: Preamble
Digital divide: some people have access to modern information technology Electronic Devices. These are devices which use only electrical switches
while others do not and circuitry instead of mechanical relays.
Underlying assumption: people with access to telephones, computers, ABC (Atanasoff – Berry Computer). The first special-purpose
Internet have opportunities denied to those without access digital computer developed by John Atanasoff.
COMPUTER CONCEPTS Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The
Computer- electronic data processing device designed to accept and first fully electronic general-purpose digital computer by John Eckert and
manipulate data and instructions. John Mauchly.
Characteristics of a Computer Electronic Discrete Variable Computer(EDVAC). This is simply
-It is a machine. -It is electronic. the enhancement of ENIAC to overcome its limitations.
-It is automatic. -It can manipulate data. Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC).
-It has memory. -It has logical functions. Also known as Electronic Binary Digital computer that uses binary
Capabilities of a Computer representation of data and internally stored program; developed by John
-Speed -Accuracy -Repetitiveness. -Storage. -Programmable. Eckert and John Presper.
Limitations of a Computer First Generation Computers ( 1951 – 1958 ) - Vacuum tubes and magnetic
-Computers cannot operate without a set of instructions. drums.
-Computers cannot derive a meaning from objects. Second Generation Computers ( 1959 – 1963 )- Transistors and magnetic
-Computers cannot correct errors, it can only detect them. core.
-Computers are subject to occasional breakdown. Third Generation Computers ( 1964 – 1971 )- Major Hardware Features:
-Computers cannot run without electric power. Integrated circuits or “chips”
Classifications of Computer Fourth Generation Computers ( 1971 – 1979 )- Microprocessors or Large –
According to Purpose second IC
-General – Purpose Computers. Capable of dealing with a Fifth Generation Computers ( 1980-present)- Circuitry based on gallium
variety of problems. arsenide
-Special – Purpose Computers. Designed to perform a specific Personal Computer (PC) – are Integrated Circuit that contains the
task. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit of computer Central Processing
According to Data Handled Unit.
Analog Computers. Deal with continuously changing physical data Microprocessor – a single Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Digital Computers. Work with values that are in a discrete from (or Data
that can be counted).
Hybrid Computers. Incorporate in a single machine the capabilities of the
analog and digital computers.
According to Capacity
Microcomputers: Small computers which are portable.
Minicomputers: Machine which are in the middle of microcomputers and
mainframes in terms of cost and capability. These act as “servers”
Mainframe: are used mostly by banks, airlines, and insurance companies
that handles millions of transactions.
Supercomputers: The biggest and fastest computers.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Pre-Modern Era
Manual-Mechanical Device. These are devices powered by hand and
requires physical effort from the user.
Abacus. The first man-made computing device
Napier’s bones. An arrangement of bones wherein numbers are
printed; invented by John Napier.
Oughtred’s Slide Rule. Consists of movable bars with a precise
scale which uses approximations for solving problems; invented by William
Oughtred.
Pascaline. The first mechanical calculator ( adding machine ) that
uses cogged wheels;invented by Blaise Pascal.
Leibnitz Calculator. The improved Pascaline which could
multiply and divide; invented by Gottfried Leibnitz.
Babbage’s Difference and Analytical Engines. These engines
embodied most of the design of modern computers by Charles Babbage.
Electro-mechanical Devices. These are devices powered by an electronic
motor and use switches and relays.
Holllerith’s Punch Card Machine. The first use of punched
cards to store data; developed by Herman Hollerith.
Automatic Weaving Loom. Uses the concept of punched card to
control his looms; by Joseph Marie Jacquard.
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (MARK I). The first
genera-purpose computer; invented by Howard Aiken.