M04 CB1 PDF

Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147
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MODULE 04
Electronic Fundamentals
for Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Category B1
www.aviotraceswiss.com
Cat. B1- Table of Contents
Table of Contents
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4.1 Semiconductors ....................................................................................................................... 3
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4.1.1.A.1 Diode symbols ............................................................................................................ 3
4.1.1.A.2 Diode characteristics and properties ......................................................................... 5
4.1.1.A.3 Diodes in series and parallel .................................................................................... 10
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4.1.1.A.4 Main characteristics and use of silicon controlled rectifiers (thyristors), light
emitting diode, photo conductive diode, varistor, rectifier diodes ........................................ 14
4.1.1.A.5 Functional testing of diodes..................................................................................... 21
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4.1.2.A.1 Introduction to the transistors and transistor symbols ........................................... 24
4.1.2.A.2 Component description and orientation ................................................................. 27
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4.1.2.A.3 Transistor characteristics and properties ................................................................ 29

4.1.3.A.1 Description and operation of common logic circuits ........................................... 34
4.1.3.A.2 Introduction to the operational amplifiers .............................................................. 41
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4.2 Printed circuit boards ............................................................................................................ 53

4.2.1 Description and use of printed circuit boards ................................................................ 53
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4.3 Servo mechanisms................................................................................................................. 57

4.3.A.1 Servos: open and closed loop systems, feedback....................................................... 57
4.3.A.2 Introduction to the synchro: construction operation and types of synchro systems. 62
Cat. B1- Table of Contents
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Cat. B1- 4.1 Semiconductors
4.1 Semiconductors
4.1.1.A.1 Diode symbols
The diode is an electronic passive component. One of its characteristics is to have high or low
resistance, according to the voltage polarity applied to its terminals. This property is used in
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many electronic applications, like voltage rectifiers or voltage stabilizers. In the following figure
the circuital symbol of the diode is represented.
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Fig. 1.1 – Diode symbol
In the figure above, the triangle indicates the positive terminal of the diode, called anode,
instead, the vertical line placed on the vertex of the triangle indicates the negative terminal
called cathod. The arrow placed under the diode symbol represents the verse of the current
flow when the diode conducts.
There are many types of diodes. Some of their circuital symbols are represented below.
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Fig. 1.2 – Other diode symbols
The symbol “a” represents a Shottky diode. The symbol “b” represents a varicap diode also
named “varactor”. The symbols “c” and “d” represent respectively a LED and a photo-diode.
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We can see that the part of the symbol that changes is that of the negative terminal. This part
of the symbol identifies the diode type.
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4.1.1.A.2 Diode characteristics and properties
The diode is made of a semiconductor crystal, which is generally silicon.
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Fig. 1.3 – Silicon crystallin grid

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The reason why it can change its resistance according to the voltage polarity applied, is that it’s
not a pure silicon crystal. In fact, in its chemical structure, in addition to the silicon there are a
lot of impurities that, unlike silicon, have three or five valence electron on their outer shell.
The impurities that have three valence electrons are called p-type materials. Instead, the
impurities with five valence electrons are called n-type materials.
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Fig. 1.4 – Impurities in a silicon crystal

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Inserting these types of impurities in a silicon crystal, it creates an excess of electrons on a side
and a lack on the other side of the crystal. In that way, the side in which there is n-type
material becomes a negative zone, instead the side in which there is p-type material becomes
a positive zone.
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Fig. 1.5 – P and N type materials
The positive zone is named anode and it’s marked with a triangle and negative zone is named
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cathode and it’s marked with a line perpendicular to the circuit line.
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Fig. 1.6 – P-N junction (diode)

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The current amplitude depends on the diode polarization. In fact, if the negative part of the
circuit is connected to the positive part of the diode, it doesn’t conduct, instead, in the
opposite case, over a voltage value named threshold voltage, it is possible that a lot of charge
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move through the crystal and create a current flow. That can be shown on the following
diagram that summarizes diode properties.
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Fig. 1.7 – Characteristic curve of a diode
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The maximum value of negative voltage that can be applied to the diode is named breakdown
value. At this value the characteristic curve becomes vertical and the break of the crystal
occurs.
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4.1.1.A.3 Diodes in series and parallel
Diodes in series
Thanks to its properties, the diode can be used like a passive switch that works depending on
the applied voltage polarity. This feature can be used in AC circuit to rectify a current wave or
to limit its peak value.
To use the diode as a rectifier, we must connect it in series with the output branch of the
circuit. To understand how it can be made, let’s look the following circuit in which the diode is
connected in series.
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Fig. 1.8 – Diode in series
In this case, if the input voltage Vi is lower than reference voltage Vr, the diode cannot conduct
and so the output Vo is steadily equal to Vr.
When the input voltage value goes over reference value, the diode becomes directly polarized
and then the output voltage will be almost equal to Vi.
The circuit operation just explained is represented by the following diagram:
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Fig. 1.9 – Inbut VS Output

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Diodes in parallel
To limit the voltage peak value the diode must be connected in parallel with the output
terminals, as shown in the following figure:
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Fig. 1.10 – Diode in parallel

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To understand diode operation, we must consider that the diode is in the state of direct
polarization only if the input voltage Vi is higher than the reference voltage Vr established by
the reference battery connected in series with the diode. In that way, the input current flows
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through the diode thanks to its low resistance and then it makes the parallel branch like a sort
circuit. When it occurs the output voltage is almost equal to the reference voltage Vr.
If the input voltage Vi is lower than reference voltage Vr, the diode doesn’t conduct current
and so it seems like an open circuit in series with the reference battery Vr. In that way all the
input current flows through the output terminals and it makes the output voltage V0 to be
exactly equal to the input voltage.
The entire circuit operation can be summarized with the following diagram that represents the
trend of the output voltage depending on the input ones.
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Fig. 1.11 – Input VS Output

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Looking this diagram, we can understand that a circuit with a diode connected in parallel with
the output branch is able to cut the voltage peak of a sin wave. Obviously, the value over
which it’s possible to cut the wave depends on the value given by the reference battery. This
kind of circuit is named CLIPPER.
4.1.1.A.4 Main characteristics and use of silicon controlled rectifiers

(thyristors), light emitting diode, photo conductive diode, varistor,
rectifier diodes
Rectifier circuit
When in the last circuit represented there isn’t the reference battery, it means that the
reference voltage value is zero. In this configuration the circuit is named VOLTAGE RECTIFIER.
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Fig. 1.12 – Half wave rectifier
In fact looking at the circuit we can understand that the voltage wave can be transmitted only
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when it is positive, because when it is negative it’s lower than the reference value that is null
in this circuit.
If we want to rectifier the entire sin wave, we must only put another diode that conduct only
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when the input voltage value is negative. It can be made connecting the other diode in
opposition with the first on as shown in figure:
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Fig. 1.13 – Full wave rectifier
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For this kind of rectifier the output voltage is represented by the following diagram:
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Fig. 1.14 – Output of a full wave rectifier

Thyristors
A thyristor is a controlled silicon device. It works like a diode controlled by a current impulse.
It’s made by a silicon crystal that is doped alternatively with p an n-type materials.
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Fig. 1.15 - Thyristor

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It’s made by three terminals named anode and cathode, like a diode, and the third is named
gate. This device conducts only if an electric current flows through the gate. Then, the gate is
the device control terminal. The thyristor symbol is shown below.
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Fig. 1.16 – Thyristor symbol
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Light emitting diode (LED)

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Fig. 1.17 – LED

Led is the acronym for light emitting diode. It is a junction electronic device, realized with
particular kinds of semiconductor materials, that emits light when a current flows in them.
Generally, in a diode directly polarized, flows a current, due to the movement of electron from
n to p zone, and of the holes from p to n zone. When it happens, near the junction, there is
recombination of electrons and holes, and it causes the decrease of electron energy. The
normal consequence is the emission of thermal energy. That happens in normal silicon diode,
instead, in led, there is emission of light energy. The light wave length, that gives color to the
led, depends on the compound used to create it, and on the semiconductor doping. The light
intensity increases, with direct current and decreases, with temperature. Main current values,
to create a good lightness, are between 5 and 20 milliampere. The maximum reverse voltage,
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for that kind of diode, is smaller than the normal diode reverse voltage, and it is about 3-5 volt.
Thanks to their switching speed, great endurance, and small dimension, they are used as
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display devices.
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Fig. 1.18 – Example of a LED lamp

Photo conductive diode
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Fig. 1.19 – Photo-diode
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A kind of diode that works in the state of reverse polarization, is the photo-diode. When light,
run over the photodiode reverse biased, creates a lot of free charge carriers, that causes a
tangible value of reverse current. That current, depends on the light intensity, and on the wave
length. For that reason, the photo-diode is used as optical sensor, because it converts a light
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signal in an electric one.
Varistor (VDR)
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Fig. 1.20 – VDR symbol

The varistor is an electronic device that is generally used to protect another device from an
unexpected voltage peak. It can be considered like a variable resistor that reduces its
resistance value when tension increases. Then the varistor is a voltage depended resistor, in
fact it’s named also with the acronym VDR. If it’s connected in parallel with the device that
must be preserved it makes current flows through the device until the voltage increase over its
threshold value. In this way it reduces its resistance and so it makes the current flows through
itself bypassing the other electronic device in order to protect it.
The varistor operation is explained by its characteristic curve.
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Fig. 1.21 – VDR characteristic curve
Varistor curve is a symmetric curve and it seems like two curve of two diodes that are in the
state of reverse polarization. For that reason, its electrical symbol is like two opposite diodes.
4.1.1.A.5 Functional testing of diodes
When in a diode, we are not able to identify the cathode and the anode, and when there is not
a diode data sheet, we can do the diode functional test, with a multimeter or a tester.
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Fig. 1.22 – Multimeter
A multimeter, is a device able to measure current, voltage, and resistance. To measure the
intensity of current, and the voltage the scale beginning is on the left, instead, if we want to
test the resistance, the scale beginning is on the right. In fact, we know that in an open circuit,
the current is null and the resistance value is infinite. In the same way, in a short circuit, we
can find a high current and a resistance almost null. For that reason, the scale beginning of
current and voltage, coincides with the resistance full-scale.
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Fig. 1.23 – Multimeter scale
Now, let’s look how we can do a diode functional test, using a multimeter. Connecting the
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multimeter positive pin, to one of the diode terminals, and the negative pin, to the other one,
if we find an infinite value of resistance it means that the terminal connected to the
multimeter positive pin is the cathode. Instead, if we obtain a very low resistance value, it
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means that the diode terminal connected to the positive pin is the anode.
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Fig. 1.24 – Test of a diode
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Multimeter, can be used also to verify possible diode damages. In fact, if in both cases of diode
biasing, we find a high resistance value, it means the diode is interrupted. Otherwise, it means
that the diode is in short-circuit state.
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4.1.2.A.1 Introduction to the transistors and transistor symbols
The first solid-state device discussed was the two-element semiconductor diode. The next
device not only has one more element than the diode but it can amplify as well.
Semiconductor devices that have-three or more elements are called TRANSISTORS. The term
transistor was derived from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. This term was adopted because
it best describes the operation of the transistor - the transfer of an input signal current from a
low-resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. Basically, the transistor is a solid-state device
that amplifies by controlling the flow of current carriers through its semiconductor materials.
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The transistor was invented in 1948 in the Bell Labs using the germanium as semiconductor
material. From this date the development of the semiconductor technologies was very fast
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until now days. Thanks to this development, now we are able to include in a chip a lot of
electronic devices.
There are many different types of transistors, but their basic theory of operation is all the
same. In this chapter we will talk about two types of transistors which are bipolar junction
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transistor (BJT) and field effect transistor (FET).
About the BJT, it is characterized by two main current. In fact the operation of this device
involved two types of charge carriers: both positive and negative.
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Instead about the FET device, the current is mainly due to one type of charge carrier: negative
or positive.
In the following image there are represented the most used transistor symbols.
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Fig. 1.25 – BJT symbol

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Fig. 1.26 – FET symbol
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Fig. 1.27 – Symbol of the depletion MOS transistor

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Fig. 1.28 - Symbol of the enhancement MOS transistor
The first two symbols represent a BJT in npn and pnp version. The second two symbols
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represent a FET with negative and positive channel respectively. The lasts symbols represent a
particular kind of FET named MOSFET in depletion and enhancement mode respectively.
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4.1.2.A.2 Component description and orientation
BJT is made using silicon as semiconductor material. Although, As we before said, there are
many different types of transistors. Therefore, there are a lot of constructive technologies, but
the operation is the same in all cases and so their basic theory of operation is all the same.
The theory we will be using to explain the operation of a transistor is the same theory used
earlier with the PN-junction diode except that now two such junctions are required to form the
three elements of a transistor.
The three elements of the two-junction transistor are (1) the EMITTER, which gives off, or
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emits," current carriers (electrons or holes); (2) the BASE, which controls the flow of current
carriers; and (3) the COLLECTOR, which collects the current carriers.
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Fig. 1.29 – BJT structure and symbol

The figure above shows that bipolar junction transistor is made of a silicon crystal with three
layers p and n alternately doped. Transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP according to
the arrangement of their N and P materials. Their basic construction and chemical treatment is
implied by their names, "NPN" or "PNP." That is, a NPN transistor is formed by introducing a
thin region of P-type material between two regions of N-type material. On the other hand, a
PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of N-type material between two regions
of P-type material. Transistors constructed in this manner have two PN junctions, as shown in
figure 2-2. One PN junction is between the emitter and the base; the other PN junction is
between the collector and the base. Then, in a BJT, there are two p-n junctions that are the
base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction indicated by the symbols JE and JC.
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The two junctions share one section of semiconductor material so that the transistor actually
consists of three elements.
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Since the majority and minority current carriers are different for N and P materials, it stands to
reason that the internal operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will also be different.
The previous figure shows also the two basic types of transistors along with their circuit
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symbols. It should be noted that the two symbols are different. The vertical line represents the
base, the angular line with the arrow on it represents the emitter, and the other angular line
represents the collector. The direction of the arrow on the emitter distinguishes the NPN from
the PNP transistor. If the arrow points in, the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the
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arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN. Another point you should keep in mind is that the
arrow always points in the direction of hole flow, or from the P to N sections. On the other
hand, electron flow is always toward or against the arrow, just like in the junction diode.
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4.1.2.A.3 Transistor characteristics and properties
The bipolar junction transistor is so called because its operation involves the conduction of two
carriers: electrons and holes in the same crystal.
BJT has a particular characteristic: it is able to control, with a very low input current, a higher
output current. That characteristic makes the BJT useful as current or voltage amplifier and
current controlled switch.
BJT is made using silicon as semiconductor material. Although there are a lot of constructive
technologies, the operation is the same in all cases.
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Fig. 1.30 – Examples of BJT

The next image represents an example of real BJT structure:
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Fig. 1.31 – BJT planar structure
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This is a BJT realized in planar technology. This kind of structure is a non symmetric structure.
In fact the emitter is situated in the most internal zone of the transistor and it is the most
doped (n+). The base terminal is very thin and it is less doped respect the emitter and the
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collector. The collector represents the most extended zone of the transistor and it has a
doping value that is between base and emitter.
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Current flow in a bjt

Although the npn transistor is more used than the pnp, we’ll take as example a pnp transistor
because in it the holes flow, that is the most evident, is equal to the conventional current flow
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and then we can understand better how current flows in this device.
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Fig. 1.32 – Current in a PNP transistor
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In a BJT the Je junction is the control junction device. Polarizing it with a positive voltage VEB, it
creates a direct current flow meanly due to the holes (emitter charge majority carriers), that
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move through the junction until base region. In that region the holes become charge minority
carriers because base is doped n. Into the base a little holes percentage, for example 1%, link
with free electrons that are in this region. That recombination creates the base current that
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has obviously a value much lower than the emitter current. Thanks to the base thinness, most
of holes go to the Jc junction that is reverse polarized by the voltage VCB. In that way holes can
move easily until the collector because the electric field in a reverse biased junction permit the
movement of charge minority carriers like holes in base region. So collector current is made of
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a percentage of emitter current (99%). However in the collector we can find another current
component with a very low value that is the reverse current of the Jc junction and it’s called
ICBO. That current comes from the base and it’s due to the charge minority carriers.
Obviously in a npn transistor the operation is the same with the only difference that the
current flows are opposite.
BJT characteristic curve

BJT operation can be studied more precisely considering relations indicated by the
characteristic curves which connect currents and input and output voltages IB, VBE, IC, and VCE.
Let's consider first of all the input characteristic curve.
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Fig. 1.33 – Input curve of a BJT

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This curve represents the input current flow IB, in function of the voltage VBE, for constant
values of VCE. As it is the relation between the current and the voltage of the junction JE,
directly polarized, the curse is essentially similar to the one of a diode, with a threshold voltage
VY= 0.5 V, and a work voltage VBE, between 0.6 and 0.8 V, according to the value of IB. In
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general terms, VBE can have the conventional value of VBE = 0.7 V.
Unlike common diodes, you have to avoid to polarize the JE junction with a very high inverse
voltage. In fact, its breaking voltage VEBO is quite low, about 7V.
The output characteristic represents the input current trend IC at varying VCE, for constant
values of IB.
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Fig. 1.34 – Output curve of a BJT
If the gain hFE = IC/IB had kept constant, curves would have shown a horizontal and equidistant
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trend, for equal variations of IB.

In reality, curves tend to thicken in the in the diagram upper and down part, due to the fact
that hFE tends to decrease both for high and low currents.
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For values of IC in the order of ICbo, hFE has values close to the unit.
Moreover curves present a little slope, showing that hFE increases with VCE for IB constant.
This behavior, known as Erly's effect, can be employed as follows: the increase of VCE and
consequently of the reverse polarization of the Jc junction cause an expansion of the transition
zone, inside the little doped base; therefore follows the width reduction of the base zone,
where recombinations occur and thus the hFE increase.
4.1.3.A.1 Description and operation of common logic circuits
In electronic or informatic field, the logic gate is an easy electronic circuit, which allows
executing elementary boolean operation. Boolean operations and more in general the
mathematical logic, were defined in 1854 by George Boole.
A logic gate can be presented by a simple graphic symbol, for example a rectangle. Logic gates
are characterized by a certain input and output number.
The input is indifferently identified as: input terminals, logic terminal or input. The output is
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generally identified as: output terminal, logic output or output. All terms are equal.
Logic input and logic output can have only two possible states high or low. High corresponds to
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the presence of electricity; instead low means the absence of electricity, respectively at input
and output logic gates.
 The NOT gate

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The principal logic gates we will consider are the following:
 The AND gate

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 The OR gate
 The NAND gate
 The NOR gate.
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The following explanation is based on a positive logic. This means that the high logic status, or
1, corresponds to the presence of electricity; instead the low logic status, or 0, corresponds to
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the absence of electricity.

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The NOT gate

The NOT gate is considered as the simplest one. In fact it consists of one input and one output.
Conventionally the input is identified with the letter A while the output with the letter S.
Fig. 1.35 - NOT gate
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The NOT gate produces an inversion or negation of the input signal. Conventionally a logic
status inverted or denied is symbolized by a bar on top of it, which generally corresponds to
the output signal.
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Assume that the input signal A, is high or corresponding to 1. Remember that, conventionally,
the logic high status corresponds to the presence of voltage applied to the terminal at the gate
input. The logic gate inverts or denies the input and so it will produce a low logic status 0.
That means that at the terminal output of the gate there isn't electrical voltage.
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Instead now assume that the input signal A is low or corresponding to 0. The logic gate inverts
or denies the input and it will produce a high logic status. That means that at the terminal
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output of the gate there will be electricity.
In general, all logic gates are followed by their relative table or truth table.
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The table or truth table, relates all possible input logic signals, to the relative output logic
signals of a logic gate.
The table or truth table of the not logic gate consists of two rows and two columns, because
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the possible input logic signals are essentially two: 0 (low) and 1 (high).
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Fig. 1.36 - Truth table of the NOT gate
The AND gate 16

The AND gate has two logic inputs A and B, and only one output S.
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Fig. 1.37 - AND gate
The AND gate produces a multiplication of the input signals. Conventionally the logic product
of two values corresponds to 1 only if the two inputs are 1 too.
The mathematical expression defining the logic product is:

Also AND gate can be followed by the truth table.
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Fig. 1.38 - Truth table of the AND gate
The AND logic gate can have two or more inputs. The operating principle still remains the same
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also with three logic inputs: A, B and C.
The truth table value corresponds to the output S and is 1 only when all inputs are 1.
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The OR gate
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The OR logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one output S. The OR logic gate
produces the sum of the input signals.
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Fig. 1.39 - OR gate
The mathematical expression defining the logic sum is:
Also the OR gate can be followed by the truth table.
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Fig. 1.40 - Truth table of the OR gate

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Also the OR gate can have more than two inputs. The principle of operation still remains the
same. The relative truth table has an additional column, corresponding to the input C. For the
rest, everything is the same. The truth table value, corresponding to the output S, is 0 only
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when all inputs are 0.
The NAND gate

The NAND logic gate has at least two inputs, A and B, and only one output S. We can be
immediately seen that it seems as the composition of a gate AND and a gate NOT. The
mathematical expression, to define it, is:
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Fig. 1.41 - NAND gate
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Examine now in detail the truth table of NAND gate.
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Fig. 1.42 - Truth table of NAND gate
The NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The principle of operation still remains the same
also with three switches.
The corresponding truth table has an additional column, concerning input C, and more rows,
concerning several combinations of input values. For the rest, all remains the same. The truth
table value, corresponding to the output S, is 0 only when all inputs are 1.
The NOR gate

The NOR logic gate has two logic inputs, A and B, and one output S. It can be immediately seen
that it seems as the composition of an OR gate and a NOT gate. The mathematical expression,
to define it, is:
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Fig. 1.43 - NOR gate

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Fig. 1.44 - NOR truth table
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The NOR gate can have more than two inputs. The operation principle remains the same if we
have three logic inputs.
The relative truth table has an additional column, corresponding to input C and more rows
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corresponding to several combinations of inputs values. For the rest all is the same.
The value of the truth table, corresponding to the input S, is 1 only when all inputs are 0.
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4.1.3.A.2 Introduction to the operational amplifiers

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An operational amplifier is basically a multistage amplifier which has:

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 infinite amplification or voltage gain (AOL)

 infinite input resistance (Ri)
 output resistance (Vo)
 infinite bandwidth (BW).
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Fig. 1.45 - Operational amplifier
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In circuital symbols there are two input, called inverting input (indicated by -), non-inverting
input (indicated by +) and an output terminal. The relation between the output voltage and the
ones at the input, is as follows:
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where AOL is the open-loop operational amplifier gain, that means the absence of every
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external connection between output and input. It's usual to indicate with Vi (differential input
voltage), the voltage between the inverting input and the non-inverting input, so that the
previous relation becomes:
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From this relation and from the circuit model of the amplifier, we can observe that VO and Vi
have an inversion in the polarity.
That means that if Vi is for example a continuous positive signal, VO is a continuous signal
(amplified) but negative.
If Vi is a sine wave signal, VO is sine wave, but shifted of 180°. If Vi is a increasing signal, VO is
decreasing.
The operational amplifier must be fed. In most cases it is necessary a dual power supply, that is
that two equal voltages of absolute value are required, but of opposite polarity. The two
voltages are commonly indicated by +V and -V. From the relation between Vi and VO we can
deduce that it is necessary only a little Vi signal to make the output voltage have high positive
or negative values, if Vi is negative or positive, because the AOL gain is very high, theoretically
infinite. It's really important to precise that the output dynamic, that is the maximum range of
VO voltage is limited and depends on the feeding voltages. In fact, observing the output
dynamic in function of the voltage between the feeding terminals, for a real operational, we
note that the peak to peak output voltage has values similar to the ones of the voltage
between feeding terminals.
Precisely, the VO range is included between Vsat voltage and - Vsat voltage. These values differ
from the feeding voltage of 1 or 2 volt.
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Fig. 1.46 – Input VS output of the open loop operational amplifier
Open-loop operational amplifier operation

The easiest way to use an operational amplifier is to connect the inverting input to the
grounding, instead a vS signal to the non-inverting input .
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Fig. 1.47 – OP AMP as a comparator
The output voltage is the following:

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As the AOL gain is very high but the output dynamic of the operational is contained within the
values +Vsat and -Vsat, we can say that beyond a little range of values, where v+ is nearly close to
v-, if v+ is higher than v-, vO = Vsat, instead if v- is higher than v+, vO = - Vsat.
Observing the input-output characteristic of the circuit, we note that for vS < 0, vO = -Vsat,
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instead for vS > 0, vO = Vsat. Thus, we can deduce that the open-loop operation amplifier
considered can be used as a gauge of voltage levels. This kind of circuit is a zero crossing
detector of the input signal, supplying a high level in output, when vS is more than 0 and a low
one when vS is lower than 0.
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Closed-loop operational amplifier

The open-loop operational amplifier hasn't a linear behavior due to the high AOL gain that, also
for little values of input differential voltage, causes the operational saturation. This can be
clearly seen in the input-output characteristic that has a linear behavior only for VS, about the
zero. Moreover, AOL values have relevant dispersions and variations. Thus, the open-loop
configuration can't be used to make amplifier circuits or in circuits operating more complex
processing on input signals. In these cases, it is necessary to insert the operational amplifier
into a net of negative reaction, which allows to limit the total gain and to make the circuit
answer linear, for relative wide ranges of the input signal, and generally not depending on AOL
value.
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Fig. 1.48 – Closed loop OP AMP
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This technique, using operational amplifiers, permits to create amplifiers with a stable and
expected gain, because essentially depends to a single passive element net, external to the
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active device.
Considering the amplifiers, we'll examine more common configurations, analyzing the
operation and obtaining for each of them the relation between the output and the input, that
is the closed-loop gain AV. To do this, it is necessary to note some consequences of the
operational amplifiers characteristics:
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 as the input resistance Ri is very high, the current flowing in the operational amplifier
input is quite negligible,
 as the open-loop gain AOL is always very high, for every value of the output voltage in
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the linear zone, that is for -Vsat < vO < Vsat, and implies that the voltage Vi between the
inverting input and the non-inverting one is very small and consequently negligible.
And so, in the linear operation zone, the two input are essentially at the same potential, that is
that between the input exists a virtual short circuit. In the linear zone, are valid the following
approximations:
i+ = i- = 0
and
vi = 0 for -Vsat < vO < Vsat .

Inverting amplifier
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Fig. 1.49 – Inverting amplifier
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In the inverting amplifier scheme, we can note the negative reaction net made of Rf and R .
The inverting input is the virtual mass, that means that the voltage Vi is null. Moreover at the
non-inverting input there is no current flow. And so:
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and
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As i f  i results that:
As we can see, the gain of the whole amplifier doesn't depend on AOL, but on the relation
between Rf and R values.
The sign - shows that the output polarity is inverted respect to the input voltage. For this
reason, the shown amplifier is called inverting amplifier.
Inverting adder
By adding another input, with the corresponding resistor at the inverting input, we can create
a circuit with at the output the sum of the signals applied, but with opposite sign.
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Fig. 1.50 – Inverting adder amplifier

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The gain of this circuit can be calculated as done for the inverting amplifier. In fact, considering
the virtual mass present at the inverting terminal, we can say that the impedance, that affects
the generator v1, is equal to R1. Likely the impedance, that affects the generator v2, is equal to
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R2. Moreover:
And so:
If Rf = R1 = R2, we have:
Consider that you can apply any number of input signals, always with the function of the
inverting adder, but only without overpassing the maximum value of current that can be
supplied.
By getting the resistors in proportion, it is possible to obtain the average value of the input
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voltage.
In fact, putting R1 = R2 = 2Rf, from the previous equation, we obtain:
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In short, it is possible to amplify the input signal sum of an arbitrary factor, by choosing
correctly the Rf value.
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Not inverting amplifier
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Fig. 1.51 – Non-inverting amplifier
The signal is applied to the non-inverting input, so that the gain AV of the amplifier is positive.
The inverting input voltage can be expressed in function of the VO, being i = if
For this reason:
Considering the presence of the virtual short circuit among the input, we have:
from which we obtain the gain:
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Buffer (voltage follower)
A common problem is the attenuation between the two circuits, one with high output
resistance and the other with low resistance at the input. And so, it is generally necessary to
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insert a buffer circuit, which works as an impedance adaptor, avoiding the problem of
attenuation.
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Fig. 1.52 – Voltage follower
This circuit has unity gain, high input resistance and very low output resistance. The gain AV
can be easily found, considering that thanks to the virtual short circuit, voltage vS, coincident to
v+, is equal to v-. Since v- is connected directly to the output, we have vO = vS, that is AV = 1.
This can be verified considering a buffer as a particular case of the non-inverting amplifier. In
fact, if we put in the equation RF = 0, we obtain AV = 1.
Non-inverting adder
The circuit of the non-inverting adder amplifier supplies voltage equal to the sum of the input
signals. It can be considered as an application of the non-inverting amplifier.
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Fig. 1.53 – Non-inverting adder

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In fact, since the current flowing in the non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier can
be considered null, the voltage v+ is obtained by considering the circuit included between the
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two signal input, for example applying Millman's theorem.
As , with Rf = R we have:
In order to obtain the sum of n signals, we must choose resistors of equal value, a part from R,
whit a value of:
Differential amplifier
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Fig. 1.54 – Difference amplifier
Often it is necessary to have the difference between two signals, eventually amplified, for
example when you want to remove a component common to both signals. The differential
amplifier circuit has this functionality, that is:
To check this relation, we can apply the principle of effect overlap. Considering the short
circuited generator v2, we have:
Considering the short circuited generator v1, the non-inverting input looks connected to the
grounding, since there is no current in the resistors connected to it. And so we obtain the
inverting amplifier configuration:
Adding the two input effects, we obtain:
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Cat. B1- 4.2 Printed circuit boards
4.2 Printed circuit boards
4.2.1 Description and use of printed circuit boards
A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is an electronic component that gives mechanical support and
electrical connection to other electronic components.
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The set of conductors that connect the circuit components is obtained by means of metallic
pathways placed on a flat insulating board, while the components are placed on the other side
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of the board.
The component terminals enter the board through holes and are welded to the metallic
pathways, which usually end with a wider round or square shape in correspondence of the
welding spots. 16
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Fig. 2.1 - Example of Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

Compared to wire-wrapped circuits, printed circuits have many advantages:

 Clear wiring
 Little cumbersome
 Simultaneous setting-up of the connections
 Uniform reproduction of the circuit structure
 Inexpensive for high volume production
 Highly reliable.
The insulating board can be made of cardboard, Bakelite™ cloth, silicon glass, polyester glass,
glass and epoxy resin, glass and melamine resin. The most common base is the phenol
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stratified, which is made of cellulose layers soaked with phenol resin, and that allows only a
little humidity absorption. The insulating board usually has a thickness of 0.8, 1.6, 2.4, 3.2mm,
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and the metallic pathways thickness varies from 25 to 75μm, depending on the flowing
current. The metallic pathway width should not be less than 1 mm and should possibly reach
2mm. The distance among them should be at least 1mm. The different production phases of a
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printed circuit include the connection design, the copper insulating board preparation with
electrolytic copper, the connection set-up on the copper plated board, the assembling and the
component welding.
When the circuit becomes complex, copper plated boards are used on both sides and the
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metallic connections among components are made on both sides of the board.
The connections manufacturing process is performed through a chemical removal of exceeding
conductor material or through deposition of a conductor on the insulating board using
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masking or the conducting tape galvanic deposition.

Printed circuit boards require testing after production. Once the board is finished, every circuit
connection must be verified by means of an electrical test unit. This unit applies a small
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voltage to every contact point and verifies that the same voltage can be measured at other
connected contact points. When the PCB is completed and tested, it is ready for the
connection of components to form a Printed Circuit Assembly (PCA).
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Tecnograph Process
A common method used to remove metal is the Tecnograph process. The original design is
photographically reduced to obtain a cliché used to print the circuit on a copper board by
means of a grease ink. This reduction can be of 2 to 5 times in order to achieve a high
precision.
A thin bitumen powder layer is then spread on the metal surface. The board is then turned
upside down to let the bitumen powder fall from the non-inked areas.
After that, the board is hit by infrared rays that melt the bitumen layer. This layer will protect
the pathways areas from chemicals used to remove the unwanted copper.
Photo-Print or Photo-Resist Process

The photo-print, or photo-resist, process is an engraving process. This method consists in
applying on the copper surface of the board a uniform photosensitive and chemicals resistant
emulsion layer. The board is then dried with hot air or infrared rays. After that, a photo-
negative of the electrical circuit is applied on the photosensitive emulsion and subjected to an
ultraviolet light. After the exposition, the board is submerged in a solvent to remove all the
emulsion areas not exposed to the ultraviolet rays. As a result, the electric circuit is printed on
the board and the residual copper will be removed with an acid attack. After the chemicals
action, the copper stripes that constitute the electric circuit are visible on the board.
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Fig. 2.2 - Photo-print process (A-Copper on plastic stratified board; B- photosensitive emulsion covering; C-photo
negative application and UV lamp; D-emulsion left on the copper; E-final result with copper stripes)
Board manufacturing and component welding

The plastic stratified board with the printed metallic circuit needs some mechanical processes,
like cutting, side finishing and drilling where the component terminals will be inserted.
The electrical components must be placed on the board before proceeding with the printed
circuit welding. This process can be performed by welding every single contact or, in case of
mass production, by simultaneous welding of all the components on the board. In the latter
case, if some components do not need to be welded or if some parts of the board require
protection, it is possible to preserve such parts with varnishing or special tapes. A common
method for this kind of simultaneous welding consists in the complete covering of the board
with a welding alloy.
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Fig. 2.3 – Method of simultaneous welding
This alloy is pumped from a reservoir into a basin in order to reach the surface of the board
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that slides horizontally at a constant speed of about 3-4 cm/s.
To make the component welding more effective, it is possible to cover with a metal the
internal surface of the holes in order to obtain a better tin adhesion.
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Fig. 2.4 – Metal stripes in the holes of the PCB

Cat. B1- 4.3 Servo mechanisms
4.3 Servo mechanisms
4.3.A.1 Servos: open and closed loop systems, feedback.
Servo mechanisms, also called SERVO SYSTEMS or SERVOS for short, have countless
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applications in the operation of electrical and electronic equipment. In working with radar and
antennas, directors, computing devices, ship's communications, aircraft control, and many
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other equipment, it is often necessary to operate a mechanical load that is remote from its
source of control. To obtain smooth, continuous, and accurate operation, these loads are
normally best controlled by synchros.
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A servo system uses a weak control signal to move large loads to a desired position with great
accuracy. The key words in this definition are move and great accuracy. Servos may be found
in such varied applications as moving the rudder and elevators of a model airplane in radio-
controlled flight, to controlling the diving planes and rudders of nuclear submarines.
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Servos are powerful. They can move heavy loads and be remotely controlled with great
precision by synchro devices. They take many forms. Servo systems are either
electromechanical, electrohydraulic, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Whatever the form, a relatively
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weak signal that represents a desired movement of the load is generated, controlled,
amplified, and fed to a servo motor that does the work of moving the heavy load.
A control system is a group of components that are linked together to perform a specific
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purpose. Generally, a control system has a large power gain between input and output.
Control systems are broadly classified as either CLOSED-LOOP or OPEN-LOOP. Closed-loop
control systems are the type most commonly used in the Navy because they respond and
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move the loads they are controlling quicker and with greater accuracy than open-loop
systems. The reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic feedback
system informs the input that the desired movement has taken place. Upon receipt of this
feedback information, the system stops the motor, and motion of the load ceases until
another movement is ordered by the input. This is similar to the system that controls heat in
many homes. The thermostat (input) calls for heat. The furnace (output) produces heat and
distributes it. Some of the heat is "fed back" to the thermostat. When this "feedback" raises
the temperature of the room to that of the thermostat setting, the thermostat responds by
shutting the system down until heat is again required. In such a system, the feedback path,
input to output and back to input, forms what is called a "closed loop."
An open-loop control system is controlled directly, and only, by an input signal, without the
benefit of feedback. The basic units of this system are an amplifier and a motor. The amplifier
receives a low- level input signal and amplifies it enough to drive the motor to perform the
desired job. Open-loop control systems are not as commonly used as closed-loop control
systems because they are less accurate.
Open loop control systems

As we said previously, an open-loop control system is controlled directly, and only, by an input
signal. The basic units of this type consist only of an amplifier and a motor. The amplifier
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receives a low- level input signal and amplifies it enough to drive the motor to perform the
desired job. The open-loop control system is shown in basic block diagram form in the
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following figure.
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Fig. 3.1 - Block diagram of an open-loop control system
With this system, the input is a signal that is fed to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is
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proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. The phase (ac system) and polarity (dc
system) of the input signal determines the direction that the motor shaft will turn. After
amplification, the input signal is fed to the motor, which moves the output shaft (load) in the
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direction that corresponds with the input signal. The motor will not stop driving the output
shaft until the input signal is reduced to zero or removed. This system usually requires an
operator who controls speed and direction of movement of the output by varying the input.
The operator could be controlling the input by either a mechanical or an electrical linkage.
Closed loop control systems

A closed-loop control system is another name for a servo system. To be classified as a servo, a
control system must be capable of the following:
 Accepting an order that defines the desired result
 Determining the present conditions by some method of feedback
 Comparing the desired result with the present conditions and obtaining a difference or
an error signal
 Issuing a correcting order (the error signal) that will properly change the existing
conditions to the desired result
 Obeying the correcting order.
Operation of a basic position servo system

For the discussion about a basic position servo system, refer to the next figure, view (A), view
(B), view (C) and view (D).
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Fig. 3.2 - Block diagram of a closed-loop servo system (view A)

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This closed-loop servo system is the most common type in the Navy today. It is normally made
up of electromechanical parts and consists basically of a synchro-control system, servo
amplifier, servo motor, and some form of feedback (response).
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Fig. 3.3 - Block diagram of an closed-loop servo system (views B, C and D)
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The synchro-control system provides a means of controlling the movement of the load, which
may be located in a remote space. The servo amplifier and servo motor are the parts of the
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system in which power is actually developed (to move the load).

The controlling signal from a CT is relatively weak, too weak to drive an electric motor directly.
In views A through D of the figure, assume that the control signal will be initiated by a
handcrank input connected to the synchro transmitter (CX). The dials located on the CX and
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the CT indicate the positions of the synchro's rotors, while the dial on the load indicates the
position of the load. In view A, the dials of both the CX and the load indicate that the load is in
the desired position. Because the load is where it should be, there will be no error signal
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present at the servo amplifier and no power to the servo motor.

In view B, the rotor of the CX has been moved by the handcrank to 90º. (This indicates that it is
ordered to move the load by 90º.) Notice that the rotor of the CT is still at 0º. The CT now
develops a signal, called the ERROR SIGNAL, which is proportional in amplitude to the amount
the CT rotor is out of correspondence with the CX rotor. The phase of the error signal indicates
the direction the CT rotor must move to reduce the error signal to zero or to "null out." The
error signal is sent to the servo amplifier.
In view C, the error signal has been amplified by the servo amplifier and sent on to the servo
motor. The motor starts to drive in the direction that will reduce the error signal and bring the
CT rotor back to the point of correspondence. In this case the motor is turning clockwise.
The mechanical linkage attached to the servo motor also moves the rotor of the CT. This
feedback causes the amplitude of the error signal to decrease, slowing the speed at which the
load is moving.
In view D, the servo motor has driven both the load and the rotor of the CT, so that the CT is
now in correspondence with the CX rotor. As a result, the error signal is reduced to zero. The
load stops at its new position. Note that in this servo system, we moved a heavy load to a
predetermined position through the simple turning of a handcrank. In responding to the
handcrank, the servo system performed a basic positioning function.
An example of the servo system just explained is represented in the following figure:
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Fig. 3.4 – Example of position servo (control of a weapon turret)

4.3.A.2 Introduction to the synchro: construction operation and types

of synchro systems.
Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and accurate transmission of information between
equipment and stations. Examples of such information are changes in course, speed, and
range of targets or missiles; angular displacement (position) of the ship's rudder; and changes
in the speed and depth of torpedoes. This information must be transmitted quickly and
accurately. Synchros can provide this speed and accuracy. They are reliable, adaptable, and
compact. The following figure shows a simple synchro system that can be used to transmit
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different as of data or information.
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Fig. 3.5 – Example of a simple synchro system

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In this system, a single synchro transmitter furnishes information to two synchro receivers
located in distant spaces. Operators put information into the system by turning the
handwheel. As the handwheel turns, its attached gear rotates the transmitter shaft (which has
a dial attached to indicate the value of the transmitted information). As the synchro
transmitter shaft turns, it converts the mechanical input into an electrical signal, which is sent
through interconnecting wiring to the two synchro receivers. The receiver shafts rotate in
response to the electrical signal from the transmitter. When these shafts turn, the dials
attached to the shafts indicate the transmitted information.
In addition to supplying data by positioning dials and pointers, synchros are also used as
control devices in servo systems. When the synchro and the servo are combined, they work as
a team to move and position heavy loads.
Synchro classification
Synchros work in teams. Two or more synchros interconnected electrically form a synchro
system. There are two general classifications of synchro systems:
 Torque systems
 Control systems.
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Torque-synchro systems use torque synchros and control-synchro systems use control
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synchros. The load dictates the type of synchro system, and thus the type of synchro. Torque-
synchro systems are classified "torque" because they are mainly concerned with the torque or
turning force required to move light loads such as dials, pointers, or similar indicators. The
positioning of these devices requires a relatively low amount of torque. Control synchros are
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used in systems that are designed to move heavy loads such as gun directors, radar antennas,
and missile launchers.
In addition to the two general classifications, synchros are grouped into seven basic functional
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classes as shown in the following table:
FUNCTIONAL
ABBREVIATION INPUT OUTPUT
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CLASSIFICATION
Mechanical input Electrical output from
Torque to rotor (rotor stator representing
TX
transmitter energized from angular position of rotor
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AC source) to TDX, TDR, or TR

Control Same as TX except it is
CX Same as TX
transmitter supplied to CDX or CT
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Electric output from rotor

Mechanical input representing algebraic
Torque to rotor, electrical sum or difference
differential TDX input to stator between rotor angle and
transmitter from TX or angle represented by
another TDX. electrical input to TR,
TDR, or another TDX.
Same as TDX
Control Same as TDX except
except electrical
differential CDX output to CT or another
input is from CX
transmitter CDX
or another CDX.
Electrical input to
Mechanical output from
stator from TX or
rotor. Note: Rotor has
Torque receiver TR TDX. (Rotor
mechanical inertia
energized from
damper
AC source)
Mechanical output from
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Electrical input to
rotor representing
stator from TX or
Torque algebraic sum or
TDX, another
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differential TDR difference between
electrical input to
receiver angles represented by
rotor from TX or
electrical inputs. Has
TDX
inertia damper
16 Electrical output from
rotor proportional to the
Electric input to
sine of the angle between
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Control stator from CX or
CT rotor position and angle
transformer CDX, mechanical
represented by electrical
input to rotor
input to stator. Called
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error signal.
Depending on Depending on
Torque receiver TRX application, same application, same as TX
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as TX or TR
Four of these are the torque type and three are the control type. Each synchro is described in
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the table by name, abbreviation, input, output, and the other synchro units that may be
connected to it. Generally, torque and control synchros may not be interchanged.
Torque transmitter
The synchro transmitter converts the angular position of its rotor (mechanical input) into an
electrical output signal.
When a 115-volt ac excitation voltage is applied to the rotor of a synchro transmitter, the
resultant current produces an ac magnetic field around the rotor winding.
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Fig. 3.6 – Schematic representation of a torque transmitter
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The lines of force cut through the turns of the three stator windings and, by transformer
action, induce voltage into the stator coils. The effective voltage induced in any stator coil
depends upon the angular position of that coil's axis with respect to the rotor axis. When the
maximum effective coil voltage is known, the effective voltage induced into a stator coil at any
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angular displacement can be determined.

The following figure illustrates a cross section of a synchro transmitter and shows the effective
voltage induced in one stator coil as the rotor is turned to different positions.
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Fig. 3.7 - Voltage induced in one stator coil
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The turns ratios in synchros may vary widely, depending upon design and application, but
there is commonly a 2.2:1 stepdown between the rotor and a single coil. Thus, when 115 volts
is applied to the rotor, the highest value of effective voltage induced in any one stator coil is 52
volts. The maximum induced voltage occurs each time there is maximum magnetic coupling
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between the rotor and the stator coil (views A, C, and E). The effective voltage induced in the
secondary winding is approximately equal to the product of the effective voltage on the
primary, the secondary-to-primary turns ratio, and the magnetic coupling between primary
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and secondary. Therefore, because the primary voltage and the turns ratio are constant, it is
commonly said that the secondary voltage varies with the angle between the rotor and the
stator.
In summary, the synchro transmitter converts the angular position of its rotor into electrical
stator signals, which are sent through interconnecting wires to other synchro devices.
Torque receiver
Synchro torque receivers, commonly called synchro receivers, are electrically identical to
torque transmitters of the same size except for the addition of some form of damping.
Unlike the transmitter, the receiver has an electrical input to its stator and a mechanical
output from its rotor. The synchro receiver's function is to convert the electrical data supplied
to its stator from the transmitter, back to a mechanical angular position through the
movement of its rotor. This function is accomplished when the rotor is connected to the same
ac source as the transmitter and assumes a position determined by the interaction of its
magnetic field with the magnetic field of the stator.
When power is first applied to a system, the transmitter position changes quickly; or if the
receiver is switched into the system, the receiver rotor turns to correspond to the position of
the transmitter rotor. This sudden motion can cause the rotor to oscillate (swing back and
forth) around the synchronous position If the movement of the rotor is great enough, it may
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even spin. Some method of preventing oscillations or spinning must be used. Any method that
accomplishes this task is termed DAMPING.
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Fig. 3.8 - Torque receiver

Torque synchro system

The torque Synchro system, consists of two parts: a torque transmitter and a torque receiver.
The torque transmitter, is the part of the transmission system direct coupled to the
information source; hence, regarding for example the zero position, the transmitter rotor
position is θ1, set from outside as input value, repeated by the receiver.
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Fig. 3.9 – Torque synchro system
An alternate single phase voltage generator, energizes the rotor with standard voltage and
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standard frequency supply, according to the following values:
 115 V at 60 Hz
 115 V at 400 Hz
 26 V at 400 Hz
The stator output voltages, are secondary, depending on the θ1 angle. The torque receiver , is
connected to a transmitter, binding the connectors of equal names. The receiver has the rotor
as primary winding, as in the case of the transmitter, and is energized in parallel with the
transmitter. Generally, the maximum secondary voltage value is the same as the receiver
voltage value, choosing the same transform ratio. Hence, there are no currents in the stator at
equilibrium, when θ1 = θ0. The electrical construction of synchro transmitters and receivers is
similar, but the receiver has in addition very low friction bearings, in order to lower the
mechanical error. The mechanical error is due to the opposite torque on the rotor shaft, and to
an oscillator dumper fly wheel, mounted on the rotor.
The fly wheel inertia value is generally chosen equal to the synchro inertia, that is kept at
lowest level. The purpose of this choice is to avoid too long oscillations during transient state,
to have quick reply and low winding overload.
Torque differential synchro systems

Sometimes, a different type of synchro is needed, one which can accept two signals
simultaneously, add or subtract the signals, and furnish an output proportional to their sum or
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difference. For this reason the DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHROS are employed. A differential can
perform all of these functions. There are two types of differential units:
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 Differential transmitters
 Differential receivers.
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The differential transmitter (TDX) accepts one electrical input and one mechanical input and
produces one electrical output. The differential receiver (TDR) accepts two electrical inputs
and produces one mechanical output.
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Fig. 3.10 - Differential transmitter and differential receiver

Torque differential transmitter

In the torque differential transmitter, BOTH the rotor and stator windings consist of three Y-
connected coils.
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Fig. 3.11 - Torque differential transmitter
20
The stator is normally the primary, and receives its input signal from a synchro transmitter. The
voltages appearing across the differential's rotor terminals (R1, R2, and R3) are determined by
the magnetic field produced by the stator currents, the physical positioning of the rotor, and
S-
the step-up turns ratio between the stator and the rotor. The magnetic field, created by the
stator currents, assumes an angle corresponding to that of the magnetic field in the
transmitter supplying the signal. The position of the rotor controls the amount of magnetic
AT
coupling that takes place between the stator magnetic field and the rotor, and therefore, the
amount of voltage induced into the rotor windings. If the rotor position changes in response to
a mechanical input, then the voltages induced into its windings also change. Therefore, the
output voltage of the TDX varies as a result of either a change in the input stator voltage or a
change in the mechanical input to the rotor. This electrical output of the TDX may be either the
SUM or the DIFFERENCE of the two inputs depending upon how the three units (the TX, the
TDX, and the TR) are connected.
Torque differential receiver
T
-B
16
Fig. 3.12 - Torque differential receiver
1-
The torque differential transmitter (TDX) and the torque differential receiver (TDR) are
20
ELECTRICALLY IDENTICAL. The only difference in their construction is that the receiver (TDR)
has a damper, which serves the same purposes as the damper in the TR. It prevents the rotor
from oscillating. The real difference in the receiver lies in its application. It provides the
mechanical output for a differential synchro system usually as the sum or difference of two
S-
electrical inputs from synchro transmitters. As in the case with the TDX, the TDR addition or
subtraction function depends upon how the units in the system are connected.
AT
Example of TX-TDX-TR system operation (subtraction)
T
-B
16
Fig. 3.13 – TX-TDX-TR system
1-
How we can see from the figure above, the differential stator is connected to the transmitter
stator, while the rotor is connected to the receiver stator. The role of the differential is to
20
introduce in the transmission chain an angular datum that can be added or subtracted to the
input datum θ1, which is imposed to the transmitter. Hence, when the static equilibrium is
reached, we have: θO = θ1 ± θX. Where θX is the angle of the differential, referred to its own
S-
electrical zero.
The sign depends on the connections: if the same order number connectors are bounded the
sign is - and if we interchange the bonds between two connectors, then the sign is +.
AT
Control synchro systems

Control synchros cannot move heavy loads. However, they are used to "control" servo
systems, which in turn do the actual movement, as in the movement of heavy radar antennas
and gun turrets.
There are three types of control synchros: the CONTROL TRANSMITTER (CX), the CONTROL
TRANSFORMER (CT), and the CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER (CDX). The control
transmitter (CX) and the control differential transmitter (CDX) are identical to the TX and the
TDX.
Control transformers
A control transformer is a control synchro device accurately governing some type of power
amplifying device used for moving heavy equipment. The following figure shows a phantom
view of a typical CT and its schematic symbols.
T
-B
16
1-
Fig. 3.14 - Control transformer
20
The CT compares two signals, the electrical signal applied to its stator and the mechanical
signal applied to its rotor. Its output is a difference signal that controls a power amplifying
device and thus the movement of heavy equipment.
S-
The unit construction and physical characteristics of a control transformer are similar to those
of a control transmitter or torque receiver, except that the rotor is never connected to an AC
supply and, therefore, induces no voltages in the stator coils. As a result, the CT stator currents
are determined only by the voltages applied to the high-impedance stator windings. The rotor
AT
itself is wound so that its position has very little effect on the stator currents.
As a result, the CT rotor does not try to follow the magnetic field of its stator and must be
turned by some external force. The stator windings of the CT are considered to be the primary
windings, and the rotor windings the secondary windings. The output, which is taken off the R1
and R2 rotor leads, is the voltage induced in the rotor windings. The phase and amplitude of
the output voltage depend on the angular position of the rotor with respect to the magnetic
field of the stator.
Control synchro system operation

A control synchro system consists of a control transmitter and a control transformer.
T
-B
16
1-
Fig. 3.15 - Control synchro system 1
20
The stator windings of the CX are connected to the stator windings of the CT and both
synchros are shown on 0º. Notice, that at 0°, the CT rotor is perpendicular to its S2 winding.
This is contrary to what we have learned so far about synchros, but it is just another peculiarity
of the CT. When the rotor of the CX is on 0°, the rotor's magnetic field points straight up as
S-
shown (the black arrow). The voltages induced in the CX stator windings, as a result of this
field, are impressed on the CT stator windings through the three leads connecting the S1, S2,
and S3 terminals. Exciting currents proportional to these voltages flow in the CT stator
AT
windings and establish a magnetic field in the CT in the same direction (white arrow) as the
magnetic field (black arrow) in the CX. Observe that the rotor of the CT is perpendicular to the
stator magnetic field and, therefore, the induced voltage in the rotor is zero, as represented in
the previous figure.
Instead, when the CT rotor is rotated 90°, the rotor is parallel to the resultant stator field
Maximum magnetic coupling occurs between the rotor and stator fields at this point.
T
-B
16
1-
Fig. 3.16 - Control synchro system 2
As a result of this coupling, the stator windings induce a maximum of 55 volts into the rotor
20
winding. The phase of this voltage depends upon the direction in which the CT rotor is turned.
The rotor of the CT is wound so that clockwise rotation of the stator magnetic field induces a
voltage across the rotor which is proportional to the amount of rotation and in phase with the
ac supply voltage.
S-
The CT output voltage discussed, is commonly referred to as an ERROR SIGNAL. This is because
the voltage represents the amount and direction that the CX and CT rotors are out of
AT
correspondence. It is this error signal that eventually is used in moving the load in a typical
servo system like the example that was proposed in the first part of this chapter and whose
block diagram was:
T
-B
16
Fig. 3.17 - Block diagram of a control synchro system
1-
20
S-
AT

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Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147

for Aircraft Maintenance Licence

4.1.2.A.3 Transistor characteristics and properties ................................................................ 29

4.2 Printed circuit boards ............................................................................................................ 53

4.3 Servo mechanisms................................................................................................................. 57

4.1.1.A.1 Diode symbols

Fig. 1.1 – Diode symbol

Fig. 1.2 – Other diode symbols

4.1.1.A.2 Diode characteristics and properties

The diode is made of a semiconductor crystal, which is generally silicon.

Fig. 1.3 – Silicon crystallin grid

Fig. 1.4 – Impurities in a silicon crystal

Fig. 1.6 – P-N junction (diode)

4.1.1.A.3 Diodes in series and parallel

Fig. 1.8 – Diode in series

The circuit operation just explained is represented by the following diagram:

Fig. 1.9 – Inbut VS Output

Fig. 1.10 – Diode in parallel

Fig. 1.11 – Input VS Output

4.1.1.A.4 Main characteristics and use of silicon controlled rectifiers

Fig. 1.12 – Half wave rectifier

Fig. 1.14 – Output of a full wave rectifier

Fig. 1.15 - Thyristor

Light emitting diode (LED)

Fig. 1.17 – LED

Fig. 1.18 – Example of a LED lamp

Photo conductive diode

Fig. 1.20 – VDR symbol

The varistor operation is explained by its characteristic curve.

Fig. 1.21 – VDR characteristic curve

4.1.1.A.5 Functional testing of diodes

Fig. 1.22 – Multimeter

4.1.2.A.1 Introduction to the transistors and transistor symbols

Fig. 1.25 – BJT symbol

Fig. 1.27 – Symbol of the depletion MOS transistor

4.1.2.A.2 Component description and orientation

Fig. 1.29 – BJT structure and symbol

4.1.2.A.3 Transistor characteristics and properties

Fig. 1.30 – Examples of BJT

The next image represents an example of real BJT structure:

Current flow in a bjt

BJT characteristic curve

Let's consider first of all the input characteristic curve.

Fig. 1.33 – Input curve of a BJT

Fig. 1.34 – Output curve of a BJT

trend, for equal variations of IB.

4.1.3.A.1 Description and operation of common logic circuits

 The NOT gate

 The AND gate

the absence of electricity.

The NOT gate

Fig. 1.35 - NOT gate

output of the gate there will be electricity.

The AND gate 16

Fig. 1.37 - AND gate

The mathematical expression defining the logic product is:

Also AND gate can be followed by the truth table.

Fig. 1.39 - OR gate

The mathematical expression defining the logic sum is:

Also the OR gate can be followed by the truth table.

Fig. 1.40 - Truth table of the OR gate

when all inputs are 0.

The NAND gate