DNA research paper.

Ben Hartman Grant Corrigan Mia Fernandez

A brief history of DNA and a crucial scientist.

DNA is found in every living thing, from humans to microorganisms.

Without DNA, we would all have the same characteristics. The study of

DNA was started by a man named Gregor Mendel, in 1900

This discovery was re-discovered by Dr. Barbara McClintock, a

geneticist born in 1902. In the study of

genetics, they used ornamental corn to help them discover how

chromosomes carry specific genes to new generations. At Cornell

University in the late 1920’s to early 1930’s, the genetics department

brought in ornamental corn to study. Dr. McClintock started working

on identifying and labeling the 10 chromosomes of the corn. She was

able to see the parts of the corn chromosomes by using new

microscopic techniques. She spent many years researching and finally

came to a conclusion much different than the popular belief. She

discovered that genes don’t in fact, stay in one place. They move.

She called them “jumping genes”. She believes that these “jumping

genes” caused different appearances in plant’s offspring by either

activating or inactivating the gene that controls the color of the

kernels. Dr. McClintock observed two different kinds of transpositions,

which are dissociaters and activators. The dissociaters can “jump” to a

different place when signaled by activators. She concluded that the

dissociaters would cause changes and the nearby genes of the

chromosome and the color of the kernels in the ornamental corn. She

verified this conclusion from multiple and repeated experiments. In

1951, Dr. Barbara McClintock showed her discover to nine groups of

scientists from all around the world at a scientific meeting. Her

discovery was not well accepted; the other scientists were not as

amazed as she was and they thought her methods were old fashioned.

The other scientists were using other technologies, such as the

electron microscope. Although her methods were out of date, her

discovery was ground-breaking.

 Her discovery wasn’t really

believed until the 1970s, when a group of molecular biologists found

bits of DNA jumping around in bacteria. Later, scientist found these

transpositions in other things besides corn. They have discovered that

every living thing has transpositions. This finally confirmed that Dr.

McClintock’s theory was right all along.

The modern manipulation of DNA.

Ever since the discovery of DNA and genes, the manipulation of them

has been a somewhat controversial subject. The technology used in

genetic engineering is called DNA Technology. This technology can be

used to cure diseases, to treat genetic disorders, for the improvement

of food crops and much more. Genetic Engineers use two main parts

of the DNA strand to manipulate genes how they want which are called

restriction enzymes and cloning vectors

The Restriction Enzymes are used to cut DNA strands into smaller parts

which make it easier for genetic engineers to work with. These

restriction enzymes cut the DNA chains separately between the G

nucleotides and the A nucleotides, therefore creating single chains of

DNA. These “tails” are called sticky ends. The sticky ends can bind

together with others so that essentially, two different parts of two

different DNA strands can bind together making an entirely new

strand.

After work with restriction enzymes, specific genes can become

isolated but cloning vectors must be used to place the new isolated

genes and the new strands previously combined into an organism. The

cloning vector is basically a vessel that is used for the transportation

and cloning from one organism to another. Plasmids, rings of DNA

found in bacteria contain cloning vectors. To use one of these cloning

vectors, it has to be removed from the gene itself. Once the cloning

vector is isolated, the plasmid is then cut, removing the unwanted

gene. Once the unwanted gene is removed, the “donor gene” or the

new gene is added.

This remarkable simple process can produce many good things for

mankind. It can help to prevent diseases and in some cases, cure

them. Although this process can cause a log of good and fix many
problems, some people believe that this is dangerous and almost

tampering with the fabric of life itself.

Before this type of genetic engineering, things were created only by

nature, which to some is ideal. Others feel that genetic engineering is

a great milestone for science and opens up many new possibilities.

Genetic engineering has opened up many possibilities in agriculture

and farming alone. Previously, plants and other types of grown foods

were at the mercy of their environments and the types of infestations

or diseases that could hurt them. With genetic engineering they can

make “Franken-foods” that can be resistant to these forces, where

without them they would normally die.

How DNA works briefly.

DNA molecules consist of tub long chains each. The chains that DNA is made

up of is nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of three different parts: those

three parts are- sugar molecule, and that is called deoxyribose. The other is

a phosphouris atom and that is surrounded by oxygen atoms; and a

molecule that is referred to as an nitrogen- containing base because it

contains a nitrogen atom.

All DNA molecules have an identical sugar base molecule in them that is

called deoxyribose sugar phosphate. Nitrogen molecules contain base,

however can be one of four kinds, first is called adenine (A), second is called

guanine (G), third is called cytosine ©, and last is called thymine (T).

The double helix was discovered by James Watson, and Francis Crick in 1953.

They suggested that if they made a model of DNA structure. The model

proposed was that DNA is composed of two nucleotide chains that wrap

around each other to form a double spiral. This “double spiral” shape is now

called a Double Helix.

Adenine and guanine combined are called purines. The adenine is made up

of NH2, HC, N, NH, C4, and C. Thymine and cytosine combined are called

pyrimidines. Bases just like the two listed above commonly have two rings of

carbon and nitrogen atoms. Such as adenine and guanine are called purines.

Bases that have one ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms such as adenine and

guanine are called pyrimidines.

RNA is like DNA; it is an nucleic acid made up of repeating nucleotides. The

difference between DNA and RNA is that RNA's sugar molecules are ribose,

where as DNA's sugar molecules are just deoxribose sugar. A rare part that is

in RNA uracil, that is a nitrogen thymine.

There are three different types of RNA, and those three types are called

messenger RNA (mRNA), the second is called transfer RNA (tRNA), and the

last one is called ribismoal RNA (rRNA). There are about 45 variations of

(tRNA).