Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The construction and working of a relay can be understood from Figure 1.1
above. The main part of a relay is the electromagnet. The electromagnet is made by a
coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core which provides low reluctance path for
magnetic flux. It also consists of a movable iron armature and one or more set of
contacts. These are held in a position by a spring as shown in the above figure.
Normally a SPDT relay has 5 terminals. Two of them are used to energies the
electromagnet and the other three are COM, NO, NC. COM stands for Common, NO
stands for Normally Open and NC stands for Normally Closed. When the
electromagnet is not energized, the armature will be connected to NC contact. Thus
COM and NC will be connected. When the electromagnet is energized, the
Page 1 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
electromagnet attracts the iron armature and it will be connected to NO contact. Thus
COM and NO will be connected.
One must consider different parameters before selecting a relay to ensure safety
and life time. The main parameters are:
Coil Ratings
Contact Ratings
Change Over Time
Enclosure and Mounting
Coil Ratings
Contact Ratings
The commonly used contact ratings are the maximum voltage and current it can
handle continuously. The three current ratings specified are:
It is also known as Operation Time. Turn – ON (Switch – ON) time is the time
required for the relay to make ON contact after energizing the electromagnet and Turn
– OFF (Switch – OFF) time is the time required to make OFF contact after de-
energizing the relay. In some applications such as UPS these times are critical.
Page 2 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
Relays are available in enclosure and in open execution. If the relays are used
in cabinet of a device, then you may use open execution type. However if there is a
possibility of dust gathering in to electrical contacts, it is better to use enclosed type
relays. There is also a possibility of sparks in contacts, thus in hazardous
environments properly enclosed relay must be selected.
PLCs were introduced in the late 1960s by inventor Richard Morley to provide
the same functions as relay logic systems. Relay systems at the time tended to fail and
create delays. Technicians then had to troubleshoot an entire wall of relays to fix the
problem.
PLCs are robust and can survive harsh conditions including severe heat, cold,
dust, and extreme moisture. Their programming language is easily understood, so they
can be programmed without much difficulty. PLCs are modular so they can be
plugged into various setups. Relays switching under load can cause undesired arcing
between contacts. Arcing generates high temperatures that weld contacts shut and
cause degradation of the contacts in the relays, resulting in device failure. Replacing
relays with PLCs helps prevent overheating of contacts.
Page 3 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
A central processing unit (CPU) serves as the brain of the PLC. It is a -16 or
-32 bit microprocessor consisting of a memory chip and integrated circuits for control
logic, monitoring, and communicating. The CPU directs the PLC to execute control
instructions, communicate with other devices, carry out logic and arithmetic
operations, and perform internal diagnostics. The CPU runs memory routines,
constantly checking the PLC (PLC controller is redundant) to avoid programming
errors and ensure the memory is undamaged.
Memory provides permanent storage to the operating system for data used by
the CPU. The system’s read-only memory (ROM) stores data permanently for the
operating system random access memory (RAM) stores status information for input
and output devices, along with values for timers, counters, and internal devices. PLCs
require a programming device, either a computer or console, to upload data onto the
CPU.
Page 4 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
The input section converts the field signals supplied by input devices/sensors
to logic-level signals that the PLC's CPU can read. The processor section reads these
inputs, processes the signal, and prepares the output signals. The output section
converts the logic level output signals coming from processor section to high level
signals and used to actuate various output field devices. The programmer/monitor is
used to enter the user's program into memory and to monitor the execution of the
program.
1. I/O Section
The I/O section establish the interfacing between physical devices in the real
world outside the PLC and the digital arena inside the PLC.
The input module has bank of terminals for physically connecting input
devices, like push buttons, limit switches etc. to a PLC. the role of an input
module is to translate signals from input devices into a form that the PLC's CPU
can understand.
Page 5 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
The Output module also has bank of terminals that physically connect output
devices like solenoids, motor starters, indicating lamps etc. to a PLC. The role of
an output module is to translate signals from the PLC's CPU into a form that the
output device can use.
Conditioning
Isolation
Termination
Indication
Page 6 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
2. CPU Section
The Central Processing Unit, the brain of the system is the control portion of
the PLC. It has three Subparts.
a) Memory System
b) Processor
c) Power Supply
a. Memory System
The memory is the area of the CPU in which data and information is stored
and retrieved. The total memory area can be subdivided into the following four
Sections.
The output status file consists of memory locations that stores the ON
or OFF states of hardware output devices in the field. Data is stored in the
output status file as a result of solving user program and is waiting to be
transferred to the output module's switching device.
Data Memory
User Memory
Executive Memory
Page 7 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
b. Processor
The processor, the heart of CPU is the computerized part of the CPU in the
form of Microprocessor / Micro controller chip. It supervises all operation in the
system and performs all tasks necessary to fulfil the PLC function.
c. Power Supply
The power supply provides power to memory system, processor and I/O
Modules.
Page 8 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
3. Programmer/Monitor
In its simplest form it can be hand-held device with membrane keypad for
program entry, and a display device (LED or LCD) for viewing program steps of
functions.
Page 9 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
The Output module also has bank of terminals that physically connect output
devices like solenoids, motor starters, indicating lamps etc. to a PLC. The role of an
output module is to translate signals from the PLC's CPU into a form that the output
device can use.
Page 10 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
When a PLC is used primarily to replace relays, timers, and counters, it's hard
to beat the simplicity and usefulness of ladder diagram programming. Their ability to
accept programming in ladder diagram format is one of the reasons for the success of
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in the industry. The many similarities between
the ladder diagrams used to program PLCs and the relay ladder logic formerly used to
control industrial systems eased the transition from hardwired relay systems to PLC-
based systems for many people in the electrical industry. And, the ability to monitor
PLC logic in ladder diagram format also made troubleshooting easier for those
already familiar with relay-based control systems. Although there are many higher-
level languages now available for PLC programming, the majority of systems are still
programmed in ladder diagram format because of these advantages.
The logic in a ladder diagram typically flows from left to right. The diagram
can be divided into sections called rungs, which are roughly analogous to the rungs on
a ladder. Each rung typically consists of a combination of input instructions. These
instructions lead to a single output instruction; however, rungs containing function
block instructions may be more complicated.
Page 11 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
The numerical format of the address depends on the scheme used by the
particular manufacturer, and it may be stated in a binary-based numbering system. A
name may also be associated with each address to make the ladder diagram easier to
interpret.
Types of Instructions
Boolean Logic
Boolean logic is actually what PLCs and relay systems perform. The legal
operations in Boolean logic are AND, OR, and NOT. The AND operation simply
means all of the inputs must be ON for the output to be ON; it's analogous to relay
contacts connected in series.
The OR operation means that the output is ON if at least one of the inputs is
ON; it's analogous to relay contacts connected in parallel.
The NOT operation means that the output is OFF if the input is ON and vice-
versa; it's analogous to a normally closed relay contact. To describe the situation in
Rung 1 of Fig. 1 using Boolean logic, for example, we can say that Output 201 is ON
if Input 101 OR 102 is ON AND Input 103 is NOT ON.
Relay Instructions
PLCs perform Boolean logic using basic relay instructions. Common input
instructions are examine-on (normally open contact) and examine-off (normally
closed contact). Input instructions can be used to examine either the state of external
PLC inputs or internal bits in the PLC memory. The examine-on instruction is ON if
the input or bit being examined is ON; the examine-off instruction is ON if the input
or bit being examined is OFF. The examine instructions can be connected in series
and parallel in any combination to perform virtually any Boolean logic function, and
the result can be connected to a relay coil (output) instruction. Relay coil instructions
Page 12 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
can be used to control either external PLC outputs or internal relay coils (bits) in the
PLC.
Timing Instructions
The basic timing instructions are on-delay and off-delay. With on-delay
timers, the output associated with the timing instruction is turned ON some specified
time after the input is ON, but it turns OFF immediately when the input is turned
OFF.
With off-delay timers, the output is turned ON immediately when the input is
turned ON. However, it remains ON for a specified period of time after the input has
been turned OFF, but before going OFF. Timing instructions are usually connected
like relay coil instructions in the ladder diagram, so any combination of input
conditions can be programmed to trigger them. When a timing instruction is created in
the PLC program, space is reserved for the timer running value and the preset value at
which the timer will trip, and the programmer must set the preset value to the desired
number when inserting the instruction. The status of the timer output can be checked
with the examine instructions for use in other rungs in the program.
magnet is "energized" and the force is used to either close a contact (that makes it a
normally-open contact, closed only when energized) or open it (that will be a
normally-closed contact since it is closed when not energized).
In a PLC, there are hundreds of internal "relays" which are supposed to behave
like the typical electromagnetic relay. Unlike an output (e.g. the "Lamp" output)
which has a physical connection out of the PLC, when an internal relay is turned ON,
it is said to be "energized" but you will not see any changes in the PLC's physical
I/Os. The logic state is kept internally in the PLC. The contact of the relay can then be
used in the ladder diagram for turning ON or OFF of other relays or outputs. A relay
contact in the ladder diagram can be Normally-Open or Normally-Closed and there is
no limit to the number of contacts a relay can have.
2.3 Input Relay, Output Relay, Internal Relay, Timer Relay and Counter Relay.
Input Relays-(Contacts)
These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive
signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are
transistors.
These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically
exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external
relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to performing only one
task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some are on only once during
power-on and are typically used for initializing data that was stored.
Counters
A counter is also a special kind of relay that has a programmable Set Value
(SV). When a counter coil is energized for the first time after a reset, it will load the
value of SV-1 into its count register. From there on, every time the counter coil is
energized from OFF to ON, the counter decrement its count register value by 1. Note
that the coil must go through OFF to ON cycle in order to decrement the counter. If
the coil remain energized all the time, the counter will not decrement. Hence counter
Page 14 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
is suitable for counting the number of cycles an operation has gone through. When the
count register hits zero, all the counter's N.O. contacts will be turned ON. These
counter contacts will remain ON regardless of whether the counter's coil is energized
or not. To turn OFF these contacts, you have to reset the counter using a special
counter reset function.
These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can
be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both
up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some
manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can think
of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can count up, down or up
and down.
Timers
A timer is a special kind of relay that, when its coil is energized, must wait for
a fixed length of time before closing its contact. The waiting time is dependent on the
"Set Value" (SV) of the timer. Once the delay time is up, the timer's N.O. contacts
will be closed for as long as its coil remains energized. When the coil is de-energized
(i.e. turned OFF), all the timer's N.O. contacts will be opened immediately.
However, if the coil is de-energized before the delay time is up, the timer will
be reset and its contact will never be closed. When a last aborted timer is re-
energized, the delay timing will restart afresh using the SV of the timer and not
continue from the last aborted timing operation. These also do not physically exist.
They come in many varieties and increments. The most common type is an on-delay
type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments
vary from 1ms through 1s.
Output Relays-(Coils)
A PLC output is like an internal relay with a physical connection that can
supply electrical power to control an external load. They physically exist and send
on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be transistors, relays, or triacs
depending upon the model chosen. Thus, like a relay, an output can also have
unlimited number of contacts that can be used in the ladder program.
Page 15 of 16
Assignment A (Individual Assignment) EEIB413 – Process Control and Instrumentation
Page 16 of 16