Compiled by R.

RAJALAKSHMI

UNIT-II FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

LIGHT

That part of radiant energy from a hot body which produced the visual sensation on human eye is called
light. Light can be produced by nature or by humans. "Artificial" light is typically produced by lighting
systems that transform electrical energy into light. Nearly all lighting systems do so either by passing an
electrical current through an element that heats until it glows, or through gases until they become
excited and produce light energy.

• Electrons circle the nucleus in orbits. Electrons get

kicked into a different orbit

• This doesn’t happen very often in solar systems, but it

does in atoms

• If you add energy to an atom (heat it up), the electrons

will jump to bigger orbits.

• When atom cools, electrons jump back to original

orbits.

• As they jump back, they emit light, a form of energy

Characteristics

 Light is a form of energy produced by luminous objects.

 Light can travel through vacuum.

 Light can penetrate through transparent materials but cannot pass through opaque
objects.

 Light travels in a straight line in an optically homogeneous medium.

 Light bounces back when made to fall on polished surfaces such as mirrors or metal
surfaces. This bouncing back of light is described as reflection.

 The change in the velocity of light when it travels from one transparent medium to
another is described as refraction.

 Light appears to have a dual nature. During propagation, light exhibits wave
characteristics but when it interacts with matter, it behaves like particles.
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Light and Color

Light can be seen as color and brightness. It’s actually electromagnetic

radiation:

 Partly electric, partly magnetic

 Flows in straight line (radiates)

Color of light

• Each electron that jumps back emits one photon of light

• The color of this light depends on how big the jump was between orbits

• The bigger the jump, the higher the energy.

• The energy determines color; a blue photon has more energy than a red
• With all the colors together, you get white light!

What Is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

The electromagnetic spectrum is the complete range of electromagnetic waves placed in order of
increasing frequency. Visible electromagnetic radiation that is capable of causing a visual sensation and
has wavelengths from about 380 to about 780 nanometres.

Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves made up of vibrating electric and magnetic fields.
These waves have both a frequency and a length, the values of which distinguish light from other forms
of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Visible light, as can be seen on the electromagnetic spectrum, represents a narrow band between
ultraviolet light (UV) and infrared energy (heat). These light waves are capable of exciting the eye's
retina, which results in a visual sensation called sight. Therefore, seeing requires a functioning eye and
visible light.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The spectrum of visible light ranges from wavelength of 0,00078 mm or 780 nm (nanometer) to a
wavelength of 0,00038 mm (380 nm). We perceive the various wavelengths as different colors. The
longest wavelength (which corresponds to the lowest frequency) is seen by us as the color red followed
by the known colors of the rainbow: orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet which is the shortest
wavelength (and highest frequency). White is not a color but the combination of the other colors.
Wavelengths which we are unable to perceive (occurring just below the red and just above the violet
area), are the infrared and ultraviolet rays, respectively. Nowadays, infrared is used for such applications
as remote control devices.

The wavelength and frequency of light are closely related. The higher the frequency, the shorter the
wavelength.
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Note: visible light is only visible because we can see the source and the objects being illuminated. The
light beam itself cannot be seen. The beams of headlights in the mist for instance, can only be seen
because the small water drops making up the mist reflect the light.

Basic Principles of light

There are four methods of light control:

• Reflection

• Refraction

• Diffusion

• Absorption

Reflection

 When a ray of light falls on any surface, a part of the light is sent back to the same
medium. This phenomenon where the incident light falling on a surface is sent back to
the same medium is known as reflection.

 There are two types of reflection of light:

• Regular reflection

• Irregular reflection

Regular reflection takes place when a ray of light is

incident on a polished smooth surface like a mirror.
Here the reflected ray of light moves only in a fixed
direction. It is also called as Specular reflection.

Irregular reflection takes place when a

beam of light is incident on a wall or
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wood, which is not smooth or polished. Also called as diffused reflection or scattering of
light.

Refraction

 When a beam of light is passed through a

boundary between two transparent substances
having different densities, its direction is
changed.

 The light will change its velocity and ‘bend’.

 Speed of light in air is very similar to speed of light in a vacuum

Diffusion

 When light is incident on a rough surface, it is reflected or transmitted in many

directions at once, this is called diffusion or scattering.

 To prevent glare from a light source, a diffusing glass screen can be introduced between
the observer and the light source.

Absorption

 The taking up and storing of energy, such as radiation, light, or sound, without it being
reflected or transmitted.

 The absorption of light occurs when a ray of light strikes a surface. The energy from the
light is transferred to the surface material.

 During absorption, the energy may change from one form into another.

 An absorbing surface prevents reflection or diffusion of light striking on the surface.

MEASUREMENT OF LIGHTING
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The "brightness" of light can mean different things: for example,

The amount of light coming from a light source is luminous flux (lumens),

Luminous Flux and Intensity = Light Coming from a Source

The amount of light falling on a surface is Illuminance (lux), and

Illuminance = Light Falling on a Surface

The amount of light reflected off a surface is luminance (cd/m2).

Luminance = Light Reflected by a Surface

Light quantity

Illumination

The distribution of light on a horizontal surface. The purpose of all lighting is to produce illumination.

Lumen

A measurement of light emitted by a lamp. As reference, a 100-watt incandescent lamp emits about
1750 lumens. 

Footcandle

A measurement of the intensity of illumination. A footcandle is the illumination produced by one lumen
distributed over a 1-square-foot area. For most home and office work, 30–50 footcandles of illumination
is sufficient. For detailed work, 200 footcandles of illumination or more allows more accuracy and less
eyestrain. For simply finding one's way around at night, 5–20 footcandles may be sufficient.

Energy consumption

Efficacy

The ratio of light produced to energy consumed. It's measured as the number of lumens produced
divided by the rate of electricity consumption (lumens per watt).

Measuring Units Light Level - Illuminance

Illuminance is measured in foot candles (ftcd, fc, fcd) (or lux in the metric SI system). A foot candle is
actually one lumen of light density per square foot; one lux is one lumen per square meter.

 1 lux = 1 lumen / sq meter = 0.0001 phot = 0.0929 foot candle (ftcd, fcd) 
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 1 phot = 1 lumen / sq centimeter = 10000 lumens / sq meter = 10000 lux

 1 foot candle (ftcd, fcd)  = 1 lumen / sq ft = 10.752 lux

Common Light Levels Outdoor

Common light levels outdoor at day and night can be found in the table below:

Illumination
Condition
(ftcd) (lux)

Sunlight 10,000 107,527

Full Daylight 1,000 10,752

Overcast Day 100 1,075

Very Dark Day 10 107

Twilight 1 10.8

Deep Twilight .1 1.08

Full Moon .01 .108

Quarter Moon .001 .0108

Starlight .0001 .0011

Overcast Night .00001 .0001

Common and Recommended Light Levels Indoor

The outdoor light level is approximately 10,000 lux on a clear day. In the building, in the area closest to
windows, the light level may be reduced to approximately 1,000 lux. In the middle area it’s may be as
low as 25 - 50 lux. Additional lighting equipment is often necessary to compensate the low levels.

Earlier it was common with light levels in the range 100 - 300 lux for normal activities. Today the light
level is more common in the range 500 - 1000 lux - depending on activity. For precision and detailed
works, the light level may even approach 1500 - 2000 lux.
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The table below is guidance for recommended light level in different work spaces:

Illumination
Activity
(lux, lumen/m2)

Public areas with dark surroundings 20 - 50

Simple orientation for short visits 50 - 100

Working areas where visual tasks are only

100 - 150
occasionally performed

Warehouses, Homes, Theaters, Archives 150

Easy Office Work, Classes 250

Normal Office Work, PC Work, Study Library,

500
Groceries, Show Rooms, Laboratories

Supermarkets, Mechanical Workshops, Office

750
Landscapes

Normal Drawing Work, Detailed Mechanical

1,000
Workshops, Operation Theatres

Detailed Drawing Work, Very Detailed Mechanical

1500 - 2000
Works

Performance of visual tasks of low contrast  and very

2000 - 5000
small size for prolonged periods of time

Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual

5000 - 10000
tasks 

Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely

10000 - 20000
low contrast and small size
PRINCIPLES OFILLUMINATION

Illumination is defined as the intensity of light per unit area. When we talk of illumination, or simply
lighting, we are referring to manmade lighting. Daylight being excellent is not included, thus, we assume
a night time condition.
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 Electric Illumination is the production of light by means of electricity and its application to provide
efficient, comfortable and safe vision. Specifically, when one speaks of lighting design, it refers to only
two things

1. The quantity of light

2. The quality of light

Quantity of Light

– refers to the amount of illumination or luminous flux per unit area. Quantity of light can be measured
and easily handled because it deals with the number of light fixtures required for a certain area.

Quality of Light

– refers to the distribution of brightness in the lighting installation. It deals with the essential nature of
characteristics of light. In short, quality of light is the mixture of all items related to illumination other
then the quality of light which includes several elements such as:

1. Brightness
2. contrast
3. Glare
4. Diffuseness
5. Color
6. Aesthetics
7. Psychological reaction
8. Economics

VISUAL TASK

Visual task are the tasks that are carried out with the help of
vision. It also denotes the size, shape, color ad nearness of
the object to be worked. In the modern world the visual
task performed are broadly classified into 2 types:

 Paper based task

 Computer based task

Our ability to perform a visual

task depends on how well our eyes perceive the details of the task. Factors
determining the visibility of task details include size, luminance, contrast
and glare. These factors are interrelated.
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Size: Making objects larger, or moving them closer to our eyes, makes them easier to see. We need less
light to perform a task when detail size is increased.

Luminance: Visual performance requires sufficient light. The optimum level of luminance needed to
perform a task depends on the nature of the activity, e.g. --using a keyboard or reading newsprint.

Contrast: Luminance variation, or contrast, allows us to distinguish a visual task from its surroundings.
As shown in the example, greater contrast between letters and their background
improves readability.

Glare: Bright light which interferes with visual perception is called

glare. An overly bright area in our field of vision reduces our ability to
perceive visual information needed for task performance.

Glare is an interference with visual perception caused by an uncomfortably bright light

source or reflection; Glare is a form of visual noise. In its simplest form, glare is a
consequence of adapting to inappropriately high light levels, which makes it hard to perceive
details in the now "too dark" work area.

Discomfort Glare: Glare which is distracting or uncomfortable, which interferes with the perception of
visual information, but which does not significantly reduce the ability to complete the visual task. This
often happens without discomfort and goes unnoticed, but may result in physical discomfort and
reduced performance after some time. E.g. Shiny reflections around task & veiling reflections that
reduces task contrast, but still sufficient to complete visual task.

Disability Glare: Glare which reduces the ability to perceive the visual information needed for a
particular activity; there is a loss of visual performance. Disability glare is caused by optical scattering
within the eye, reducing retina image contrast and thus visibility.

Direct Glare – comes from the luminaries that are in the “direct” field of view, or from excessively bright
sources of light (high reflectance objects).

Veiling/Reflected Glare – veiling reflections reduce task contrast and impair visual performance
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UNITS OF LIGHTS

Light can be measured subjectively, based on the brightness seen by the human eye. Units include
candles, lumens, footcandles and lux.  A source of light has a luminosity of one candle if its output
appears to match that of a “standard candle”. (One candela is exactly equivalent to one candlepower).

Candlepower and candela are both measurements of light at source, but neither tells us how powerful
the light is some distance away from the source. Instead, we measure the amount of light illuminating a
surface area, which is called, naturally enough, the illuminance. The result is measured in lumens

Luminous intensity:  The intensity at a distance of:

     -one foot from a standard candle is one footcandle

     -one metre from a standard candle is one metre candle or one lux.

Luminous flux is the light energy radiated out per second from the body in the form of luminous light
waves. It is thus the rate of energy radiation in the form of light. It is energy per second (and hence
comparable to Power). Its unit is lumen. Approximate relation between lumen and electric unit of power
i.e. watt is given as:

1 lumen=0.0016 watt (approx) or 1 watt=625 lumen (approx) d)

Lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted in a unit solid angle by a source of one candle power. i. e.
Lumen=candle power x solid angle= cp x ω.

The Luminous Flux is energy. The energy is the total amount of light
energy radiated from a light source in all directions. The luminous flux
is measured in lumens and is the parameter used to describe the
“brightness” of a projector.

One lumen is the Luminous Flux or expressed more simply, the total
amount of light energy emitted into one solid angle or steradian (see
definition below), by a point source having a luminous intensity of 1
candela.

 One steradian solid angle is the three dimensional angle with its
vertex in the centre of a sphere which covers ¼p of the surface of the sphere. If
we place a point light source with the luminous intensity of 1 candela at the
centre of the sphere and measure the light being emitted into one steradian, we get
1 Lumen.

 The lumens value for projectors describes its luminous flux – or the total amount of
light energy emitted from the lens.
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Luminous intensity (I) or Candle-power of a point source in a given direction is the luminous flux
(number of lumens) radiated out per unit solid angle. In other words, it is solid angular flux density of a
source in a specified direction. Its unit is Candela (cd) or lumens per steradian (The steradian is the unit
of solid angular measure. There are 4 pi, or approximately 12.5664, steradians in a complete sphere.).

The luminous flux density per solid angle as measured in a given direction relative to the emitting
source.

UTILIZATION FACTOR

The coefficient of utilization is a factor used to determine the efficiency of a lighting fixture in delivering
light for a specific application. The coefficient of utilization is determined as a ratio of light output from
the luminaries that reaches the work plane to the light output of the lamps alone.

The term utilization factor in lighting refers to what percentage of the actual light physically reaches the
surface of the room. The utilization factor of a room can be affected and changed by several different
components of the room. It is important to understand the utilization factor of lighting when install
lights in a room.

Factors influencing coefficient of utilization:

The efficiency of the luminaries

The luminaries distribution

The geometry of the space(Room size)

The reflectance's of the room surface

Each luminary has its own CU table specific to that luminaire’s light distribution and efficiency.
CU values are listed in tables for different room geometries and room surface reflectance.

Room Size: Utilization factor is affected by the size of the room. The larger the room, the smaller the
utilization factor for each light. Take into account the size of the room and the brightness of each light
you consider installing in the room, to ensure there is adequate lighting.

Reflective Surfaces: Reflective surfaces affect the utilization factor because they increase the brightness
of lighting. If your light bounces back off a mirror, it appears brighter and increases the utilization factor
of that particular room. Reflective surfaces include mirrors, glass and wall paint. The lighter the color of
paint on your walls, the more reflective it is. Darker colors do the opposite and draw in light, making
rooms seem darker, which reduces the utilization factor.

Other Factors: The content of a room, as well as the use of the room, determines how much lighting to
use. A retail store or office building is expected to be significantly brighter with more lighting than a
home or a storage warehouse. The use of the building or room plays a part in determining the final
utilization factor.
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DEPRECIATION FACTOR:

The ratio of initial illumination on an area to the present illumination of the same area, used in lighting
calculations to account for depreciation of lamp intensity and reflective surfaces.

Light loss factors: Light loss factors (LLF) are the factors that need to be considered when calculating the
Lumen Method. The most important factors to be considered are:

1. Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD): Lamp lumen depreciation values reflect the overall
performance of a lamp over its life. LLD = (mean lumens/rated lumens) Those values can be
found from the lamp manufacturer data
2. Ballast Factor (BF): Compares the ratio of light output of a lamp working by a specific ballast to
the light output of the same lamp working by a standard reference ballast. The BF is given in the
ballast manufacturer data.
3. Luminary Dirt Depreciation (LDD): It is the light loss prior to cleaning dust. LDD is estimated from
tables in IESNA Lighting handbook.
4. Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD): This value accounts for dirt or dust that accumulates on
all of the room surfaces — especially on the upper walls and ceiling. RSDD is also estimated from
handbook tables.

The product of all these factors is the light loss factor (LLF) which then is used in the Average Illuminance
equation.

Mean spherical candle-power (MSCP): Generally, the luminous intensity or candle power of a source is
different in different directions. The average candle-power of a source is the average value of its candle
power in all the directions. Obviously, it is given by flux (in lumen) emitted in all directions in all planes
divided by 4π. This average candle-power is also known as mean spherical candle-power (MSCP).

Mean spherical candlepower (MSCP) rating is measured at the design voltage and is the total amount
of light given off from a light source in ALL directions.

1 MSCP equals 12.57 (4 pi) lumens

Mean Horizontal Candle Power (MHCP): it is the mean of candle powers in all directions in horizontal
plane containing source of light.

Mean Spherical Candle Power (MSCP): it is the mean of candle powers in all directions and in all planes
from source of light.

Mean Hemi-Spherical Candle Power (MHSCP): it is the mean of candle powers in all directions above or
below the horizontal plane.

Reduction Factor:                    MSCP/MHCP