MULTILATERAL DIPLOMACY

By Dietrich Kappeler

Multilateral diplomacy means diplomatic interaction between more than

two actors. But within the framework of multilateral diplomacy, unilateral
action and bilateral interaction too have an important role. Indeed,
diplomacy as the conduct of non-violent relations between actors on the
international scene, through their appointed representatives, encompasses
both bilateral and multilateral relationships. Moreover many of the rules
and techniques of bilateral diplomacy also apply within the multilateral
context. Therefore, it is recommended that the student of multilateral
diplomacy be already fully familiar with the subject of bilateral diplomacy.

Links:
· What is diplomacy?
· Bilateral diplomacy
· Bilateral negotiation
· Subjects of international law
· International organisations

1. Origins and evolution of multilateral diplomacy

1.1 Faraway origins

The first documented evidence of gatherings representing a kind of

multilateral diplomacy are the Olympic and other games held in ancient
Greece at more or less regular intervals, whose main purpose was to honour
the gods. In order to allow even mutually hostile entities to attend, such
functions were protected by a general truce. As sponsors of athletes and
other performers senior officials of the various city states would attend and
make use of the opportunity for bilateral contacts. By multiplying such
contacts with a number of actors successively, something akin to a
multilateral interaction was achieved, even if no meetings grouping more
than two actors at a time were held.

This approach was revived in Europe, particularly at the end of the Thirty
Years War in the late 1640s. The two alliances which had emerged over time
settled in two different but not too distant cities, Munster and Osnabruck,
in Westphalia. Delegates of individual actors would move to the opposite
city and discuss with delegates of the other side, each time individually. At
the same time, they, and their counterparts, would report to the other
members of their respective alliance. Some entities which had remained
neutral would also send delegates to voice their particular concerns, who
would shuttle between the two camps. Thus, eventually, a series of
bilateral agreements could be signed whose common content is known as
the Peace of Westphalia. This essentially bilateral approach to a
multilateral settlement was followed over the next 150 years whenever a
major European conflict had to be solved.

Another, less formal and more tentative approach to multilateral

diplomacy, which is somewhat reminiscent of the Greek precedent, used to
take place during important religious ceremonies such as a Concile and the
subsequent inthronisation of a new Pope in Rome or the annual pilgrimage
of muslims to Mecca. The latter still serves today as an opportunity for
leaders or their representatives who would not normally be able to meet to
hold informal discussions.

1.2 Congress of Vienna and 19th century conferences

Contrary to earlier regional meetings the Congress of Vienna, which met in

1814/5, brought together the delegates of a number of actors in a single
venue and so truly inaugurated modern conference diplomacy. All major
elements of multilateral negotiation were rapidly brought into play: the
need for a chair and vice-chairs, rules of procedure, the formation of
committees and groups, including an all-important steering group of major
powers, the adoption of a final act, etc. It is still very instructive to consult
Harold Nicholson's excellent study of the Congress.
Besides being the first proper international conference, the Congress of
Vienna also created the first permanent multilateral institutions, the
International Commission of the Rhine and the International Commission of
the Danube. It also inaugurated a collective approach to major problems by
the great powers of the day, which were to meet as a Concert of Europe
whenever the need arose. The Concert of Europe met several times
throughout the 19th Century, sometimes reaching a consensus, sometimes
separating again without having managed to settle the issue at hand. It is
interesting to observe that the Concert of Europe favoured an informal
approach and did not use any system of voting. One can say that it applied,
to some extent, the consensus method that nowadays prevails.

1.3 International Unions

The invention of the telegraph and the rapid development of postal

relations thanks to improved means of transport made it necessary for the
major countries of the time to agree on common rules for telegraphic
communications and the forwarding of mail. For this purpose conferences
grouping mainly representatives of the concerned administrations were
organised from time to time. It was soon found that there had to be some
permanent body to supervise the implementation of decisions taken during
these conferences. As a result the International Telegraph Union and the
Universal Postal Union were established. Their main organs were a general
conference meeting every few years, an executive council made up of the
representatives of only a few members and a secretariat made available by
a member country within the framework of its own administration. Similar
unions were set up to oversee international regulations in the field of
intellectual property.
1.4 Twentieth century developments

At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 the first two real international
organisations, the League of Nations and the International Labour
Organisation, were established. The former had a general scope, the latter
a specialised one. Both had a main deliberative organ made up of
representatives of all member states, a smaller executive council to which
only a limited number of members were appointed and an international
secretariat operating outside the jurisdiction and control of the member
states. The two organisations had their headquarters in Geneva and
operated under an agreement with Switzerland granting them full autonomy
and immunity. As for how the Paris Conference worked, the study of it by
Harold Nicholson could be usefully consulted.

After the second world war the League of Nations was replaced by the
United Nations Organisation and a number of universal specialised agencies
were added to the ILO. At the same time, regional organisations were set up
in Europe, the Middle East, the Americas and later Africa and Asia. In
Europe a new type of organisation, known as supranational communities,
was invented in the 1950s, which were provided with powers replacing those
of member countries in specific fields. These gradually evolved into the
European Union which, in a number of domains, acts exclusively on behalf
of the members.

Throughout this period multilateral diplomacy still also relied on

conferences convened outside existing organisations or under the latters'
auspices.

2. Actors of Multilateral Diplomacy

2.1 States and other territorial entities

Sovereign States are still the principal actors in diplomacy and this of course
is also true for multilateral diplomacy. Membership of intergovernmental
organisations is normally restricted to sovereign States and the Charter of
the UN for one clearly stipulates this in Article 4, even if the term
"sovereign" is not used.

According to international law a State is a collective entity with a clearly

defined territory, a permanent population and an effective central
authority. A sovereign State is one that is not subject to any other State
under the latter's municipal law, so that its relations with other States are
exclusively governed by international law.

In specific contexts territorial entities other than States can also participate
in international affairs and hence in multilateral diplomacy. For a long time
the ITU and the UPU admitted to membership non sovereign territories that
formed a separate telecommunications or postal entity. This was mainly the
case for colonial territories. International law also admits that entities
which claim a given territory for themselves, such as belligerents and
liberation movements, may be admitted as international actors, at least
with regard to such other actors as recognise them.
2.2 Intergovernmental Organisations

From mere frameworks for the conduct of multilateral diplomacy

intergovernmental international organisations have developed into full-
fledged international actors endowed with their own personality in
international law. However the scope of their capacity to act is still
restricted. Thus they cannot become full members of another international
organisation. In the case of the UN, even specialised agencies admitted to
membership of the UN family can only participate in the activities of the
Economic and Social Council. Other intergovernmental organisations may
also be allowed to attend the meetings of that Council in an observer
capacity.

The European Union claims a special status as supranational entity

empowered to act on behalf of its members in specific areas. Members can
no longer speak for themselves in these areas in international fora.
Nevertheless the EU has not been admitted to full membership of any
intergovernmental organisation. However, certain recently concluded
multilateral treaties such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea admit
the EU as party with the same standing as States.

2.3 Non-Governmental Organisations

Among the thousands of such institutions many do not participate in either

the preparation or conduct of diplomatic activities. Generally speaking one
can identify NGOs with a relatively narrow scope of interest, some of which
are indeed just lobbies, and others whose concerns and activities cover a
broad spectrum. Some NGOs are made up of individuals as members, others
of entities and groups. National NGOs may form associations and federations
across borders. Its is such international groups that are often quite powerful
and able to influence countries as well as international institutions in the
conception and implementation of their policies.

As actors in multilateral diplomacy NGOs seek to influence diplomatic

activities both from inside and outside. Many are already active at national
levels when it comes to prepare guidelines and briefs, and then through
their international federation try to influence again the implementation of
such guidelines and briefs in multilateral fora. This is easier if an NGO has
achieved observer status within one or several intergovernmental
organisations. In recent years attempts of NGOs to influence multilateral
diplomacy from outside its fora have attracted considerable attention,
especially if their aim was disruption of a meeting and their methods were
violent.

2.4 Others

Diplomatic actors as well as organs of diplomatic fora may call upon

individuals, expert groups and private institutions to participate in certain
 stages of multilateral diplomatic activities. Such participation may be
formalised or individual agents rely on outside expertise and help on a
personal and informal level. Increasingly non-official fora and institutions of
track-to diplomacy are being used to bring together representatives of
recognised international actors with persons and groups acting in a private
capacity but possessing considerable factual power or international
visibility.

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