Elements of A Theory of System Behiavour - Lange, O.

Indian Statistical Institute
Elements of a Theory of System Behaviour

Author(s): Oskar Lange
Source: Sankhyā: The Indian Journal of Statistics, Series A (1961-2002), Vol. 26, No. 2/3 (Dec.,
1964), pp. 215-230
Published by: Springer on behalf of the Indian Statistical Institute
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ELEMENTS OF A THEORY OF SYSTEM BEHAVIOUR*
By OSKAR LANGE
Warsaw, Poland
1. Introduction
This essay is part of a larger work which is in preparation. The work is

intended to provide a general theory of system behaviour. The theory is formulated
in terms of cybernetic concepts. The present essay contains some of the basic concepts
of this theory.
The wide range of Professor Mahalanobis's interests includes also philosophy.
The problem of "Wholes and Parts" which is the subject of this essay, also, has an
ancient tradition in Indian
philosophic thought. fit, therefore, to submit It seems
to this volume an essay which treats an ancient philosophical problem with the aid
of mathematics. It shows the power of mathematical thought which the Editor of
Sankhy? has successfully applied in a great variety of fields.
2. The active element
By an active element E we mean a material in a given

object which depends
manner on other material and acts in a given manner on other material
objects
objects. The set of other material objects shall be called the environment of the
given element.
We assume that :
(1) The environment acts on element E by inducing in it certain states of a
strictly defined type such as temperature, pressure, electric charge, feeling, sense
impression. The individual types of such states shall be called the inputs of element E.
(2) Element E acts on the environment by assuming certain states of a
strictly defined character, e.g. temperature, magnetic field, colour, generation of
sounds, motion. The individual types of such states shall be called the outputs of
element E.
Element E possesses at least one input and at least one output.

(3)
(4) The input states determine the output states uniquely.
Assumptions (1) and (2) are also expressed by the statement that element E
is "relatively isolated."1 This means that the element's contact with the environ
ment takes the intermediary of its inputs and outputs. There
place solely through
* The in Essays on Econometrics <So Presented to Professor P. C.
paper has been included Planning
Mahalanobis on the occasion of his 70th birthday.
1 This term was first introduced Greniewski in Elementy Logiki Indukcji (Elements of
by Henryk
the Logic PWN, Warsaw, 1955, 28. Cf. also, Greniewski, Cybernetics without Mathematics,
of Induction), p.
9-10. Greniewski of a "relatively isolated
Pergamon Press, Oxford, PWN, Warsaw, 1960, pp. speaks
In view of the of the however, we prefer the term "active element,"
system." subject present paper,
the term to denote a set of coupled elements.
leaving "system"
215
SANKHY? :THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF STATISTICS :Series A
are no other "channels" of contact. elements without
Assumption (3) excludes
inputs and outputs, i.e., monads. It also excludes elements with only inputs or only
outputs, in other words, solely passive and solely active elements, so to speak. Each
*
element through its inputs "receives" the action of the environment and through its
'
outputs 'transmits" action into the environment.
Assumption (4) states the unique relation between the input and output states.
We shall call this relation the mode of action of element E.
For the time being let us assume that the inputs and outputs of element E
are finite in number. Let us denote the number of inputs by m and the number of
outputs by n. Both m and n are natural numbers. In view of the Assumption (3)
m ^ 1 and n ^ 1.
The difference
d = n-m ...
(2.1)
will be called the diversification of element E. Obviously d is an integer. It may

?
happen, however, that ? > 0 as well as S < 0 or S 0.
The input and output states

represented by numbers.
of element E can be
If the input or output
of certain (e.g., red colour, a given
state consists
attributes
sound or movement) appearing or not, then we denote the state by 1 when the attri
bute appears and 0 when it does not. If the input or output state has the character
of a discretely varying magnitude (e.g., number of particles per second, number
of flies in an experimental jar), we denote the state by rational number that serves
as a measure of that quantity. If, finally, the input or output state is a magnitude
varying continuously (e.g., temperature, weight, height) we denote this state by a
real number.
In this numbers?let us denote them ..., be

way, by xl9 x2, xm?can assigned
to the inputs to express their individual states. These numbers form a vector
x = ..., ...
(#]_, x2, xm), (-?.2)
which represents the state of inputs. We call it the input vector and the numbers
xl9 x2, ..., xm constitute its components.
In similar fashion, the states of individual outputs are assigned numbers which
we denote by yv y2, ..., yn. These are the of the output vector.
components
=
y (yi>y?->yn)- (2-3)
Both vectors, the input and output, are to the rules of vector algebra.
subject
The active element E is represented graphically as follows :
Fig. 1.
2U
ELEMENTS OF A THEORY OF SYSTEM BEHAVIOUR
In this drawing, on the left the input vector is indicated by an arrow and the output
vector is on the right, also in the form of an arrow. Sometimes it is useful to show
all the components of both vectors on the drawing. To avoid confusion we denote
the components with broken lines. Then the drawing assumes the form below:
->
-?
Fig. 2.
In Figure 2 the input vector has two and the output vector has three.
components
The relation between the input and output states, in other words, the mode of
action of the element E, can be as a transformation of
expressed mathematically
the vector x into the vector y. we write this transformation
Symbolically,
= ...
y T(x). (2.4)
The set of admissible values of the vector x is called the domain of the trans
formation; the set of admissible values of the vector y is called the field of the trans
formation. The symbol T is called the transformation operator; it expresses the
rule according to which vector x is transformed into vector y.
This can be expressed
rule by means of a certain matrix. For this purpose,
we denote by in the value of the j-th component of vector x and by
A#? the change
Ayi the change in the value of the i-th component of vector y. Let us assume that the
j-th component of the vector x changes by and the other components of this vector
A^
remain unchanged. Then, in accordance with the transformation (2.4) there is a
specified change A?/? in the i-th component of the vector y.

The ratio
\ Axj = = o ?ot
\ j 1,2, ...,m
/Axk k^j
J
is a measure of the partial effect of a change in the j-th component of the vector x
on the i-th component of the vector y. Let us call it the coefficient of partial effect.
The coefficients of partial effect form a matrix of n rows and m columns which
we shall denote by A. We then have
... \
(an a12 alm
^21 a22 a2m \

(2.6)
...
anl an2 anm/
We call this matrix the transformation matrix.
With the aid of the transformation matrix the rule for the transformation of
the vector x into the vector y can be expressed in the form of a system of equations,
namely;
=
Ayx an Ax?+a12 Ax2+...+alm Axm,
=
?2/2 a21 Ax?+a22 ?x2+...+a2m Axm,
2.7)
=
A#n ani Ax1+an2Ax2+...+anm Axm.
217
SANKHY? :THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF STATISTICS : Series A
This can be expressed simply in the form of a vector
even more equation
= A ...
Ay Ax, (2.8)
where Ax and Ay are vectors, = and =
viz., Ax (Axl9 Ax2,..., Axm) Ay (Ayv Ay2,..., Ayn).
As can be seen, the transformation rule, which is symbolised by the operator T, is
represented here explicitly in the form of the algebraic operations constituting the
transformation in question.
The
expression of the transformation rule in the form of (2.7) or (2.8) shall
be henceforth called the difference form of this rule. If the coefficients of partial effect
obtain the integral form of the transformation rule.
ai0 are constant, we immediately
Namely,
~
2/i îiî+%2^2~r-,,"raiw^?wj
= ... (2.9)
y 2 tt21Xli?22X2\','\?'2nixm>
==
In anlXlân2X2~T'--\anmXm J
or, more simply,
= Ax. ... (2.10)
y
On the right hand side of these two expressions, i.e. (2.9) and (2.10), arbitrary
constants may be added. For the sake of convenience we take these to be equal
to zero.
The difference form shows the relation between the in the vector x
changes
and changes in the vector y. The integral form shows the relation between the values
of the vectors x and y. When the coefficients are constant and, therefore, the
a{j
form of the transformation has the form of (2.9) or (2.10) we say that the
integral
transformation is linear.
When coefficients a{j are not constant they are functions of the vector x. The
transformation matrix A is then a functional matrix. If the vector # is a continuous
variable, (2.7) or (2.8) are differential equations. The solution of these differential
if there is one, consists of the system of functions
equations,
?
2/l Jl(xl> x2> >Xm)>
? ..
y2 J2\XV XZ> j xm/9
(2.11)
?
yn Jn\XV X2> ".J Xm) J
such that
...,?; ... (2.12)

??= (?=1,2, j=\,2,...,m)
J|
This can be written more in the form of a vector function :
system simply
... (2.13)
y=f(x).
The functions (2.11) or (2.13) constitute the integral form of the rule for the transfor
mation of the vector x into the vector y.
The result (2.11) or (2.13) is also obtained in the case when the vector x varies
in a discrete way. (2.7) or (2.8) are then difference equations and the functions (2.11)
or (2.13) are the solutions of those equations.
218
The transformation (2.4) of the vector x into the vector y permits the state
of the outputs of element E to be determined from the state of the Sometimes
inputs.
it is possible to make the inverse transformation
x= ...
(2.14)
T~\y).
The inverse transformation

permits conclusions as to the state of the inputs of element
E to be drawn from the state of its outputs. An instance of such inverse transforma
tion is a medical diagnosis of the causes of an ailment on the basis of its symptoms,
or else the of a coded message.
deciphering
The inverse transformation reduces to the solution of (2.9) or (2.11) or,
which amounts same thing,
to the of (2.10) or (2.13), with respect to the vector
x, given the value
of the vector y. As we know from algebra, the possibility of
inverse transformation depends on two conditions. Firstly, we must have n ^ m,
for otherwise there would be fewer equations than unknowns (the components of
vector x are unknowns and there are m of them). In other words, the diversification
of the element E cannot be negative since in that case there would not be enough
outputs to draw conclusions as to the state of the

inputs. Secondly, the rank of the
transformation matrix must be m. In other words, exactly m partial effects of changes
in the state of the individual inputs must be linearly independent.
If the inverse transformation is possible, the transformation rule can be written
x = ...
(2.15)
A~1y
for linear transformation, and
... (2.16)
x=f\y)
-1 -1
for the general case. Here, A is the inverse of the matrix A and/ (y) is the inverse
vector function of the vector function f(x).
3. Coupling of active elements
In accordance with Assumptions (1) and (2) of the preceding section, elements
can interact only through their outputs and inputs. Let Ex and E2 be two active
elements, x{1) and x(2) their input vectors and ya) and y{2) their output vectors. Ele
ment E? can act on element
E2 only in such a way that E2 "receive" as inputs the
state of (all or some) outputs of Ev For instance, element E2 "receives" as inputs
such output states of element Ex as temperature and colour but not sounds. In other
words, certain components of the output vector y{1) become components of the input
vector x{2).
Denoting the components of the vector y{1) by y^\ y2l), ...,y$ and the
components of the vector x{2) by x22), ...9z$9 we can write

x^\
= ...
af 241} (3.1)
for values
certain of i and j, where 1, 2, ..., n and j i= 1, 2, ..., m.
= Of course,
(3.1) must be satisfied for at least one pair of values (i, j), for otherwise there would
be no action by element E1 on element E2.
219
When components of the output vector of element Ex are thus transformed
into components of the input vector of element E2, the two elements are said to be
coupled.
The coupling of element E? with element E2 is represented graphically as
follows :
->
Fig. 3a.
->
Fig. 3b.
In both the
figures all of the components of the input and output vectors are shown.
In Figure 3b element E1 is coupled with element E2 through all the components of its
output vector whereas in Figure 3a, only through two components of that vector.
In practice it is rather inconvenient to use the individual components of the

and input vectors. With a large number of components the graphic picture of
output
the coupling of elements becomes This picture, however, can be simplified
complicated.
in the following way. We introduce a square matrix which we denote by s12, consist
ing of m or n rows and columns, depending on whether m > n or n > m. The elements
of the matrix have a value of 1 for all i and j for which (3.1) is satisfied and they have
a value of 0 for all i and j for which the equality is not satisfied. In other words,
an element of the matrix has a value of 1 if the
corresponding component of vector
a component of vector x{2) and a value of 0 if this is not the case. The
y{1) becomes
matrix introduced, has, therefore, the following shape (for example)
"O 0 0 ... f
1 0 0
? 0 0 1 ..
s12 (3.2)
0 1 0
This is a zero-one matrix with at least one element of the matrix being 1
and at most one element in each row (and column) equal to 1. If m > n, then
m?n rows consist of only zeros, and if n < m, then n?m columns of only zeros;
consist
in that case m?n inputs of element E2 or n?m outputs of element Ex do not "parti
in the Matrix s12 shall be called the coupling matrix of element
cipate" coupling.
Ex with element E2.
With the aid of the coupling matrix, (3.1) can be rewritten in the form
xm = , ... (3.3)
s12y
i.e. in the form of a vector equality.
220
The graphical picture of the coupling of the element Ex with the element E2
can be simplified by drawing as follows :
E,
Fig. 4.
This figure shows only vectors and not their individual components. The
arrow denoting the coupling of the element Ex with the element E2 stands for the vector
equality (3.3).
Now let us consider the coupling of a larger number of active elements.
We denote the individual elements by EVE2,EZ, ..., and their input and output
... ... .
vectors, respectively, by x{1),x{2), x{Z)9 ; y{1), y{2), y{Z)9
If all the elements are coupled in pairs, then we say that there is a chain of
Since the numeration of the elements is arbitrary, the chain of couplings
couplings.
can be represented as a sequence of vector equalities
*(2) =
s12y^9
...
(3.4)
M) (2)
Here s12, s23, ... denote the coupling matrices of element Ex with element E2, element
element Ez, etc. A vector in the of (3.4) is called a link
E2 with equality sequence
in the chain of couplings.
A chain of couplings is represented as follows :

graphically
Fig. fi.
We differentiate between open and closed chains of couplings, also open

called
and closed In a closed chain (loop) some active element is coupled with
loops.
an element chain. it in the
Such coupling with an element appearing
preceding
earlier in the chain of couplings is known as feed-back. A feature of a closed chain of
is that it has a feed-back among its links. A chain which does not have
couplings
feed-back among its links is said to be open (an open loop).
Since the numeration of the elements is arbitrary, a closed chain of couplings

can be expressed in the form of the vector equalities
*(2) = *i2 2/(1)>
x = 9
s2Zy
(3.5)
s<i> = sn yw.
The last vector in this case is a feed-back. A feed-back occurs between

equality
we assume that r>
element Er and element Ex (of course, 1).
221
14
SANKHY? : THE INDIAN JOURNAL Of STATISTICS : Series A
A graphic picture of an open chainof couplings is given in Figure 5. A closed
chain is depicted (by an example) in Figure 6. In this figure, there is a feed-back
between element E3 and element Ev
'
Fig. 6.
An active element can be coupled with more than one other active element.
can a
Conversely, more than one element be coupled with given element. We say
then that the couplings are ramified, there being ramification of output in one case and
ramification of input in the other.
In Figure 7a we give an example of ramification of output and in Figure 7b

we give an example of ramification of input.
Fig. 7a. Fig. 7b.
Ramification of output is expressed by the following vector equalities.

^(2) (i)
si2y
3<8> a)
si*y (3.6)
x(q+1) = ?irf+i yK
,(D
Here, q denotes the number of elements coupled with element Ev

In similar way the ramification of input is expressed by the vector equalities
*(?+1) = ?i,,? ya\
(2)
...
(3.7)
*w+1) = *M+iy(g)
In this case, q stands for the number of elements with which element Eq+1
is coupled.
In a set containing a larger number of coupled active elements, there can be
many different arrangements of couplings: open and closed chains (loops) and all
sorts of ramifications. A set of such varied arrangements of couplings is called a
222
network of A network of couplings can be expressed as a set of vector
couplings.
equalities of the type of (3.4), (3.5), (3.6) and (3.7). It can also be represented graphically.
A graphic picture of a network of couplings is given in Figure 8 :
Fig. 8.
In this example there is an open chain (loop) of between elements

couplings
Ev E2 and a closed chain (loop) of between elements
EB, couplings E2, JS?3and EA,
and a ramification of output at element Ez and a ramification of input at element E1.
Finally, element E8 is not coupled with any element in the given set of
acting elements.
All this arrangement of couplings of couplings)
(and absence constitutes a network of
couplings as shown in Figure 8.
Networks of couplings a special

are case of so-called i.e. of abstract
graphs,
relations between the elements of a set. are treated a branch of
They by separate
mathematics known as the of This is useful in investigation
theory graphs.2 theory
of the properties of networks of couplings between active elements.
4. The system of active elements and its structure

A set of coupled active elements is called a system of active elements or, briefly
a system* Each element of a system is coupled with at least one other element of
the system or at least one other element in the system is coupled with the ele
given
ment. In a system, therefore, there are no isolated elements, i.e. elements which are
neither coupled with any other element nor have any other element with them.
coupled
The network of couplings between elements of a system is called the structure
of the system.
We assume
a system that
contains a finite number of elements. The number
of elements in the system is denoted N. The individual elements are denoted
by by
El9 E2, ..., EN. The input and output vectors are denoted ..., x{N) and
by xil), x{2),
ya\ ym> >y{N\ respectively.
2The mathematical of was

systematic study graphs initiated by Denes Koenig, Theorie der end
lichen und unendlichen Graphen, Leipzig, 1936. Koenig introduced the term An
"graph." exposition
of the subject as it stands today is given Claude Theorie des et ses applications, Paris,
by Berge, graphes
1958.
3 is taken to mean a set of elements with the set of relations
Generally speaking, "system" together
between the elements. The set of such relations (and of all their transformations) is called
isomorphic
the structure of the system. Cf. for instance, Paul Lorenzen, Einfuehrung in die Logik und
operative
Mathematik, Berlin 1955, pp. 240-241. In our case, we have a set of active the of
elements, couplings
these elements are the relations.
223
SANKHY? : THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF STATISTICS : Series A
If an element Er is coupled with element E? the vector equality
As) (> )
Sr,y (4.1)
is satisfied. In this
equality, sr8 is the coupling matrix of element Er with element
E8. As we know,4 this is a square zero-one matrix in which at least one element is
1 and every row and every column contains at most one element equal to 1.
now generalize
We this matrix for all elements Er and E8 regardless of whether
Er is coupled with E8 or not. This is done by writing, for the case when element
Er is not coupled with element E8,
= 0. (4.2)
In other words, in this case we define the coupling matrix as a zero matrix (i.e. one in
which all the elements are zero). In this case when the active element Er is not coupled
with the active element E8, therefore, the vector equality (4.1) takes on the form
0= sr8 y?\ (4.3)
Having the coupling matrix s78 in this way, we can write the vector
generalized
equality (4.1) for every pair of elements Er and E8, regardless of whether Er is coupled
with E8 or not. We then have N(N?l) vector equalities
xis) = = r =? s).
s y{r) (r, s 1, 2, ..., N; (4.4)
We assume that r^ s since matrix sr8 is always a zero matrix for r = s. By defi
nition the active element is coupled with other active elements. No element is coupled
with itself.
The thus form a square matrix with

coupling matrices, generalized, together
N rows and N columns. Namely,
0 s.12 S1N
S2 0 S2N
S = (4.5)
SN1 SN2 0
matrix of the system.

This matrix, which we denote by 8, shall be called the structure
For it represents the structure of the system, i.e. the network of couplings of the ele
ments of the system.
The matrix S is a zero-one matrix because all coupling matrices srs, which are
its are zero-one matrices.

sub-matrices,
Since each element in the is coupled with at least one other element
system
or at least one other element is coupled with the given element, the minimum number
of couplings in the is therefore, N? 1. The matrix, therefore, contains at least

system
4 Cf.
(3.3).
s
Cf. (3.2).
224
N? 1 non-zero submatrices these non-zero sub-matrices are so
srs. Moreover, arranged
that if the r-th row of the matrix S contains only zero sub-matrices, the r-th column
must contain at least one non-zero sub-matrix. For if the element Er is not coupled
with any other element then at least one other element must be coupled with the
element Er.
An element is not
coupled with any other element
which in the system or which
has no other element An ele
coupled to it is called a boundary element of the system.
ment in the system which is not a boundary element shall be called an interior ele
ment of the system. The set of boundary elements of a system shall be called the
system's surface and the set of the interior elements of the system shall be called as the
system's interior. For the sake of illustration let us look at Figure 8 above.
The a system; the isolated

active El9 E2, E3, EA, E5, E6 and E7 form
elements
of the
element E8 does not belong to it. Elements Ex and E7 are boundary elements
system; the set of them constitutes the surface of the system. On the other hand,
elements E2, E3, E?, Eb and E6 are interior elements of the system; the set of them
constitutes the interior of the system.
the boundary elements of the system we distinguish between those

Among
which are not coupled with other elements in the system and those with which no other
elements in the system are coupled. In the case of the first-mentioned, the compo
nents of the output vector are not components of the input vector of any other
element of the system. We shall call them the output boundary elements. In the
case of the last-mentioned, the of the input vector are notcomponents
components
of the output vector
of any other element in the system. We shall call them the in
put boundary elements. In Figure 8, E1 is an input boundary element whereas E7 is

an output element.
boundary
Theinput and output boundary elements are expressed in the structure matrix
of the system. If element Er is an input boundary element, then the r-th column of
the matrix S contains only zero sub-matrices. For, in keeping with the generalized
definition of the couplings matrix, we then have
= ? == == "
slr s2r sNr
If, on the other hand, element Er is an output boundary element, then in accordance
with the definition we have
== = ~ =
srl sr2 srN 0?
In this case the r-th row of the matrix S consists of only zero sub-matrices.
Of course, the converse is also true; a column in the matrix S consisting of

zero sub-matrices signifies that the
corresponding input boundary element is an
only
element and a row of the matrix S consisting of only zero submatrices signifies that the
element is an output boundary element. It follows that the set of
corresponding
all the columns and rows of the matrix S consisting of only zero sub-matrices corres
On the other hand, the columns and rows containing

ponds to the system's surface.
at least one non-zero sub-matrix srs correspond to the interior of the system.
225
A system which does not contain
boundary elements,
any that is, does not
possess a surface, shall be called a closed system. From what has been said it follows
that the structure matrix of a closed system contains neither columns nor rows con
sisting of only zero sub-matrices; each column and each row contains at least one
non-zero sub-matrix. In a closed therefore, there are at least N couplings.
system,
A system which contains boundary elements shall be called an open system. The
structure matrix of an open system contains columns or rows (or both) consisting of
only zero sub-matrices and the surface of the system.

representing together
The structure matrix of the system reflects also other properties of the couplings
of the elements of the system. Feed-backs, for instance, are all represented by sub
matrices sr8 which lie below the diagonal of the matrix. Feed-backs are couplings
with an element preceding the given element in the of couplings.
chain The corres
ponding coupling matrices srs have s< r. This determines their position below the
diagonal.
A closed at least one feed-back. Let us assume that there are
system possesses
no feed-backs in the system. Then the matrix of the system is
0 s-,0 ...
*12 slN
0
8 = #2N
(4.6)
0 0 ... 0
As can be seen, there is then at least one input boundary element and at least
one output boundary element. No element is coupled with element Ex and element
EN is not coupled with any element (we recall that the numeration of the elements is
arbitrary). The system, therefore, cannot be a closed one.
An open chain of couplings (open loop) is expressed by a structure matrix of

the system in which all sub-matrices sr8 below the are zero and, moreover,
diagonal
in each row (apart from the last one which consists entirely of zero sub-matrices)
as well as in each column (apart from the first one which consists entirely of zero sub
matrices) there is exactly one non-zero sub-matrix srs. In other words, the structure
matrix of the has the appearance :
system following
*12 0 0
23 0 0
8 = ..
(4.7)
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
If the chain of couplings is closed (closed loop), then in (4.7) there is at least one non
zero matrix below the diagonal.
If a row of the structure matrix of the system contains more than one non-zero
sub-matrix sr8, this indicates a ramification of output. For example, let there be
non-zero sub-matrices s12, s13, su, in the first row of the matrix 8; then element
is coupled with elements E2, Ez and JS?4. Similarly, if a column of the structure
Ex
matrix contains more than one non-zero sub-matrix sr8, this is an indication of a rarai
226
fication of input. For example, in matrix (4.6) if s1N and s2N are non-zero, element
Ex and element E2 are coupled with element EN.

Thus of the network of couplings of the system can be read off
properties
from the system's structure matrix.
5. The mode of action of a system
The inputs and outputs of a system containing N active elements, satisfy

N(N? 1) vector equalities (4.4), i.e.
xM = 8?yW (r,s= 1,2, ...9N; r^ s). ...

(5.1)
These equalities represent the couplings of the elements of the system.
Each element of the system possesses a definite mode of action expressed
mathematically by the transformation (2.4). Denoting by Tr the transformation
expressing the mode of action of element Er, we have N such transformations :

= ...
y^ Tr(x^) (r=l929...9N). (5.2)
Substituting the transformation (5.2) into the vector equalities (5.1), we obtain
x^ = sf8Tr(x^) (r, s =1,2,..., N; r# s). ...

(5.3)
This is a set of N(N? 1) transformations.
= ...
Rr8
Writing sr8Tr9 (5.4)
we can present these transformations symbolically as
x^ = Rr8(x^) (r, s= 1, 2, ...,N; r# s). ...

(5.5)
Subjecting the vector equalities (5.1) to transformations (5.2), we obtain

=
T,(xM) ?>?(2/(f)),
and consequently
= r^ ...
yM T8sT8(y^) (r9s=l929...9N; s). (5.6)
We again obtain a set of N(N? 1) transformations. Writing
= ...
Pr8 T8sri, (5.7)
we can express these transformations symbolically in the form
= r^ ...
y{8) Pf8(y{r)) (r9s=l929...9N; s). (5.8)
The set of transformations (5.5) assigns new values of the input vectors of the
elements to the given initial values of these vectors.
Similarly, the set of trans
system's
formations new values of the output vectors of the system's elements to
(5.8) assigns
the given initial values of these vectors. The sets of transformations (5.5) and (5.8)
indicate in what manner
express, as we say, the mode of action of the system. They
a set of given states of the inputs and outputs of the elements of a system is
To employ an
transformed into a new set of states of those inputs and outputs.
of Karl Marx, it can be said that the two sets of transformations express
expression
"the inner law of motion of the system.9'6
8 Cf. Karl Vol. House, Moscow, 1954, p. 10.
Marx, Capital, I, Foreign Languages Publishing
227
SANKHY? :THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF STATISTICS :Series A
We now introduce vector of the input states of the system as a compound
the
vector, its components being the input vectors of the elements belonging to the system.
Denoting this vector by X, we have

X = ...
{x 9x ,...,x<*>). (5.9)
We introduce in a similar way a compound vector of the output states of the system. We
denote this vector by Y and write
r = (2/(1,,2/(2,,...,2/(*>).
...
(5.10)
These compound vectors are equivalent to quasi-diagonal matrices7
A2)
X = (5.9a)
0
and
/(i) 0
y(2)
r = (5.10a)
the number of inputs and by nr the number of outputs of element

Denoting by mr N
= ..., N), we find that the matrix X has N rows and 2 mr columns and the
Er (r 1, 2,
N r=l
matrix Y has N rows and 2 nr columns. As need be, X and Y can be interpreted
as either vectors (5.9) and (5.10) or as quasi-diagonal matrices (5.9a) and
compound
(5.10a).
The set of transformations (5.5) is equivalent to the following matrix equality
(2) r.W
0 0 Rlz(xV) R1N(x )
x 0 AN) 0
-?2l(*(2))
*<? Z<2> ... 0 0-

_| \_RN1(xW) Ry2(xlN))
... (5.11)
Similarly, the set of transformations (5.8) is equivalent to the matrix equality
0 y
(2)
y
<tf> 0 P^?) PiN(ya))
?/(? o ,y<*>
i>2i(2/(2)) 0 P**(ym)
... o
yd) ym Pm(yi]f)) Pn,(v{N))
... (5.12)
7A matrix is one in which sub-matrices or vectors along the diagonal and
quasi-diagonal appear
elements are to zero. For a definition of a matrix see V. I.
all the remaining equal quasi-diagonal
Kurs Vol. Part 1, 4th ed., 1949, p. 104.
Smirnov, Vyshei Matematiki, Ill, Leningrad?Moscow,
228
From these equalities it follows that the initial state of the input vectors
x{1)9 x{2), ..., x{N) uniquely determines the state of these vectors after transformation.
In the same way, the initial state of the output vectors y{1), y{2), ..., y{N) uniquely
determines the state of these vectors after transformation. With the aid of the com
pound vectors (5.9) and (5.10) we can express this as a transformation of these vectors.
Instead of the matrix equality (5.11) we write
X' = R(X), ... (5.13)
and in place of the matrix equality (5.12),
T = P(Y). ... (5.14)
Here, R and P are transformation operations, X and Y represent the initial

state of the inputs and outputs of all the elements of the system, whereas X' and
Y' denote the new state of the inputs and outputs after the transformation.
It suffices in this case to consider either transformation (5.13) or transformation

(5.14). For from the vector equalities (5.1) we obtain the matrix equality
0 x 0 s12(yW) s1N(y{1))
x 0 x{^
*2i(2/(2)) 0 ^(2/(2))
(5.15)
x<n xW 0
sNi(y{N) *N2(y{N)) 0
The right-hand side of this equality can be written in the form Y S where Y is the
quasi-diagonal matrix (5.10a), equivalent to the compound vector (5.10), and S

is the structure matrix of the system :
0 312 *1N
0
8 = *21
(5.16)
" 0
SN1 SN2
The left-hand side of the above matrix equality is equivalent to the compound vector
(5.9). As a result, we have

X=YS. ...
(5.17)
The transformations (5.13) and (5.14), therefore, follow one from the other.
The operators R and P can be presented symbolically in the form of a matrix

of operators appearing in the sets of transformations (5.5) and (5.8). Namely,
R 12
R = (5.18)
^m ^N2
and
12 Pin
P = P* 0 P2N ...
(5.19)
* N2
Nl
:)
229
15
SANKHY? :THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF STATISTICS :Sekies A
Let us denote by T the diagonal matrix
0 ... 0 v
,TX
... 0
T== I 0 T2 (520)
j
\ 0 0 ... TN /
The non-zero elements of this matrix constitute the transformation operators corres
ponding to the individual elements of the system. This diagonal matrix shall be
called the matrix of modes of action of the elements.
If (5.4) and (5.7) are taken into account, the operators R and P can be presented
as products, viz.
R=TS ... (5.21)
and
P=ST ...
(5.22)
where S is the structures matrix of the system (5.16) (cf. also (4.7) above).
In consequence, it shows that the system's mode of action, expressed mathe
matically by the transformation (5.11) or (5.12), can be presented in the form
= X' ...
TS(X), (5.23)
Yf = ST(Y).
...
(5.24)
As can be seen, the mode of action
of the system depends both on T, the matrix
of modes of action
of the elements, as well as on the structure matrix S of the system.
In order to determine not
the mode of action of the system it is enough to know the
modes of action of the elements, which are expressed mathematically by the matrix
T, but it is necessary also to know the structure matrix S of the system, which
represents the network of couplings of the elements.
systemA of active
elements, therefore, is endowed with its own specific mode
of action, "a law of motion", consisting in the transformation of the input and output
states of the elements. This mode of action is a feature of the system as a whole,
for it depends not only on the mode of action of the individual elements but also on
the structure of the system, i.e. on the netwrok of couplings of the elements. This is
expressed mathematically (5.23) in and (5.24). It is the structure represented

by the matrix S that gives the system the quality of a whole. The same elements
with the same modes of action but coupled in a different manner constitute a different
system with a different mode of action of the system. In mathematical :

language
with an unaltered matrix T of modes of action of the elements, the mode of action of
the system becomes different if there is a different structure matrix S of the system.
A difference in the structure implies a difference in the system's mode of action.
In this way an explanation is provided for the question of wholes with laws
of action which cannot be derived from the mere laws of action of the individual ele
ments. Such wholes are simply sets of coupled active elements, i.e., systems. Their
mode of action constitutes the combined result of the modes of action of the individual
elements, and of the structure of the system, i.e. of the network of couplings of the
system elements, of which the system is composed.
230

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Indian Statistical Institute

Elements of a Theory of System Behaviour

This essay is part of a larger work which is in preparation. The work is

Sankhy? has successfully applied in a great variety of fields.

2. The active element

By an active element E we mean a material in a given

(1) The environment acts on element E by inducing in it certain states of a

(2) Element E acts on the environment by assuming certain states of a

strictly defined character, e.g. temperature, magnetic field, colour, generation of

Element E possesses at least one input and at least one output.

(4) The input states determine the output states uniquely.

will be called the diversification of element E. Obviously d is an integer. It may

The input and output states

In this numbers?let us denote them ..., be

xl9 x2, ..., xm constitute its components.

The active element E is represented graphically as follows :

specified change A?/? in the i-th component of the vector y.

^21 a22 a2m \

...,?; ... (2.12)

The inverse transformation

outputs to draw conclusions as to the state of the

3. Coupling of active elements

components of the vector x{2) by x22), ...9z$9 we can write

In practice it is rather inconvenient to use the individual components of the

A chain of couplings is represented as follows :

We differentiate between open and closed chains of couplings, also open

Since the numeration of the elements is arbitrary, a closed chain of couplings

*(2) = *i2 2/(1)>

The last vector in this case is a feed-back. A feed-back occurs between

ramification of input in the other.

In Figure 7a we give an example of ramification of output and in Figure 7b

Fig. 7a. Fig. 7b.

Ramification of output is expressed by the following vector equalities.

Here, q denotes the number of elements coupled with element Ev

In this example there is an open chain (loop) of between elements

Networks of couplings a special

4. The system of active elements and its structure

2The mathematical of was

Er is not coupled with element E8,

0= sr8 y?\ (4.3)

The thus form a square matrix with

matrix of the system.

its are zero-one matrices.

of couplings in the is therefore, N? 1. The matrix, therefore, contains at least

The a system; the isolated

the boundary elements of the system we distinguish between those

put boundary elements. In Figure 8, E1 is an input boundary element whereas E7 is

with the definition we have

Of course, the converse is also true; a column in the matrix S consisting of

On the other hand, the columns and rows containing

only zero sub-matrices and the surface of the system.

arbitrary). The system, therefore, cannot be a closed one.

An open chain of couplings (open loop) is expressed by a structure matrix of

Ex and element E2 are coupled with element EN.

5. The mode of action of a system

The inputs and outputs of a system containing N active elements, satisfy

xM = 8?yW (r,s= 1,2, ...9N; r^ s). ...

expressing the mode of action of element Er, we have N such transformations :

x^ = sf8Tr(x^) (r, s =1,2,..., N; r# s). ...

x^ = Rr8(x^) (r, s= 1, 2, ...,N; r# s). ...

Subjecting the vector equalities (5.1) to transformations (5.2), we obtain

we can express these transformations symbolically in the form

Denoting this vector by X, we have

(2) = i2 2/(1)>