REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES

UNIT-I
• Introduction

• Deterioration of structures,

• Distress in Structures, Causes and Prevention

• Damage, Types of Damage

REHABILITATION:
DETERIORATION AND CATEGORIES

The gradual deterioration of various components and their

materials of a structure is termed as Deterioration.

It may be due to Exposure condition, Weathering effect, destruction

from soil and water etc.
CATEGORIES:
 Mechanical deterioration- Impact loads, over load effect, fatigue of materials, wear and
tear of materials.

 Physical deterioration – Change in volume in structure due do temperature variations,

freezing and thawing, unexpected deformation, cracking, etc.

 Chemical deterioration – Reaction of harmful chemicals which are present in

construction materials, Reaction of external harmful chemicals with structures, Electro-
Chemical process, etc.

 Biological deterioration – Bacteriological growth in any part of components

REHABILITATION

Upgradation required to meet the present needs and matching the

Original construction.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DETERIORATION
 Biological factors: Growth of algae, mass and other bacteria,

 Chemical factors: The materials use in construction when reacted with water, air, carbon
dioxide etc. get corroded

 Effect of Gases: Polluted air contains Sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide etc.
Sulphur dioxide absorbs moisture and produce sulphuric acid which causes corrosion .

 Moisture: Moisture is one of the main factor causing deterioration. It may be available in solid,
liquid, or gaseous state.
CONT….
 Efflorescence: Presence of magnesium sulphate or any other acidic chemical in ground
water causes deterioration.

 Environmental effects: Different agencies like soils, gases, rain, air, temperature, radiation
etc.
 Faulty design: use of unknown material characteristics,

 Fire: The heat generated during fire and the water used to control the fire causes the
deterioration.

 Faulty Construction: Lack of supervision, not following the specifications etc.

 Use of sub standard materials: Improper mixing, wrong materials, etc.
CONT….

 Salts in ground: Salts presents in ground dissolve in water and make the water
impure.
 Furring: Scale formation in pipes by means of Lime / magnesium.
DISTRESS:
Distress is a common type of damage and is evaluated by means of cracking,
spalling, disintegrating.
Stress may develop due to un expected loads, moisture change, temperature,
settlement in foundations, internal deformation etc.
CLASSIFICATION/ CAUSES OF DISTRESS
• Distress

Structural Non Structural

Caused by faulty
design/construction/over Internal induced stress,
loading, Bad looking
Endangers the safety May leads to structural
It requires action weakening
immediately.
CONT….

Types of Maintenance:
 Preventive maintenance, Routine maintenance, Remedial maintenance,
 Corrective maintenance, Special maintenance,
DAMAGE &TYPES OF DAMAGES:
Reasons for damage:
 The design load exceeds on the structure,
 Faulty design,
 Faulty detailing work,
 Poor workmanship,
CONT…..
 Due to frequent variation in temperatures,
 Weathering effect,
 Chemical attacks,
 Corrosion of reinforcement etc.
OBJECTIVES OF MAINTANANCE:
 Restoring the building to its original standard,
 To improve the service life of the building,
 Decreasing the rate of deterioration,
 To provide the purpose intended by the structure.
DAMAGE
DAMAGE

In Fresh stage After Hardening

s

Plastic deformation Construction movements

Early Frost Damage  Shrinkage  Form work
 Settlement  Subgrade
DAMAGE

After Hardening

Thermal
Physical Chemical  Freez- Thawing Structural
 Aggregate  ASR  Temp.  Sudden over
shrinkage  Sulphate Variation Load
 Drying shrinkage attack  Early thermal  Creep
 crazing  Chloride contraction  Design Loads
attack
STRUCTURAL AND NON STRUCTURAL CRACKS
CHEMICAL ATTACK
SCALING
CRACKS
• Lekage Plastic settlement cracks

X-SECTION
REBAR

PLAN

CRACKS
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKS
SLAB ON GRADE

CRACKS
DRYING SHRINKAGE CRACKS

CRACK
SLAB ON GRADE

JOINT
CRAZING Thermal cracks

• Crazing

Hairline WALL
map
cracks
CRACK

CRACK
ALKALI-SILICA REACTION (ASR)

• Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

COLUMN

CRACKS
CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
• Corrosion of reinforcement

CRACK
UNIT:II
• Topics covered:
 Corrosion of steel reinforcement – causes
 Mechanism and prevention,
 Damage of structures due to fire,
 Fire rating of structures,
 Phenomena of Desiccation
WHAT IS CORROSION REINFORCEMENT
• The deterioration or degradation of steel electro-chemically inside the concrete is
called corrosion of reinforcement.
• When the reinforcement is attacked by carbon or chloride ions which develops the
electro chemical cells around the steel resultant to corrosion.
• The potential difference develop between the anodic half cell area and cathodic half
cells on steel. This can be analyzed by means of copper-copper sulphate half cell.
• The copper- copper sulphate half cell is placed on concrete surface and measure the
potential difference between a wet sponge( copper sulphate cell)on surface and steel.
A volte meter is connected to both steel and copper cell by this reference cell.
• The volt meter gives the potential difference at required point and then converted to
potential gradient mapping.
CONT…
• If the potential difference is less than 0.2volts then there is ales chance of
corrosion.
• If it is between 0.2- 0.35 volts then there is a uncertain corrosion. If the difference
is more than0.35 then, 90% probability of corrosion in steel.

Symptoms of corrosion:
The corrosion in structures indicate with a sign of weakness in structures and
exhibits the cracks and finally structure collapse will happen over a period of
time.
 Formation of white patches. Brown patches along with reinforcement,
Development of cracks.
CONT…
• Spalling of cover concrete, Snapping of Bars, Buckling of bars and Bulging of
concrete.
• The formation of white patches indicate the carbonation,
• The brown patches indicates the initiation of corrosion of reinforcement and
formation of ferrite oxide which is in brown colour,
• Corrosion resultants the bulging of steel and formation of cracks parallel to
reinforcement over the concrete surface.
• Resultant the reduction in bond between steel and concrete and spalling of cover
concrete occur and size of the bars get reduced.
CONT….
• Continuation of reduction in bar size resultants in snapping the bars.
• Due to the above process bulging of concrete take place and finally structure will
collapse.
 Corrosion and the Mechanism:
 Corrosion means degradation of steel due to electrochemical reaction with the
environment resultant the formation of rust.
 The formation of ferric oxide occupies 2-10 times of grater volume of steel
 Resultant the Staining, cracking, spalling, and finally structure will collapse over
a period of time.
CONT…
• Mechanism: The corrosion will initiate when the difference in electric potential
generated along the reinforcement an electrochemical cells develop.
• The steel connected by electrolyte in the form of water in hardened concrete acts as
cathode and the other part as Anode.
• At Anode the positively charged Fe++ ions pass in to aqueous solution and the
reaction take place as…
• Fe++ + 2e¯
• Fe++ + 2(OH)¯ Fe(OH)3
• ( Ferrous hydroxide)

• 4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O+O2 4Fe(OH)3

(Ferric Oxide)
CONT…
CONT…

• At cathode the negatively charged free electrons(e-) pass through steel and
absorbed by constitutes of electrolyte in steel. These combine with water and
oxygen to form hydroxyl ions(OH)¯

• The hydroxyl ions formed pass through electrolyte and combine with ferrous to
form ferric hydroxide which is oxidized in to Rust.

• 4Fe¯ + O2 +H2O 4(OH)¯

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CORROSION:
1. Factors associate with concrete, 2. Factors associate with Steel.
• Concrete: pH Value of concrete,
• Normally the concrete pH Value is in between 12 to 13.5
• The corrosion in RC Structures initiate when PH is bellow 8.
• Reasons to change the pH is leaching of alkaline solution or naturalization of concrete
material like CO2.
• Due to electrochemical reaction involving chloride ions and Oxygen.
B. Carbonation of concrete:
The absorbed CO2 during carbonation from atmosphere coverts free lime intoCaCO3 and
Ca(OH)2 thus reducing the pH of concrete.
CONT…

 The carbonation enhances the development of cracks and make concrete as

permeable.
 The carbonation time decreases with the increase in water cement ration and
decrease in cover.
 The carbonation is controlled by composition of cement, amount of cement per
cubic meter, compaction and curing of concrete.
Chlorides:
 Increases the rate of corrosion by increasing the conductivity of electrolyte,
 Chloride ions in concrete causes pitting corrosion in reinforcement at isolated
points.
CONT….

 The corrosion due to chloride can be reduced by passivating the steel i.e
Increasing the surrounding alkalinity,
Moisture:
 The corrosion of steel initiates only in presence of moisture. The moisture may
enter in to hardened concrete through cracks or the concrete mass may be
enclosed of water for making concrete mix.
Oxygen:
 The Oxygen acts as a depolarizer at cathode and accelerator in acid, neutral and
alkaline medium during corrosion.
CONT…

 Through Oxygen acts as a depolarizer at cathode during corrosion in even leads

to formation of insoluble ferric oxide hydrates as protective layer. Hence, oxygen
payes a duel role during corrosion.
 The unequal distribution of oxygen in RC structure due to cracking in irregular
areas leads to formation of different anodic and cathodic reasons and thus
corrosion take place.
Humidity Influence:
 The corrosion initiates the humidity is in between 50 to 70%
 The corrosion rate is negligible at bellow 50% and structures totally immersed in
water.
CONT…

 The pH concentration of submerged structure is generally high due to uniform salt

concentration thus reducing the formation of corrosion cells.
Ambient temperature:
 With increase in temperature there would be decrease in pH and also increase in
carbonation and thus increase in rate of corrosion.
Quality of concrete:
 The quality of concrete is analyzed by permeability. Good quality of concrete is dense
and impermeable.
 Permeability of concrete is depend on w/c ratio, Aggregate size, grading of
aggregates, cement content, curing etc.
CONT….

 Formation of cracks,
 Cover to reinforcement.
Factors associates with steel:
 Variations in stresses in reinforcement,
 Discontinued surface layers,
 Non homogeneities in metal surface etc. will generate the potential difference
which leads to corrosion through electro- chemical cell set up.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION:

1.Surface coating for concrete, 2. construction aspect, 3. Design factor, 4.Reinforcement

protection.

Surface coating for concrete:

 To control penetration of moisture in to concrete,

 Protect concrete from acid attack,

 Protect reinforcement from corrosion,

 To control carbonation of concrete.

Construction aspect:

Corrosion engineering principles are based on following aspects…

CONT…
 Adequate compaction,,
 Effective curing,
 Production of impervious concrete,
 Effective grouting,
 Periodic maintenance.
Design factors:
 Thick Concrete cover,
 Low W/c
 Moderate stress levels.
 Minimum cement content
CONT…

 Proper details of reinforcement

 High strength concrete,
Reinforcement protection:
 Galvanizing/ Zinc based paints application,
 Bitumen based paints,
 Cement based coatings,
 Epoxy coatings,
The above said coatings must satisfy the following…
 Coating should be applied uniformly on the deformed surface of reinforcement,
 To resist the corrosion,
 It should be flexible.
 METHOD OF REPAIRING CORRODED STEEL IN RC STRUCTURE:

 The surface of the concrete is to be treated with hammer to remove all the holes and loose portions
present in it and the rusted reinforcement and concrete is exposed to environment.
 The concrete which is exposed and the reinforcement which is rusted are to be cleaned by means
of some mechanical devices such as Needle scalers, power wire brushes, Highpressure water
cleaning, Blast cleaning etc.
 If the area of reinforcement reduced to grater than10%, then the additional steel should be welded
and the weld length should be sufficient on both sides and it is depend on diameter of the bar.
 Two coats off mineral based polymer modified corrosion inhibiting primer is applied.
 Polymer modified ,carbonation resistant mortar to be applied over the whole surface.
 Final protection coat has to be applied to the concrete surface if required. By means of cathodic
protection, Anodic protection, Alkaline slurry coating etc.
CONT…

• POLYMER GROUTING:
 It is a preventive method for making the concrete durable.

 During the surface impregnation, polymer compounds such as styrene, polyester resin, and polypropylene
are used for making impermeable concrete.

 The impregnation has to be done when the surface of the concrete is completely dry.

 When the air comes out from the pores present in the concrete, vacuum is created and under the pressure
conditions polymer grouting is achieved.

 For polymerization, the polymer is used to be cured with hot water.

CONT…

• CEMENT GROUTING:
 It is used as one of the repair method to treat the cracks which are deep rooted in
to the surface.
 The cement grouting is used in 1:2 ratio containing cement and water. It is
suitable when the cracks have been just formed and in the early stage of damage.
 This method helps and protects the reinforcement by restoring the alkaline
passive layer around the steel.
 CONT

 Shotcreting or Guniting:
 It is one of the widely used method to repair the RC structures,
 It is used to repair the concrete dams, bridges, spillways, marine structures,
 It is cost effective method.
 The damaged surface of the concrete is to be removed , cleaned and the cement mortar of
1:2 or 1:3 is applied at high pressures with a suitable equipments.
 Polymer concreting: It is used in one of the repair method to replace the concrete which
is effected under the corrosive environment.
 The polymers are used as polymer additives with cement concrete such as acrylic
polymers, neoprene, styrenebutadiene and modified latex are used.
CONT…
 Epoxy coating:
 This is a highly effective coating and is widely used against corrosion of concrete.
 This is applied with brush or gun,
 The concrete surface should be treated with a emery paper in order to improve the bond of the
epoxy coating.
 Epoxy Motor coating:
 It is to be applied to get back the original integrity of the structure,
 The surface of the concrete should cleaned and no loose material should be presented,
 This can be used if the damage is not spreaded widely over the surface of the concrete.
 If the damage occurred in large areas,
 Then the broken mass of the concrete must be removed and the motor coating is applied.
CONT…

 Cement concrete jacketing:

 It is a repair technique where jacketing is provided to the affected RC member which
is damaged by corrosive environment.
 Jacketing is one of the method of providing an additional layer of concrete along with
reinforcement.
 Anew layer of concrete with a thickness of 100-150mmis to be provided around the
affected RC member.
 Jacketing can be done by two approaches.
 The epoxy motor coating is applied to the old concrete,
 The w/c is should not exeed0.45
 The old concrete should be cleaned with a suitable cleaning devices.
TESTING THE DEPTH OF CARBONATION (CARBONATION TEST)

 Carbonation test is to estimate the depth up to which the concrete have become acidic
 The phenolphthalein is sprayed on the concrete surface. The colour changes according
to its alkalinity.
 Carbonated concrete has no colour. Where the uncarbonated concrete turned into
dark pink colour.
 When pH value reduces to below 8.0 then carbonation take place and rate of
corrosion increases.
 If the concrete possesses purple colour then it is highly alkaline good concrete.
 If there is no change in colour then, it is an acidic concrete and the pH value is <5 .
 Use of low w/c leads protection against the carbonation.
BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER FIRE:
 Concrete does not emit smoke and it is in combustible and has low rate of temperature rise.
 At an extreme temperature only concrete get attacked by fire.
 The concrete performance in fire is carried out by two components. 1. As a building
material, 2. its function within a structure.
 By using concrete at different levels, It serves as a basis for protection and safety against the
fire.
 Concrete does not burn and it does not spread the fire and it does not drop any molten
particles which causes the ignition.
 Concret does not release any toxic gases or toxic fumes when effected by fire.
 Concrete reduces the risk of environmental pollution during the fire.
FIRE DAMAGED STRUCTURES

 Fire may cause different degrees of damage to the structures. It may be classified as
completely burnt or destroyed and slightly damaged or deformed.

 In case of completely destroyed, the total damaged portion has to be replaced during the
restoration of the structure. In case of slightly damaged only finishing and repairs are
required.

 At higher temperatures, the strength of RCC get reduced due to ..

 Reduction in cross-section dimensions, changes in material deformability of material and

the bond present between concrete and reinforcement get reduced which reduces the
structural action under the load.
CONT…

 During the fire, The damaged caused to the RCC member is depend on the duration of fire
and the temperature to which the structure is subjected during the fire.
 In residential buildings, the duration of fire ranges between 1-2 hrs and the temp. raises to
1000 to 1100ºc . In Dept. stores, theaters the duration of fire ranges 2-3 hrs and the temp.
raises up to 1200ºC. In case of industrial building the temp. raises up to 1300-1500ºC.
 The evaluation of performance and characteristics of a damaged structure is important
and helps in effective rehabilitation of the structure.
 Ex. The axially loaded column under the fire normally fails at mid height due to
brittleness, disintegration of concrete followed by buckling of longitudinal bars.
 The best fir resistant aggregates are dense lime stone, brocken brick aggregates, Slag
aggregates etc.
CONT…

 The best fire resistant concrete fails at the temp. 900ºC for a particular time. At the temperature
of 300ºC , The concrete does not show any strength reduction. But, at 500ºC half of the strength
of concrete is reduced.
 The critical temperature depend on the type of aggregate used in concrete.
 The critical temperature of concrete with granite or sand stone is 550ºC and 700ºC for lime stone.
The temperature in concrete is not uniform in the cross sectional area. The hottest layer and
main reinforcement bars present near to the coloumn surface will relived due to thermal creep
and loss of strength takes place due to contraction in concrete.
 Due the fire, changes in temperature occurs between periphery of concrete and center of section
accordingly the strength of concrete varies along the cross- section.
 Total failure of the column starts when stress in central portion of cross- section equals to initial
strength of concrete and the deformation occurs along its limiting value0.0025 to 0.0030
BASIS TO DESIGN THE STRUCTURE TO WITHSTAND FIRE
 The performance based fire safety code possesses (NBC-Patrt-4) a wide range of requirements for the
building such as fire spread, fire detention, fire suppression, structural stability, smoke control etc.
 To ensure a satisfactory fire safety environment for building purposes, structural design for fire plays an
important role and it acts as a key element to achieve it.
 It also helps in active participation regarding fire control ensures such as sprinkler system.
 Generally the strength of a structural member is carried out by structural engineer whereas the fire
protection of a structural member is carried out by fire safety engineer, individually.
 The two engineers must share the information and exchange their ideas regarding fire engineering design.
 At a higher temperature the strength capacity of a member in fire can be evaluated based on the degradation
or by experimental results obtained.
 The design process is carried out by i.)design of fire curves ii.)prediction of temperature of a member
iii.)calculating the strength of the member.
 The failure temperature of steel member is at 180ºC and it is derived from fire dynamics theory
 FIRE PROTECTION

 The fire proofing to wooden structure is given by fuel cell or by empty cell process, fire resistance
coating, surface impregnation.
 The building frames, sheeting and cladding whose relative humidity less than 60% and also surface
of non heat insulating panels and slabs are not exposed to any weather are provided with fire
retarding treatment , impregnating compounds or fire proof paints.
 The spreading out of fire can be prevented by surface impregnation. It also helps in fire fighting.
 Fire extinguisher rated not less than 2A, should be provided by every 3000sq.ft
 All fire fighting equipment in building should be periodically checked and maintained.
 The travel distance from any point in the building to the fire extinguisher should not exceed 100ft.
 Stand pipes, sprinkler protection, fire alarm devices, fire cutoffs should be installed in buildings to
provide fire safety.
METHODS TO PROTECT BUILDINGS AGAINST FIRE

 Cementitious spray fire proofing

 Concrete encasement
 Fire -rated board system
 Intumescent paint method.
CEMENTITIOUS SPRAY FIRE PROOFING
 It is in the form of plaster. The ingredients may be of aggregates or fibers, gypsum or
cement, binders, etc. are present in dry state.

 With the help of pumping process and compressed air at spry nozzle it is applied.

 The thickness may vary according to the specification of manufacturer.

CONT…
 The spray can be used on columns, beams, structural steel, trusses, joints, floors and roof
decks.

 A bonding agent is required for applying any substance on steel in order to spray fire
proofing.
 The service life of the spray is depend on temperature, abrasion, humidity etc.

Concrete encasement:
 This method is used to protect the structural steel work.
 In this method, the fire protection is performed by using profiles, box and solid methods.

 The protection is carried out from three or four sides of the building.
CONT…

Fire rated Board system:

 This system can be used for protection of structural beams and columns of the building.
 It meets the requirements of fire resistance of structure.

 These boards are made with either calcium silicate or plaster with 15 to 30 mm thick which
gives fire rating up to 4hrs.

 These boards should not be use in industrial buildings.

Intumescent painting:
 In this method intumescent paints applied on the structural members to get the fire
protection to the members.
REHABILITATION OF FIRE DAMAGED STRUCTURES:
 RCC SLABS:
 When slabs are exposed to fire, the heat transmission and temperature of bottom
reinforcement is important to the behavior of concrete.
 The reinforcing bars are assumed to retain one half of their original strength.
 By increasing the thickness of slab, carrying capacity also increase.
 RCC BEAMS:
 For beams, depth and width can be increased . Due to heat, the bond present in between
transverse reinforcement and concrete gets weak end.
 This weak bond reduces the residual shear load capacity to a very large extent.
 The required increase in dimensions of the beam, transverse and longitudinal
reinforcement should be corrected by taking in to the account the change in compressive
strength and elastic modulus of concrete.
CONT…
 Eccentrically loaded columns:

 The eccentrically loaded column fails when reinforcement bars in tension gets heat up
 By increasing the thickness of protective coating , we can increase the fire resistance of the
member.
 Axially loaded columns:
 The load carrying capacity of axially loaded columns depend on change in strength of
concrete, cross section of the column under higher temperature and critical temperature.

 By increasing the suitable longitudinal steel, the carrying capacity can be rehabilitated by
increasing the cross section.
CONT…

 The damaged structure can be restored by means of anchoring the reinforcement to the
existing foundation and concrete walls by drilling the holes into the concrete grater than
the bar diameter. Th holes can be sealed by epoxy gel. In case of slabs the thickness of the
epoxy coating should not be more than o.25mm.
DESICCATION IN STRUCTURES

 Desiccation takes place in clayey soils which increases the hydraulic conductivity of
soil. Due to loss of water content present in the soil it makes the clayey soils to shrink.
 The moisture developed in soil gets reduced which leads to increase in shrinkage
strain and accordingly cracks were formed.
 The soil should be compacted to achieve a hydraulic conductivity in the range of
1x10-9 m/sec or even less.
 By compacting the soil with optimum moisture content and max. dry density , results
in formation of lower void ratio and hence low shrinkage strain can be attained.
 When the soil gets mixed with fiber it reduces the shrinkage strain up to 90%.
 Hence an effective compaction method to be adopted.
UNIT-III

Inspection and Testing

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Distress
Damage Assessment-NDT
UNIT-III
Inspection and Testing:
 Need for evaluation of structures:
 To check the performance of the structure after passing of time it is necessary to
evaluate the structure.
 To achieve a balance between the safe life of the structure and protection of
investigation over the period of desired time.
 To evaluate the current condition of the structure to know its resistance against
gravity and lateral loads that may generate due to cyclone or earth quake.
 The evaluation helps to take the decisions technically to repair, rehabilitate, or
demolish and re built the structure.
CONT….

 Inspection of structures:
 1. Routine Inspection, 2. Extended inspection, 3. Special inspection.
 Routine inspection: It is a visual inspection and carried out by trained inspectors under
the supervision of an engineer. The results are compared with previous inspection repots.
And made a current report.

 Extended Inspection: It is carried out with close and more intensive examination of all
elements. It requires special access viewing techniques, under water equipment's etc.

A full report containing photographs and drawings should be prepared. Preferably, the
routine and extended investigation will be done by same inspector.
CONT….

 Special Inspection:
Special condition discovered by casual observation or by routine observation and extended
observation.
Structures subjected to critical stress or known to have weakness

Settlements occurred grater than allowed, Exceptional events like floods, fire, earth quake
etc., change in usage of the structure.
 Factors Influence the investigation:
1. Stability aspect

2. Functionality
CONT…

• Strength:
The characteristic strength of the structure which is assumed to be constant throughout the
life-span at the time of designing is likely to differ with passage of time.
EX: Deterioration of concrete due to chloride contamination.

• Structural form:
The theoretical modal of structure is used for analyzing the assessment of the structure,
The model should be a simple representation of safety or failure criteria of the structure.
• Based on which we can understand and predict the extent of safety.
CONT….

• Loading:
• All loads that are subjected to the structure must be considered while viewing the
investigating plan.
• Un certainties in loading may be due to material densities, construction dimensions must
have prudent inspection and site measurements and should be estimated reasonable
accuracy.

Explain:

• Preliminary Inspection :
• Main Inspection:
CONT…

• Investigation Techniques:
• Walking around the structure,
• Digital photography,

• Records maintaining,
• Destruction tests,
• Nondestructive tests etc.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RETROFIT WORK
• The safety of the structure is assessed by a quantifying factor called Resistance factor (RF)
• Based on results of prliliminary and main investigation reports the nature of retrofit work is
recommended.
R= Capacity / rm
• Load effects x rf
• rm = partial safety factor of material strength
• rf = partial safety factor for load effects.
• For healthy structures the RF≥1
• If it is less than 1 retrofit work is recommended.
 CONT…
Collection of records related to the structure

Moniter and retrofit or Preliminary

Demolish the structure Investigation

Main Investigation
Refined assessment
and computer detailed
analysis YES
NDT, RF 1
Collect
Destructive
site data
test, NO
Main
Investigation Refine the assessment
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT (NON – DESTRUCTIVE TEST)
 These are the most powerful testing methods used for estimating the strength of the
concrete, Durability, elastic parameters.

 The parameters are obtained from the tests performed on the properties of the concrete
which includes resistance to penetration, hardness test, rebound hammer, UPV Testing
etc.
 Different methods: 1. Rebound hammer test 2. penetration and pullout technique

3. surface hardness Test 4. Dynamic or vibration test 5. Radio active and nuclear method

6. combined method 7. Magnetic and electrical method 8. Acoustic emission technique

9. Surface hardness method.
Rebound Hammer Test: Basically, it is a surface hardness test and it gives the relation ship
between the strength of the concrete and rebound of the hammer.

 It is based up on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the surface
hardness of concrete and is used for establishing the compressive strength of column,
beam, slabs.
Penetration and pull out technic: This technic helps in evaluating the strength of the
concrete. Penetration technique measures the depth of penetration in to concrete mass by the
use of Simbi hammer.

Pull out technique is based on the principle that the tensile force required to pull a layer of
concrete from the surface and it is related to the compressive strength of concrete.
Surface Hardness Test: This test is basically to measure the surface hardness of concrete. The test
devices include Willam testing pistol, Frank spring hammer, Einbeck pendulum hammer etc. The
strength of concrete is depend on the surface hardness of concrete.

Dynamic or vibration test: This test is used to estimate the uniformity, durability, strength and
elastic properties of the concrete.

A. Resonant frequency method, B. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method, C. Mechanical sonic pulse
velocity method.

These tests are based on the principle that the velocity of sound travelling through a material
specimen.
Radio active and Nuclear method: In the radio active method, the two tests i.e X- rays and γ-
rays are used for testing the properties of concrete.

 The results are used to calculating the density and thick ness of concrete.
 The principle involved in Nuclear methods neutrons scattering methods which helps in
determining the moisture content of concrete and neutron activation analysis for knowing
the cement content.

Combined Method: Combination of two methods involving ultrasonic pulse velocity and
rebound hammer test.
Magnetic and Electrical method: Magnetic method is used in lightly reinforced sections to
measure the cover of reinforcement in concrete.
 Electrical method is used to determine the moisture content of hardened concrete
and thickness of concrete.

Acoustic Emission technique: This technique is used to study the initiation and
growth of cracks in concrete.

Surface hardness method: It specifies the strength of the concrete. The concrete
hardens with increase in age.
ULTRA PULSE VELOCITY(UPV) TEST:
 It is one of the non destructive testing method

 It is used to identify the presence of cracks, depth of deep rooted cracks, formation of
voids etc.
 In this test , an ultrasonic wave pulse is generated in to the concrete with the help of
transmitter, it undergoes many reflections at the boundaries of different phases in the
concrete. Due to this different waves are developed such as longitudinal, transverse and
surface waves.
 All the wave types are a part of sound waves. These waves are received with the help of a
receiver present on the opposite side. Among all the waves longitudinal waves are fastest
waves and can be easily received through receiver.
 The location and depth of the crack can be identified on a cathode ray oscilloscope.

 The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse wave of any material mainly depend on modulus of
elasticity, presence of reinforcing steel, density and Poisson’s ratio.
 This test is based upon on the principle that, when the quality of concrete is present in
higher quality, a higher velocity is obtained.
 After knowing the path L in the concrete, the vibration pulse is converted in to electronic
signal by means of second transmitter which is in contact with another concrete surface.

 Transition time T of the pulse can be calculated through electronic timing circuit.
 Ultrasonic pulse velocity V can be calculated from V= L/T
QUALITY PULSE VELOCITY(Km/Sec.)
POOR <3.0
MEDIUM 3.0 – 3.5
GOOD 3.5 - -4.5
EXCELLENT >4.5
LOAD TEST ON A COMPONENT OF A STRUCTURE
 Load tests are to be performed very quickly after completion of 28 days from the concrete
being placed.

 The structural component should undergo a load equal to Dead load+1.25 times the
imposed load for a period of one day and finally, imposed loads are removed.
 The imposed loads are to be noted down if its undergoes any deflection.
 Under super imposed load condition, within a time period of one day, if the structure does
not regain at least 75% deflection, then this test to be performed again after 72 Hrs.

 If the regaining is less than 80% then the component of the structure should not be used in
construction.
 Due to occurrence of several impacts such as natural Disasters, environmental impacts, etc
The building structure undergoes severe damage with respect to the time.

 To keep the building in safe condition, the damage caused must be repaired properly.
 By reducing the amount of damage , stability is gained for a structure and functions
properly.

 While performing the repair, the basic step is to perform is to test the building completely.

 The strength of the entire structure is depend upon the concrete quality.
 Some of the tests include tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive tests and
these tests can be used to determine the quality of the hardened concrete.
DIFFERENTIATE NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS AND SEMI-
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
Non Destructive testing Methods Semi – Destructive testing Method

NDT methods are used for estimating the Strength, Semi- Destructive testing methods are used to test the
Durability, elastic properties of the concrete. quality of concrete structure.

These are very simple to perform but the analysis carried Some of the semi destructive testing methods include,
for hardened concrete are difficult. core test, LOK, CAPO, break-off test, pull- off and pull-
out test, fig’s test compression test etc.

It also studies very carefully about the depth of cracking, They are useful for calculating the tensile strength of
formation of microcracks etc. concrete

Some NDT tests which includes are resistance to These tests directly depend on compressive strength.
penetration, hardness, rebound hammer, UPV testing
etc.

All these tests does not cause any harm to the structure. These test when performed on structures may cause
partial deformation to it.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE IN STRUCTURE
 Following are the general considerations to be carried out while evaluating the damage of
a structure.

1. Cause of damage,
2.Involvement of construction materials,

3. Availability of repair materials,

4. Type, shape and function of structure,

5. Extent of damage caused,

6. Builders experience and repair capabilities.

Material Tests Physical Inspection

Study of documents

Estimation of Loads
acting

Estimation of
Environmental effects

Diagnosis

Retrospective analysis

If diagnosis is confirmed

Assessing of Structural
Load Tests Estimation for future use
adequacy
Choices of course of
action
 Damage assessment evaluation is carried out in two stages.

1. Pre repair evaluation

2. Post repair evaluation
 Pre repair evaluation
 Each and every destressed structure has to be tested before adopting different types of test
methods and repair technique procedures to avoid failure of a structure.
A. Reconnaissance D. Test cores

B. Test dismantling E. Non destructive tests and

C. Laboratory tests F. Field exploration.

Reconnaissance:
 It is a primary test performed upon distressed area present in the structure.
 It gives useful information about the extent of damage occurred and helps in knowing the
causes that leads to failures of a structures.
Test Dismantling:
 By this test, we can carefully remove the damaged part of a structure which occurred at
different parts.
 Finally, after removal, a good concrete is exposed to environment based on this test some
of failures which occurs during estimating are….,
Delamination, carbonation, Depth and extent of damage, cracking.
Laboratory Tests:
 After examining the both field and primary tests, some of the tests involved are abrasion,
absorption, strength, elastic properties, density, permeability etc are obtained by suitable
laboratory assessments.
 Some of the other tests, which include petrography and chemical tests are performed on
aggregates and the products obtained due to destress gives an idea for both the internal
and external causes.
Test Cores:
 The drilled cores are present in 100 mm diameter diamond shaped and can be taken out at
places where it is necessary.
 These cores are used to confirm the details that are obtained from open dismantling.
Non- destructive Test:
 The most important non destructive tests such as UPV, Rebound hammer tests helps in
estimating the condition of concrete. It even helps in evaluating the whole building structure’s
condition.
Field Exploration:
 After reconnaissance, field study has to be carried out to expand and measure the quantity of all
the distressed areas.
Post repair evaluation:
 The repair works should be maintained very nicely and made sure that they are very
durable and effectively done. The most important method to estimating is to carry out a
field test on rehabilitate structure and studies the record improvements which are
obtained with respect to stiffness.
EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING TESTS
1. Figg’s test:
 The development of these tests known as Drill – hole absorption test and first reported by
Figg in 1970. It contains two methods.
 A. Water permeability,

 B. Air permeability test.

WATER PERMEABILITY:
 In this method, drill a hole on the concrete surface and it should be cleaned thoroughly.

 A silicon plug is introduced in to the hole to leave a space of approx. 40 mm bellow the
concrete surface.
 Water is being tested is subjected to a water head about 100 mm.
 A syringe is used to inject the water in to the concrete, As water enters, air in the concrete
escapes through capillary tubes.

 Now water is absorbed in the concrete and thus meniscus in the capillary moves.
 It gives the measure of water absorption index of concrete.
 AIR PERMEABILITY TEST:
 In this test a three way connector connects the hypodermic needle to a mercury filled manometer and
a hand pump.

 The pump is used here to reduce the pressure to a standard value.

 A value is closed and hence the vacuum pump isolates. Now the air flows in to it and gradually
pressure increases. This increase in pressure value is to be recorded and this is reported as the air
permeation index of concrete.

Silicon plug. Stop watch

Hand vacuum
Hypodermic pump
needle
Concrete 40 mm Dia
POLARIZATION RESISTANCE TECHNIQUE (ESTIMATING THE RATE OF CORROSION)

 It is carried out for estimating the rate of corrosion in laboratory.

 It is one of the considerable method in all electrochemical techniques.

 Based on the concepts of mixed potential theories and kinetics of electrochemical
reactions, Wagner and Trand derived an equation.

 A graph is plotted between the potentials and applied currents as potentials. The graph
obtained is a straight line which shifts very slightly from corrosion potential.
 The equation relates to the slope of the curve obtained from the area of the corrosion

potential with respect to the corrosion current density. (icorr.)

 The equation for corrosion current density is as follows…

I corr. = ( ma) * (mc) K

2.303 (ma + mc ) Rp Rp

Where, ma = Anodic slope constant,

mc = Slope constant at cathode,

Rp = polarization resistance.

We know that, Rp = ∆E / ∆l
∆E = change in potential, ∆l = change in current.
∆E can be obtained when small amount of DC current is passed in to the rebar and this defines
polarization voltage and it moves from -10mV to + 10 mV in area of open circuit potential.
 Methods:

1. Potentio - Dynamic method 2. Galvano- static method 3. Potentio – static method.

Potentio – Dynamic method:

In this method the polarization takes place by coupling a Potentiostat to a voltage scan generator. The best
results can be present of the scan rate of 5 – 10 mV/ min.

Galvano – static method :

By increasing the small amount of current ∆l change in potential takes place. On the other hand, to obtain a
corresponding stabilized ∆E value, it is necessary to wait for a period of ten min. after increasing the current.

Potentio - static method: When small amount of potentials are increased change in current takes place. It can
be measured and must be recorded for each and every increase in potential. Hence , ∆l can be recorded after a
time period of 30 – 60 seconds.
CAUSES OF DETERIORATION AND DISTRESS IN
STRUCTURES AND PREVENTIONS
 1. Distress due to Design or preconstruction stage
 2. Distress due to construction stage,
 3. Post construction stage.
1. At design stage that lead to failure of structures are poor design details , improper design for
changes in cross section, rigid joints in precast elements etc.
 In sufficient drainage slopes,
 Un anticipated shear stress in columns , abutments etc,
 Leakage through joints,
 In compatibility of materials at critical sections
 Errors in design calculation etc.
 Inadequate structural design: the strain in concrete is generated when acted upon by stress
grater than its capable stress.
Symptoms: Spalling due to high compression, Torsion or spalling due to high shear stress,
cracking due to high temperature stress.
Prevention: Care should be taken during design calculations.
 Poor design Methods:
Poor detailing of structure leads to localized concentrations of high stress resulting in
cracking which enhances the entry of harmful chemicals and water in to the structure. Poor
detailing leads ponding water resulting in saturation of concrete.
Abrupt changes in section, Insufficient reinforcement at re – entrant corners and openings,
Inadequate provisions for deflection, incompatibility of materials, neglect the effect of creep,
 Un anticipated shear stress in piers, columns, abutments, In adequate join spacing in slabs,
rigid joints between members etc.

 Construction Stage: Swelling of Form work, Internal settlement of concrete, Pre mature
removal of shores, Local settlement of sub grade, Shrinkage, Vibration, construction
errors, Addition of water to concrete, Improper alignment of form work, improper
consolidation, Improper curing, etc.
 Post construction stage: Corrosion of Reinforcement, Temparature stresses, Externally
generated temperature difference, Chemical reactions, sulphate attack, Weathering action,
Differential movements, Subsidence(sliding or over turning), other factors like floods,
earthquakes, etc.
UNIT IV :

 Repair of structure- common types of Repairs,

 Repair in concrete structures- Repairs in under water structures, Guniting, shot

create, underpinning.

 Strengthening of structures- Strengthening methods, retrofitting-Jacketing.

REPAIR OF STRUCTURE
Crack Repair techniques and other repair techniques for structure:
Crack Repair Technique:
 1. Sealing 2. Routing and sealing 3. Stitching 4. Blanketing 5. Overlays 6. External
stressing 7. Autogenous healing 8. Grouting.

Other repair Techniques :

 1. Jacketing 2. Guniting 3. shotcrete 4. Underpinning 5. Dry pack method, 6. pre-
packed method.
EVALUATION OF CRACKS
 The evaluation of cracks is necessary for the following purpose…
 To identify the cause of cracking,
 To asses the structure for its safety and serviceability,
 To establish the likely extent of further deterioration,
 To study the suitability of various remedial measures,
 To make the final assessment for serviceability after repairs.
 Visual Examination: The crack pattern may be informative. A mesh pattern suggests drying
shrinkage and surface crazing may indicate frost attack or ASR.
The cracks caused by unidirectional bending will be the widest in the zone of maximum tensile
stress and will taper along their length. The cracks caused by the direct tension will be of roughly
uniform width. The location and width of the cracks should be noted on a sketch of the structure.
 A grid marked on the surface of the structure can be used t acuratly locate cracks on
the sketch. Crack width can be measured to an accuracy of about 0.025mmby using
crack comparator .
 The use of brittle liquid coatings on the suspected structure can also help detect the
crack or growth of cracks over a period of time.
 The moment of cracks can be monitored with the help of mechanical movement
indicators or crack monitors using electrical resistance thin filaments. Which amplify
crack movement and indicate the maximum range of movement occurring during the
measuring period.
 Linear variable differential transformers(LVDT) and data acquisition systems are
available.
 The cracks in concrete may be evaluated at macro, micro, submicro and atomic level. We are
dealing with the cracks of macro structure cracks having a size in the range of 0.1 to 0.3mm.
 Selection of Repair procedure: A procedure may be selected to accomplish one or more of the
following objectives…
 To increase strength or restore load carrying capacity,
 To increase or restore the stiffness
 To increase the functional performance,
 To provide water tightness,
 To improve the appearance of concrete surface
 To improve durability,
 To prevent access of corrosive materials to reinforcement.
FUNCTIONS OF SEALANT
 It prevents the leaking of water in to the reinforcement.
 It prevents the formation of strain over the concrete surface,
 It stops the moisture from entering in to the pavement or slab on far side,
 Hydrostatic pressure which develops in joint is also reduced by sealant.
Method of Sealing:
 1. concrete is drilled to a sufficient depth near the cracks at several points.
 2. The dirt and other particles in the holes are flushed by injecting water with
pressure through them.
 The Surface is kept undisturbed till its get dry,
 An epoxy bonding sealing compound is prepared,
 The epoxy compound is injected in to the holes by any injecting machine till it
comes out from other near by holes,
 The surface of the structure is cleaned after completion of injection and the epoxy
compound is left to dry for some time.
REPAIR OF BRIDGE DECKS
 Bridge decks are usually repaired by epoxy injection and providing additional steel
reinforcement.
 The crack is cleaned with the help of air / water jet and is allowed to dry.
 The epoxy compound is prepared and is injected in to the crack.
 When the cracks are sealed holes are drilled at near right angles to the cracks. The dia. of drilled
holes are kept equal to 20 mm dia.
 Reinforced steel bars of 12 mm or 16mm dia. are provided across the cracks in drilled holes.
The bars are extended for a distance of 0.5m on both sides of the cracks with spacing as per
design specification.
 The holes are injected with an epoxy compound under a pressure of 0.35 to 0.55 N/sqmm. Flat
steel plates may also be bonded to external surface of the structural member.
STITCHING IN CRACK REPAIR:
 This repair technique for cracks is adopted when it is required to restore the tensile strength of
member.
 Stitching of a crack prevents the crack from more stretching and limits the width of the crack .
 A general stitching work starts with the drilling the holes on both sides of the cracks.
 Stitching dogs, generally in the shape of a channel section .
 The spacing of stitching dogs should be reduced near the ends as the ends of the cracks are subjected
to high stress concentration.
 The cracks should be stitched on both sides to prevent bending due to structural movement.
 Stitching dogs are thin and long and hence they cant bear the high compressive stresses. Hence, these
dogs should be strengthen with an overlay.
 If the stitching is done to increase the strength of the existing member then the dogs should be
grouted by expandable mortar to provide the grip.
EXTERNAL STRESSING REPAIR
• In this method , the tensile stress which cause cracking of member is suppressed
by producing an externally applied compressive stress.
• Cracks can be closed by applying the compressive force to such an extant that the
tensile stresses are completely vanished and some residual compression remain
in the member.
• It is similar to the stitching but the compressive force is applied with the help of
pre stressing tendons and anchorages.
AUTOGENOUS HEALING:
 The property of concrete of healing cracks by it self is called autogenous healing.
 The calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide present in the cement paste are carbonated
by corbondioxide present in atmosphere and forms calcium carbonate(caco3).
 The crystals of cesium carbonate precipitate at the cracks and heal them. The crystals
also get interlaced and produce mechanical and chemical bonding between each other
and also between the surface of the paste and aggregates. Hence, the tensile strength
across the crack is increased and the crack get sealed automatically without any
external repair.
 Autogenous healing seal only dominant cracks like cracks in precast concrete units
while handling, cracks develop in concrete during piling, cracks due to temporary
loading, cracks in water structures etc.
OVERLAY
 Overlay is an operation employed to seal cracks. This method is use when there are
large number of cracks and the treatment of individual crack would be too costly.
 The material for sealing active cracks by overlay should be extensible
 Tar on top coat of 2 to 3 ply polymeric membrane
 Tar between pile with protective coarse of gravel, concrete, brick,
 Gravel in roofs
 In case of dormant cracks, any type of overlay can be used. Polymer modified port
land cement can be used for overlays of dormant cracks in bridge decks.
 In repair polymers such as butadiene acrylic, non - remulsifiable polyvinyl acetate,
latexes of styrene, epoxy resins which are water compatible should be used.
 The minimum quantity of resin solids should be 15% by mass of Portland cement.
 Firstly, the old surface should be shot blasted to make it rough.
 The localized depressions or damages should be repaired.
 To make the old surface free from all dirt and oil etc.,
 Then the surface is saturated with clean water
 The cementitious topping is then applied and the thickness of it is depend on
strength and the thickness of old floor slab.
ASSIGNMENT
Q1. Explain the methods of protecting building against fire?
Q2. Describe in detail about the damage assessment procedure in structures?
Q3. Write a note on symptoms of corrosion.
BLANKET REPAIR TECHNIQUE
Type: I
 In this technique the sealant should be of flexible in order to fill the crack and it
regains the original shape when the stress applied and removed.
 A bond breaker is applied at the bottom of the surface to prevent the sealant from
cracking due to tensile stresses.
 For small cracks , a strip sealant with bond breaker is used.
Type: II
 In this method the joins or cracks are filled by a mastic compound without a bond
breaker rest of the procedure is same as elastic sealed joint.
 The sealant does not show any elastic property .As there is no use of bond breaker the
tearing of sealant is possible at any time.
 This technique is used for cracks where there is a small movements in the structure.
 Type: III
 In this method a motor plug is inserted in to the joints and is filled with quick setting mortar. A
recess of trapezoidal shape is prepared to hold the motor plug.
 The motor plug is provided with a pressure relieving grove and a cut is made at the tip of the
crack. This cut is plugged with quick setting mortar.
 Type : IV
 In this method use of water bar is used above the joint
 The surface is chase cut to a suitable depth and is provided with a crimped water bar anchorage
tightly to its both sides.
 This method is used where there is no load applied like vertical walls.
METHODS TO REPAIR OF CONCRETE WORKS.
 Prepacked concrete method,
Dry pack concrete method,
Use of expanding cement,
Concrete replacement
Mortar replacement.
PRE PACKED METHOD
 In this method, the concrete surface is cleaned and deterioration is assessed.,
 Form work is placed around the structure to be repaired,
 The forms are filled with coarse aggregate of 6mm size or more. A grout mix is
prepared with 1: ½ : 1/2 part of cement and fine sand and finely divided siliceous
material and a minimum water
 This grout mix is pumped in to forms till all the voids are filled in coarse aggregate.
 The form work is removed after achiving the strength at a stipulated time.
 This method is used in lining of tunnels, bridges, dams, dry docks and other water
structures
DRY PACKING
 In this method, the crack is prepared by roughening the surface by opening the
crack by a saw cut tool.
 The crack is cleaned by air or water jet and dried.
 Cement and sand mixture in 1: 1 proportion is prepared and laid in a thin layer
over the surface of crack. The dry pack material consist of 1: 2.5 cement and sand
is prepared and placed in the hole before the cement sand grout is dried.
 Use minimum water to be used to prevent shrinkage.
 This dry packed material is compacted well in layers of about 1cm thickness.
USE OF EXPANDING CEMENT IN REPAIR OF CONCRETE WORKS

 The crack is widened and cleaned by means of air or water jet.

 A mixture of concrete is prepared using the expanding cement . This mixture is
inserted in to crack by hand or a pressure gun.
 The cement expands about 1% of its volume .It needs min. 15 days to develop full
expansion.
 This method is used to fill the small cracks in hydraulic structures like dam,
bridge piers etc.
CONCRETE REPLACEMENT:
 This method is used for large and deep patches where the concrete is replaced about
150 mm depth.
 This method is applied to repairs the walls, piers, parapets and kerbs, relining the
channels etc.
 In case of RCC, The steel is protected by applying the protective coating (corrosion
inhibiting paint) to ensure good bonding.
 This method is particularly suitable where the holes extend throughout the concrete
section where the surface area is of hole is at least0.09sqm with a depth of 100mm for
plain concrete or 0.045sqm with a depth a little more than reinforcing steel in case of
RCC.
 It may be necessary to apply a protective coating to the reinforcement to ensure good
bonding like corrosion –inhibiting paint.
MOTOR REPLACEMENT
 This method is suitable for too wide for dry pack and too shallow for concrete
replacement.
 Generally it is used for shallow depressions. For replacement of deteriorated
concrete, this method is suitable for minor restoration. Mortar replacement can be
applied by hand or pneumatically by using pressure gun.
 The mortar should have the same proportion as the mortar used in the structure.
For pressure gun application the 1:4 is recommended.
 In case of holes deeper than 25mm, the mortar should be applied by layers not
exceeding 15mm.in thickness in order to avoid sagging loss in the bond. The
subsequent layers are applied with an interval of 30 min.
PROCEDURE FOR REPAIR OF CONCRETE FLOOR AND SLAB

 The concrete floor and slab system repaired if it does not provide the intended service
properly or other wise to in crease its life period.
 Both slab and floor system should be investigated well before starting the repair.
 A proper plan of causes of damage, location of defect, level of floor, repair
specifications to be prepared.
 It involves two steps.1. preparation of surface, 2. Repair of system
 1. Preparation of surface: The area to be repaired to be marked with a saw and
extended up to 10cm on all sides of the damaged area.
 The total marked area is scarified with a tool up to clean and good concrete exposed.
 The delaminated surface is then located with chipping gun. The concrete around the
reinforcing bars should be chipped about 12mm all the sides.

 The reinforcement bars are then sound blasted to remove the by products of corrosion
from surface. The bars are the coated with protective coatings or cement past. All dirt,
loose particles, corrosion particles, concrete etc. are removed with compressed air or air jet.
 Repair system: The surface of concrete and reinforcement are coated by a primer with the
help of paint roller. It is then kept for undisturbed till its get harden. Primer prevent the
reinforcement and repair surface from environment effect.

 For deep sections the reinforcement is coated with polymer concrete. It is also placed
under the reinforcement to prevent the air entrainment.
 The chipped area is then filled with polymer concrete and second coat of thin
polymer concrete is given to the reinforcement to about 6mm. The secoat shoul
apply after the first coat is hardened.
 A final layer of polymer concrete of about 6mm depth is provided after the
previous layer gets hardened. A total min. Depth of 12mm from reinforcement is
preferable.
 If the surface to be repaired in deep, the polymer concrete should be placed in
layers as this process is to reduce the shrinkage effect.
 The final layer is allowed to hardened and rhe joint between th old and new
concrete is sealed with the primer.
POLYMER CONCRETE:
 Polymer concrete is a composite where in the polymer replaces the cement –
water matrix in the cement concrete. It is manufactured similar to the cement
concrete.
 Monomers or pre-polymers are added to the graded aggregate and the mixture is
thoroughly mixed by hand or machine. The thoroughly mixed polymer concrete
material then placed in wooden or steel or aluminium molds. This is then
polymerized either at room temp. or at an elevated temp.
 The polymer phase binds the aggregates to give a strong composite.
Polymerization can be achieved by …1. Thermal catalyst reaction,2. catalyst-
promoter reaction , 3. Radiation.
 Monomer / resin system used for polymer impregnated concrete are styrene,
polyester, methyl methacrylate, Acrilo nitrile, epoxies etc.
 Different catalysts used for different Monomer system like benzoyl peroxide,
methyl-ethyl-ketone peroxide, benzene sulphonic acid etc.
 Precautions should be taken while handling with monomers as they are highly in
flammable.
 Aggregates should be dry otherwise monomers may not polymerize with
moisture presence.
 Never mix the catalyst and promoter(cobolt naphthenate, ferric choloride
etc.)each other as it results explosion.
SURFACE COATINGS AND VARIOUS TYPES :
 Surface coating are laid over the surface for preventing the damage to the surface
or for finishing purposes. It develops a thin continuous film over the surface.
 Because of permeability and porosity of concrete due to evaporation of water
from it, carbon-di-oxide, and other gases diffuse in it. The gases are react with
pore water present in side the concrete and form harmful acid solutions which
may cause damage to the structure. Hence protective coating are always required
to concrete surface to prevent from deterioration.
 Types of coatings: 1. crack protection coating, 2. Anti-carbonation coating, 3.
Acid-resistance coating.
Crack protection coating:
 These coating are applied on the surface consisting of very fine cracks which do not
effect the stability of the structure. These are prepared by using epoxy polyurethane
or its other form. These are also called as conventional coatings.
Anti- carbonation coating:
 These are applied on concrete surface to prevent the carbonation attack. In the process
of carbonation the carbon di oxide present in the atmosphere react with pore water in
concrete and forms carbonic acid. This further react with calcium hydroxide and
forms calcium carbonates. The anti carbonation coatings are made by chlorianated
rubber, polyurethane resin, any acrylic emulsion.
 If the corrosion is very high these coatings are not preferable.
Acid resistant coatings:
 These coating prevent the concrete surface from acid attack.
 These coating are required near Industrial area where Sulphur di oxide released
to atmosphere.
 Sulphur di oxide reacts wit water and form sulfurous acid which causes the
deterioration of concrete.
 Polyurethane when provided in two coats found suitable as acid resistance
coating.
LEAK SEALING AND METHODS OF LEAK SEALING:
 Leakage refers to the penetration of water in to the concrete and causes the sever
damage to the structure.
 These are generally developed by construction joints, shrinkage cracks, honey
combing, expansion and contraction joints etc.
 Leakage s maybe damp patches or pool of water on surface of the concrete.
 Proper leak sealing is important and involves inspection of structure for the cause
and routes of leakage.
 Sealing methods are of Conventional and Injection methods
Conventional method :
 The leakage routes are identified and sealed totally to the particular leak spot.
 The surface for sealing is prepared and sealed by resin mortars. The depressions
and spaces are filled by grout.
 A primer coat of flexible sealant is provided to the surface.
Injection method:
 In this method the grout is injected in to the structure by pressure.
 For water retaining structures the sealing is done from dry side.
Direct method of Injection grout:
 In this method, the grout is injected from D/S of the structure.
 Since, the flow of grout is against the pressure gradient.
 This process is very slow.
Indirect method of injection grout:
 In this method, the grout is injected in to the leakage paths along the pressure
gradient i.e from U/S.
 The lekage path is therefore filled under hydrostatic head.
 This is very quick method does not require surface seals.
REPAIRS IN UNDER WATER STRUCTURES:
 It refers to the repair work of under water structures like bridge piers, piles etc.

 Repairing work is similar to the normal concrete structures but materials used are different.

 Before carrying out the repairs the area should be prepared and cleaned and extent of damage should
be inspected.

 Special features of under water repairs are…1. it is complex in nature and in cures high cost.

 The method of placement and the form work used for placement should be chosen such that it does
not mix with water.

 The preparation of damage area requires special techniques and skilled workers.

 The supervision of these repairs required knowledge and also expensive.

PROCEDURE INVOLVED IN UNDER WATER REPAIR OF STRUCTURES:

Preparation of surface:
 The damaged surface required to be repaired is cleaned properly and a water jet with
a pressure 200 to 1000atm is directly applied to the damaged surface.
 Holes are drilled at regular intervals in damaged surface and these holes are filled
with cartridges of pressurized carbon di oxide , cutting dust and earth.
 A soft gentle explosion is done by releasing the pressure in cartridge electrically to
remove the damaged concrete after explosion.
 Pre drilled holes may filled with hydraulic expanding cylinders. The pressure in the
cylinders increased till the concrete is spilled.
 In cause of minor repairs, the damaged concrete can be removed by using
hydraulically powered diamond tipped saw.
 The corroded or destroyed steel may be cut either mechanically or other cutting methods like
oxygen arc cutting , fuel gas cutting.
Application Materials:
 Minor damages such as formation of cracks including the filling of cracks using cementitious or
resin based materials(epoxy resin).
 The grout is injected using the available methods of grout injections.
 The materials used for sealing should be low viscosity and solvent free.
 For major damages, form work is placed around the structure and is filled with cementitious
grouts or mortars.
 The mortar or concrete used for such replacement should contain adhesive admixtures to
prevent washing of cement from the material.
 The material can be pored from above the water level in to the form work. The
mix should be prepared self levelling such that it does not require external
compaction.
 For large scale repair works, form work is provided with inlet pipes for
placement of concrete and vibrator for compaction. After the placement of
concrete, the surface is coated with a thick sheet of any compressible material like
neoprene.
METHODS OF PLACING CONCRETE IN UNDER WATER STRUCTURES:

 1. Tremie pipe method,

 2. Deep dump bucket method,
 3. Pre packed aggregate method,
 4. Pumping.
Tremie pipe Method:
 It is a steel pipe about 20 cm dia. and having enough strength to resist the
pressure of water. The top end of the pipe is fitted with a funnel and the bottom
end is provided with thick cup made up of polyethylene to prevent water from
entering the pipe.
 The concrete prepared for filling should flow freely without segregation or
bleeding. The slump of the concrete is kept at 150mm to 250 mm. both cement
and sand content kept at high level. For 20 mm aggregate, 380 to 390 kg/cum of
cement and for 40 mm the cement content is about 350 kg/cum. Sand percentage
is kept at 40%of total aggregate by wt. water reducing admixtures can be used to
reduce the water.
 The tremie pipe is lowered in to the water till it reaches the surface to be
concreted. The pipe is filled with prepared concrete.
 It is lifted up with a small jerk so that the concrete is discharged on the surface by
dislodging the cover. care should be taken such that the pipe remains in the
concrete when it is lifted in order to prevent the entry of water in to pipe.
 By adopting the same procedure the concrete is pored over the discharged
concrete by continuously pouring it in to the pipe through funnel till the top layer
is attained.
DEEP DUMP BUCKET METHOD:
 In this method the concrete is placed in by using deep dump bucket. It is a
special bucket which is surrounded by steel skirts and a top canvas cover .
 The bottom of the bucket opens down wards and out wards.
 The concrete is filled in the buckets and lowed in to water up to the surface the
concrete to be placed.
 The bottom face of the bucket is opened and the concrete is discharged without
getting disturbed by the flow of water .
 This method of concreting is easy and fast.
PRE PACKED AGGREGATE METHOD:
 This method is used generally, for repairing of already existing structure.
 In this method the structure to be built or the repairing structure is first provided with form
work is then filled with well graded stone aggregate and finally cement grout is poured or
injected in to these formwork for filling the voids.
Pre cations to be taken during under water concreting:
 Concrete mix designed for under water concreting should have lage cement content compared
to ordinary concrete. Cement of about 10 to 30% more and the cement content should not less
than 390 kg/cum.
 If the structure is required to build in cold water then accelerators like sodium chloride or
sodium silicates should be used in concrete.
 The concrete should be discharged on surface and not allowed to fall through water.
 Construction joints are not preferred in under water concreting.
SHOTCRETE:
 Shotcrete is a mortar of high quality and which is pneumatically projected on to the surface for
under water concreteing.
 It requires aportable machine and is economical compared to conventional concreting since it
do not require formwork. Shotcrete is used in swimming pools, water retaining structures,
folded sections, Prestressed tanks etc. this is applied on the surface by Dry process and wet
process.
 In dry process the dry mix is deposited in a cement gun and this mix is passed through a hose
pipe the nozzle by applying an air pressure by an air compressor. Water is added to the mix at
nozzle itself under controlled condition. This method is used for light weight concreting.
 In wet Process cement sand and water are mixed thoroughly before they pored in to the
equipment. The feeding chamber is subjected to compressed air at pressure of 5.5 to 7atm.The
pressure is increased at nozzle to improve velocity and to improve shotcrete.
ADVANTAGES AND DIS ADVANTAGES OF SHOTCRETE:
ADVANTAGES:
 Shotcrete lining of 4to 5 cm is found sufficient for repairs.
 Disintegrated or leaking tunnel lining can be repaired easily.
 Application of shotcrete is possible even 1m distance from repair surface.
 It is free from expansion and contraction joints.
 It can be done even on uneven surface.
Dis advantages:
 The construction cost and application cost is comparatively high when compared to ordinary concrete of same
proportion.
 The efficiency of shotcrete is depend on operator
 It is less durable compared to ordinary lining of same thickness.
 In canal lining it is disintegrated soon because of settlement or any other structural defect.
USAGE OF SHOTCRETE:
 To encase the steel for fire proofing purpose,
 To construct roofs or shells or folded plates,
 For lining of tunnels,
 Protective covering of soft rock in tunnel,
 Repairs in reservoir or canals,
 For repairing the under water structures,
 For stabilizing the slopes,
 Reparing of surface under running water etc.
GUNITING:
 Guniting is a process of depositing very thin layer of mortar thinner than shotcrete
through a Guniting system.
 In this system dry material is passed through the nozzle by a hose pipe and water is
added to the material near nozzle. The system consist of air compressor which passes
compressed air to the cement gun where cement and sand will mix. The pressure
varies from 2.5 to 3.5 kg/sq. cm.
 The compressed dry air forces the cement and sand mix to go to the nozzle . A water
tank is also connected with the compressor through another pipe fro which water is
delivered at the nozzle. The air and water is controlled by a valve at nozzle.
Preparation of material:
 The cement and sand in the gun contains the proportion of 1:3 to 1:4
 The max. size of sand particles should not more than 10mm.
 Moisture content in sand should not be more than 8%but, 3to 6% is preferable.
 High alumina or SRC cements can be used to obtain better resistence to acid
attack.
 Addison of pozzolana improves the plasticity of mix.
 Guniting should not be done in wind blowing at site.
UNDER PINNING
 It is used in repairing the foundations. This method is also used to increase the depth
of foundation and strengthen the foundations.
 Methods of under pinning: 1. Mass pouring, 2. using screw piles and brackets, 3.
using pile and beam, 4. using piled raft.
Mass pouring: It is the most common method for underpinning. In this method, the
sections to be repaired are excavated to the required depth. Concrete is then prepared
and placed in each section till the whole are is underpinned.
Screw piles and brackets: This method is not commonly used when the sections are to
be excavated very deep. In this method, screw piles and brackets are used under the
foundation with the help of any equipment. The structure is then lifted up to a level
position. In this method renders the footing to bear heavy loads in both tension and
compression beside providing strength against wind forces, vibrations and shear forces.
Pile and Beam: This is one of the important method to strengthening the foundation.
 In this method piles are installed bellow the wall which is to be strengthen. The brick
work bellow the wall is then removed and needle beam is constructed to connect the
piles and support the wall.
 The number of piles, its depth, dia. is depend on SBC of soil. In this method of under
pinning use anger piles or case driven piles.
Pile Raft: This method is used when the whole structure is to be underpinned,
 The exaction to be done in very deep,
 When the soil strata is so hard to excavate with small equipments
 In this method piles are driven in to ground and connected through needle beams
after removing the concrete bellow footings.
 The needle beams are then linked by using a ring beam and developed space is
filled with concrete.
 This method is economical when the depth is more than 1.5 m
STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES

Restoration of structures:
 Restoration is adopted when the original strength provides adequate level of
safety and the structural damage that has occurred due to an exceptional
phenomena that would not occur again.
 The purpose of restoration is to repair the structural components of load bearing
elements or embers.
 The process involves cutting the portions of building elements and re
constructing them or adding more structural materials to restore the original
strength such as under pinning, inserting temporary supports etc.
Methods used to restore the original strength of the structure:
 The restoration technique is employed to detect the presence of cracks in load bearing
elements of an unreinforced structures like masonry and plain concrete.
 All the cracks should be located and repaired particularly at critical ones. The repair
techniques such as external bandage, grout technique etc. can be employed to repair the
cracks.
Restoring strength of fractured, excessively yielding and buckled reinforcement:
 The damage can be repaired by replacing the new instead of old steel by using butt or lap
welding, It is risky to employ splicing by over lapping.
 The space around the member is used if replacing the existing member is difficult.
 To prevent the failure due to buckling in future and confine the concrete ,
additional stirrup ties are attached at damaged portion before concreting,
 In certain situations, additional steel is anchored in to existing concrete,
 For anchorage holes bigger than dia. of bar is drilled and filled with epoxy, high
strength grout material or expanding cement,
 The bars are pushed in to drilled holes and held there until the grout has set.
Repair of large cracks and crushed concrete:
 Preliminary surface preparation to be done and the spaces are filled with
expansive cement, quick setting cement etc.
 Additional shear or flexural reinforcement is provided at necessary regions of
repair, The reinforcement is covered with mortar so that it act as a protective
cover to reinforcement.
 In case of damage to floors and walls, steel mesh is placed on the outer face of the
wall using nails and bolts. Covering is provided by plaster or micro concreting.
REPAIR - -RESTORATION- - -RETROFITTING
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL
RETROFITTING STRATEGY:
Local strategy of Retrofitting
1. It deals with increasing the ductility of
components or elements of structure with adequate
capacities to satisfy their specific limit state.
2. This is also called as member level Retrofitting.
3. It is carried out only if, the local strengthening of
an individual does not affect the structural
performance of the whole system.
4. It includes.. Jacketing of Beams, columns, Beam
column joints, Strengthening of individual footing,
Jackets of FRP, Carbon fibers etc.
Ex: The retrofitting of damaged beam slab is enough
in case of local damage to beam and slab.
Global strategy of Retrofitting
1. It deals with transformation of the whole strength of
the structural system.
2. This is also called as Structural Retrofitting
3.It is adopted to increase the stiffness and strength
with limited ductility.
4. It includes…Addition of shear walls, adittion of
infill wall, bracing, base isolation etc.
Ex: The strengthening of the whole structure is
necessary when the lateral strength of a structural
system is too weak to meet lateral deformation under
earth quake action.
RETROFITTING PROCEDURE OF BUILDING STRUCTURE:

1. Inspection of mechanical properties of structural materials :

 The mechanical properties of structure obtained from design documents, construction
daily records and records regarding checking and accepting the completion of project have
to be studied to know their performance. The testing of documents is necessary if doubt
arises concerning material strength.

2. Assessment of structural Vulnerability and safety:

 The serviceability evaluation of a building structure is done in the vulnerability

assessment. This is performed by inspecting the appearance of the member of the structure
and the structural system. This helps in providing the information about maintenance and
rehabilitation.
 The safety assessment is done by structural analysis and evaluation of strength of members of
structure and performing check as per the design code to infer the details for structural
retrofitting of the building.

3. Retrofitting scheme:
A detailed retrofit plan is laid out after completion of assessment of structural vulnerability
And safety. The factors such as consideration of performance of existing structure, Performance of
structure required after retrofitting service requirements of the building.

4. Design of retrofitting Construction drawings:

The design of retrofit construction are drawn as per the required retrofit scheme along with the
safety issue of the existing structure with retrofitted structure along with detailed attention to
connection between existing and new structure.
5. Inspection during construction and acceptance checking after retrofitting:
 The designers and inspectors should visit the construction site to look in to he problems
occurred at construction site and also to check if the work carried at construction site is
correct.
 For large scale construction, measurements of retrofitting is necessary.

 As the retrofitting checking is for new construction, acceptance checking should be

performed.
DEFINE JACKETING AND TYPES OF JACKETING:
Jacketing is the technique adopted to increase or restore the strength of existing
member or element of structure by encasing it.
 It is used to prevent further deterioration and also strength,
 It is applied to deteriorated columns, piles, piers, etc. and entire sections or
portions of the section that needs to repair,
 The most common types of jacketing are steel Jacket, Reinforced concrete jacket,
Fiber reinforced polymer composite jacket etc.
Types of Jacketing: Timber forms, Wrought Iron jacketing, Pre cast concrete, sheet
metal jacketing.
Timber forms:
 It is done by encasing the existing structure with timber.
 It is most recommended for marine environment or locations where it is desired to protect
concrete from chemical reaction

Wrought Iron Jacketing:

 It is used in places which are exposed to sever abrasion.
 It renders a satisfactory permanent form
 The cost of wrought iron jacketing is generally high.
Precast concrete jacketing:
 In this method the precast concrete blocks are used to encase the existing structure.
 It is used to protect timber forms from damage due to bores, fire etc.

Sheet metal jacketing:

 The gauge metal is used for encasing
 Used in temporary repairs of the structures

 Structures subjected to mild exposure which do not need protection

 To provide adequate resistance to weak timber forms.
NOTE ON BEAM JACKETING:
 It is employed to give continuity to the columns and increase the strength and stiffness of
the structure.
 The retrofitted beam acts as a hinge due to change in mode of failure and re distribution of
forces. To avoid the creation of strong beam- weak column the flexural strength of the
beam should be carefully computed while designing beam jacketing.
 The performance of existing reinforcement and location of critical section of beam should
be taken in to design criteria.
 Different ways to carryout jacketing of beams are one sided jackets , three sided jackets,
four sided jackets.
 The whole length of the beam should be jacketed and the reinforcement added should
produce high shear stress joint by increasing flexural capacity moderately.
BEAM COLUMN JOINT JACKETING:
 A joint is the connection between a beam and column,
 It is a critical region and should have adequate confinement and shear capacity.
The lack of space at this region makes it difficult to provide confinement.
 Hence, jacketing beam column joints enhances the strength, energy dissipation
and stiffness characteristics of existing joint.
 It is recommended to have very strong column joint compared to beam to avoid
generation of inelastic behavior of column or joint as the energy dissipated
mainly concentrates at ends.
ADVANTAGES OF USING FRP FABRIC:
Advantages of Fiber reinforced polymer composite fabric

 It is mainly used to restore or strengthen steel sections

 The use of FRP in steel sections is quite effective in resisting high load sby strengthening in
addition to regaining original strength.

 The epoxy coated or bonded FRP fabric dheets extends the fatigue life of steel structures.

 The fiber has tight contact surface and is flexible with high degree of confinement.
 The carbon is of light weight and rusting does not take place.

 The degree of confinement is high as the carbon fiber has high degree of elasticity and
strength.
EXPLAIN THE METHODS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
JACKETING AND STEEL JACKETING:
RC JACKETING:
 The temporary loads acting on the column must be eliminated by placing mechanical
jackets or adding props between the floor,
 If the corrosion is present between the steel bars then, the steel is cleaned with a wire
brush after removal of cover and the epoxy material that would resist corrosion are coated
to the steel roads.
 The steel connections are attached to the existing column, with spacing not more than 50
cm .This helps to fasten the new stirrups of the jacket in horizontal and vertical direction.
 Holes of 3mm to 4mm larger than dia of steel connections and depth of 10 – 15 cm are
made in the column to attach connectors.
 The epoxy material is filled in to the holes before inserting the connectors,
 The new steel bars are inserted to the convertors as per the designed dimensions and diameter
of the bar.
 The existing column is coated with epoxy material. This facilitate sufficient bond between the
old and new materials.
 The concrete is pored into the jacket before the epoxy material dries. The concrete used should
be low shrinkage materials such as sand, small aggregate, cement and additional materials to
prevent shrinkage.
 Properties of Jacket: The compressive strength of jacket material should be equal or grater than
5Mpa of existing structure. The properties of the jacket should match with the concrete of
existing structure.
 Min. Width of jacket: Min. width of the jacket is of 10cm for concrete cast shotcrete in place 4
cm for shotcrete.
Min. area of longitudinal Reinforcement:

 The % of steel in jacket should be limited between .015 to 0.04 with respect to area of steel.
 The every corner of the 4 side jacket should contain a bar of 12mm.
 The min. area of longitudinal reinforcement should be 3A/fy , Where A is the area of
contact in Sq. cm and fy is yield strength in Kg/ Sq.cm.

Connectors:
 The reinforcement bars are coated with epoxy material and the connectors should be
anchored such that the yield stress increased by 80%.
STEEL JACKETING:
 Firstly the concrete cover is removed
 The reinforcement bars are cleaned with wire brush or sand compressor,

 The epoxy materials are coated to the steel to prevent corrosion,

 The steel jackets of required size and thickness according to the design are installed with
adequate openings,
 The space between the steel jacket and concrete column is filled with epoxy material,

 This method is employed when load acting on column is increased and where increase of
cross- section of column is restricted.
WRITE A NOTE ON NON CONVENTIONAL METHOD
OF RETROFITTING (SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION METHOD)

 The seismic base isolation method is employed to reduce the horizontal seismic forces.
 It is powerful and comparatively low cost method of seismic rehabilitation of buildings,
 The shears is reduced with better protection against earth quake,
 The super structure does not require reinforcement,
 The over turning moments acting on the foundation of the structure are comparatively lower
than initial design and hence the foundation does not required the reinforcement,
 The work at basement of the building can be carried out without much interruption to the
building.
 Generally typical base isolation method consist of rubber bearing in laminated layer which is
located at the base of the building structure. Mostly bellow the column and shear walls of the
fist floor.
 The vertical stiffness of the rubber bearing is 300 to 1000 times larger than horizontal
stiffness,

 Based on condition of damper the damping varies between 5 to 20%.

 The structure designed with good base isolation technic behave aa system of 1 degree
freedom.
UNIT - V

 Health monitoring of structures,

 Use of sensors,

 Building instrumentation.
WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY HEALTH MONITORING OF STRUCTURES? EXPLAIN THE
ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING (SHM)?

 High rise buildings, large dams, bridges , nuclear power stations , offshore platforms etc.
get deteriorated along with time.
 The disintegration will occurs due to various factors such as fatigue failure which is
caused by environmental effects, repetition of heavy loads of traffic, earthquakes etc.,
 In order to provide the structural safety, Durability, Integrity of all the Infrastructures,
Structural Health Monitoring of (SHM) comes in to existence where it offers a great need
of evaluation regarding safety and restoration of structure and reduce the cause for
damage.
 SHM can be defined as “The use of insitu, non- distractive sensing and helps in analysing
of both structural characteristics and structural responses which help in identifying the
changes that leads to damage of structures.”
 It involves the integration of sensors, possibility of small materials, data transmission etc.

 Inspections are carried out to evaluate the present condition of structure and inspections
will carried out periodically say once in a year.
 The term Monitoring refers to the type of physical phenomina which is monitored by
sensors.
ADVANTAGES OF HSM:
 The damage occurred in the structure can be identified at a very early stage,
 It gives strength and serviceability condition s for a structures,

 Within a short time, The inspection and repair can be done very quickly,
 It helps in increase in understanding of insitu behavior conditions of the structure,
 It helps in development of management strategies and carries out all maintenance operations,
 It even encourages the utilization of new materials,
EXPLAIN THE COMPONENTS OF HEALTH MONITORING OF STRUCTURE:
 Acquisition of data,
 Communication of data,
 Intelligent processing,
 Storage of processed data,
 Diagnostic,
 Data retrieving.
R

1. Acquisition of Data: It helps in collection of raw data can be monitored through sensors.
The sensors collect the data such as Strains, Acoustic emissions, loads, accelerations,
deformations and temperature.
A. Strains:
 The strain readings can be measured using strain gauges examples vibrating wire,
electrical etc.
 It gives us intensity of deformation that occurred in structure,
 Tests are to be carried out to estimate the safety of the structure with respect to changesof
strains and magnitude of it.
B. Temperature:
 Deformation takes place due to temperature changes in the structure,
 Temperature must be removed from strain data as it effects strain readings,
 It is measured by using temperature indicator controllers, thermistors etc.
C. Acceleration:
 Due to loads, it causes acceleration of structural components and vice-versa,
 It is measured by accelerometers.
D. Acoustic emissions :
 They can be measured by using microphones. By using the method of triangulation, acoustic
emissions listens for the noise produced by breaking of certain elements present in the
structure. They are used in post tensioned concrete and cable stayed structures.
E. LOAD:
 It can be measured by load cells. With the help of loads, acting on a structure, the forces can be
calculated and magnitude of anticipated loads and their distribution is checked.

F. DEFORMATION :
 There is a need for restoration of deformation occurred. It may be either excess or unexpected. It
is measured by using different transducers.
 The collection of data can be sub divided in to following:
 Sensor selection, sensor installation and placement of
 Transfer to data Acquision system(DAS),
 Data sampling and collection.
2. Communication of data :
 The data can be communicated through transfer process that takes place from DAS to the
location of office sites .

Wire less technologies

Off site location

DAS Internet

Telephone lines
3. INTELLIGENT PROCESSING :
 Its goal is to remove the general data, thermal or un wanted effects, noise and to interpretation
of data very faster , easier and most precise way.
4 . STORAGE OF PROCESSED DATA :
 The processed data may be stored for longer period of time,
 The data which is retrieved should be easy to understand,
 The files containing data must be kept for future record,
5. DIAGNOSTICS :
 It is one of the most important component present at a very extreme level,
 The standard rules does not exist for diagnostics.
6. DATA RETRIEVING :
 The retrieving of stored data , we must know the importance of data and should have
sound knowledge while performing analysis part.
EXPLAIN THE METHODOLOGY OF HEALTH
MONITORING OF STRUCTURES ?

 Structural health monitoring of structure’s methodology estimates the structural condition with
respect to time,

 The methodology involves to investigations carried out on the structure during several
operations such as maintenance of structure, repair or replacement, serviceability operations
etc.,

 This approach has an ability of evaluating and estimating the reliability conditions ,
serviceability and functionality of the structure,

 Global NDE(None Destructive evaluation) component plays an important role in monitoring

procedure as it gives the relation between physical state of structure and the methods which are
employed analytically in SHM . The procedure is carried out in four levels.

 LEVEL 1 : In this level the identification of damage being done,

LEVEL 2 :
 In this level evaluating the damage location and identifying the damage that have been
occurred
LEVEL 3 :
 In this level identification of damage and damage location can be known and it evaluates
the severity of structure,
LEVEL 4 :
 In this level identification, location of damage can be known and it evaluates the severity
and impact of damage caused on the structure.
Following are the components involved during methodology :
 It measures the structural responses of the existing structures,
 It develops the important instrumental plan,
 An estimate of a base line structure is generated by identifying the use of the system and model
parameters being measured,
 By using model parameters of base line , the stiffness properties of the existing structures can be
identified,
 It develop the system failure model for structure,
 To perform a system reliability analysis, the level 4, method have been successfully explained
by using different of bridges which is related to different types of loadings,
 The life of the structure and its capacity can be evaluated by integrating NDT, severity
estimations, Identification and location of damage , system reliability, and the analysis of failure
fatigue.
WHAT ARE SENSORS ? AT WHAT LOCATION THEY USED?
 Sensors play avital role in SHM and it acts as the basis for all the fundamental operations
for monitoring the health of structure.
Uses:
 These are helpful in detection and inspection of structures and to increase the safety and
reliability conditions with their intelligent features to identify the issues.
 Depending on applications different types of available sensors are hosen,
 Some of the sensors includes such as accelerometer, strain gauge, temperature, acoustic
emission sensors are most commonly used,
 Fiber optic sensors have very good advantages and gains popularity among all other
sensors,
 The sensors must be highly reliable and should work for long time,
 For SHM, the sensors usually referred here are smart wireless sensors,

 These wireless sensors spread over large area,

 The raw data can be collected through wire less communication and hence it get gathered
at central processor,

 The use of wireless sensors helps to reduce the potential damage that caused to
architectural or engineering works,
 ACF Algorithm and CCF are important to identify and locate the damage that occurs in
the structure and hence they can be useful in SHM.
(ACF : Auto- correlation Function & CCF : Cross co relation Function.)
WHAT ARE SMART SENSORS?
 When a sensing device combined with interfacing electronic circuit , A sensor produces an
electric out put. Such devices are termed as smart sensors, (or)

 The sensing elements which collects the raw data and process ,store, and control the data
called as smart sensor.
 SENSOR +INTERFACING CIRCUIT = SMART SENSOR

SENCING ELEMENT

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

MICROPROCESSOR SMART SENSOR

 The important features of smart sensors are ..

 One board Central Processing Unit (CPU),

 It is very small in size and it is an wireless system,
 Reduction of repetitive testing and less hardware make smart sensor cost effective,
 It is a multi sensing device, From its own status it communicates the information,
 Deviations of operations from desired values can be modified,

 The smart sensors facilitate logical functions , two ways communication and make
decisions,
ADVANTAGES:
 It has less interconnecting cables,
 Reliability and performance is very high,

 It very easy to design, use and maintain,

 It is very flexible in scaling
DISADVANTAGES :

 Compared to simple sensors, the smart sensors have both actuators and sensors which are
more complex in handling,

 The wired smart sensors have even more complexity and hence cost more.
EXPLAIN THE USE OF SMART SENSORS FOR MONITORING
CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURE?
 In new sensor technologies, SHM is considered as one of the primary application and
helps in maintenance of sustainable infrastructural system.

 This application is not only use in high ways, buildings, bridges and also in domestic and
foreign airlines in aging fleet of air craft.
 These sensors detect a real time damage caused in the structure like cracks, joints, earth
quakes etc,

 They diagnose the structural characteristics like damping, stiffness of material, mass,
damage existence, and applied loads to the structure.
 For acquiring and managing the data, SHM is designed and also to fcilitate damage
detection diagnosis.
 Micro processor, radio modem, data storage, and batteries are present in sensor unit.
 Fiber optic sensor is one of the smart sensor system which helps in decreasing the noise and have long
term stability,
 These sensors are useful in measuring width of cracks, Stress concentrations, strain transfer in
bonded joints,
 Sensors have quick identification of deterioration or damage mechanism in structure,
 Live structures helps in representing the cutting edges of civil engineering analysis,
 There are capable of countering and correcting the load effects and also detects the deformation,
damage and sensing loads that caused in structure,
 Smart sensors provide self calibration and self diagnosis of faults and adjust non- linearity to linear
out put.
 Smart sensors have the ability to repay random errors.
THANK YOU
&
ALL THE BEST
SRINIVASARAO.CH,
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR