aN Cee PORTA itaw ie Road Drainage Design ACO Treas) Subsoil Deri rtHe 4B eS ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA ceFOREWORD Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM), through the cooperation and support of various road authorities and engineering institutions in Malaysia, publishes a series of official documents on STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDELINES, MANUAL and TECHNICAL NOTES which are related to road engineering. The aim of such publication is to achieve quality and consistency in road and highway construction, operation and maintenance. “The cooperating bodies are:- Public Works Department Malaysia (PWD) Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA) Department of Irrigation & Drainage (DID) “The Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) The Institution of Highways & Transportation (IHT Malaysian Branch) ‘The production of such documents is carried through several stages. At the Forum on Technology and Road Management organized by PWD/REAM in November 1997, Technical Committee 6 — Drainage was formed with the intention to review Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 — INTERMEDIATE GUIDE TO DRAINAGE DESIGN OF ROADS. Members of the committee were drawn from various government departments and agencies, and from the private sector including privatized road operators, engineering consultants and drainage products manufacturers and contactors, Technical Committee 6 was divided into three sub-committees to review Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 and subsequently produced ‘GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DRAINAGE DESIGN’ consisting of the following volumes: Volume i — Hydrological Analysis Volume 2 — Hydraulic Design of Culverts Volume 3 — Hydraulic Considerations in Bridge Design Volume 4 — Surface Drainage Volume 5 — Subsoil Drainage The drafts of all documents were presented at workshops during the Fourth and Fifth ‘Malaysian Road Conferences held in 2000 and 2002 respectively. The comments and suggestions received from the workshop participants were reviewed and incorporated in the finalized documents. ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA. 46-A, Jalan Bola Tampar 13/14, Section 13, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Tel: 603-5513 6521 Fax: 5513 6523 e-mail: ream @po.jaring. my51 52 54 5.7 59 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PROVISION AND LOCATION OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE. DESIGN OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS .. 5.3.1. The Control of Seepage Flow in Rolling or Mountainous Terraii 5.3.2 ‘The Control of a High Water Table in Flat Terrain. ...................5-2 53.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade Through a Pervious Road Surface... DESIGN FLOW CAPACITY... 54.1 Field Trial Method. 5.4.2 Calculation Method .. DETAILED SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION... 55.1 Boring and Ground Water Level Measurement 55.2 Standpipe .. 5.5.3 Piezometer Standpipe ... DETERMINATION OF SOIL COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY ....5-9 5.6.1 In-situ Permeability Test (@) Variable Head in Soils. (b) Packer Test in Rock DESIGN OF FILTER MATERIAL... 5.7.1 Design Filter Material - Standard Grading an 5.7.2 Synthetic Filter Cloth / Fabrics ...... 5.73 Examples of Filter Design... TYPES OF SUBSOIL DRAINS . 5.8.1 Single Size Aggregates Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.15) ......... 5.8.2 Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.16) ......... 5.8.3 Porous / Perforated / Slotted Pipe with Design Filter Material (See Fig.5.17) . 58.4 Other Proprietary Types DRAIN PIPE DESIGN .....LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 5.1 Longitudinal Subsoil Drain used to cut off seepage and lower the groundwater table Fig. 5.2 Multiple Subsoil Drai aareenene nt ea Fig. 5.3. Symmetrical Longitudinal Drains used to lower the water table .. Fig. 5.4 Subsoil Drain for Multilanes Road .......... sss. Fig. 5.5. Sunsoil Drain to directly drain the base course Fig. 5.6. Interception of Shallow Seepage Zone Fig. 5.7. Subsoil Drainage Layers for High Fill Fig. 5.8 Standpipe Installation .......... Fig. 5.9 Piezometer Standpipe Installation Fig. 5.10 Nomograph for Estimating Coefficient of Permeability of Granular Drainage and Filter Materials .. Fig. 5.11 Particle Size Distribution for Concrete Sand B.S. 882 Filter Material Recommended for Clay Soils ......... Fig. 5.12 Gradation of Filter Material . Fig. 5.13 Filter and Slot Design for Example 2 .. Fig. 5.14 Filter Design for Example 3... Fig. 5.15 Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth. Fig. 5.16 Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth ... Fig. 5.17 Porous / Perforated / Slotted Pipe with Design Filter Material... Fig. 5.18 Examples of Arrangement of Transverse Subsoil Drain Fig. 5.19 Typical Pipe Outlet for Subsoil Drain LIST OF TABLES: Table 5.1 Normal Range of Permeability Coefficient of Typical Soils .. Table 5.2 Insitu Permeability Test — (Variable Head). Table 5.3 Field Permeat Table 5.4 Measurement of W.L. for Standpipe/Piezometer Standpipe . Table 5.5 The Particles Size Distribution for Concrete Sand MS 30 .. Table 5.6 Composition of Sand Fraction from 150 gm Samples .... ry Test ~ Packer Test Table 5.7 Physical Property Requirements ...VOLUME 5 - SUBSOIL DRAINAGE $1 INTRODUCTION Water control is a very important factor in highway design and construction. Although adequate surface drainage is the first step in ensuring good internal moisture control, a properly designed and incorporated subsoil drainage system is also essential. Soil is a natural material made up of solid particles and various sizes of pores, such that water either remains in it or percolates through it. Water retention and movement within, constitute the two important phases in soil moisture relationship. Watcr movement takes place by the action of gravity or of capillary action, or by a combination of the two. Subsoil drainage can reduce the soil moisture by keeping the ground water table well beneath the paved surface. ‘The principal objective of subsoil drainage is to make sure that a subgrade of uniform bearing value and strength is maintained. The principal ways in which changes in moisture content can occur in the subgrade of a road are: (2) _ by the scepage of water into the subgrade from higher ground adjacent to the road (a case of seepage flow in rolling or mountainous terrain); (b) by arise or fall in the level of the water table (a case of high water table in a flat terrain); (©) by the percolation of water through the surface of the road carriageway. PROVISION AND LOCATION OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE The decision to install subsoil drainage should be based on site conditions existing at the time of construction. Where position of the water table is reasonably close to formation level (about Im or less), the Engincer is required to carry out soil classification tests, grading tests and trial pits to ascertain the level of the water table. The most appropriate time for carrying ut the trial pits is during the wet months when the water table is usually at its highest level and the subsoil at its wettest. It is the responsibility of the Engincer to determine the necessity and locations where subsoil drainage is Tequired. The Engineer then follows the procedures specified under Section 5.7 in order to select and design filter material suitable for the type of soil encountered. 5-153 DESIGN OF SUBSOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ‘Subsoil drainage is required for the following conditions:- @ () © 5.3.2 $3.3 imercepting seepage water from outside sources and lowering it to an acceptable level before it reaches the road structures (see Fig. 5.1); the removal of stationary water in the soil to control and to lower the ground water table and providing outlets (see Fig, 5.3 and Fig. 5.4); to drain the subgrade and pavement during and after the construction period (see Fig. 5.5). ‘The Control of Seepage Flow in Rolling or Mountainous Terrain There are two methods of dealing with the condition of scepage flow. If the seepage zone is narrow and within Im of the surface then the usual procedure is to install an intercepting subsoil drain just in the impermeable strata underlying the seepage zone as shown in Fig. 5.1. If, however, the seepage zone is wide or the impermeable stratum is deep, it is generally, impracticable to construct the drainage trench sufficiently deep to intercept all the seepage water. In this case, therefore, the intercepting drain is usually located to keep the level of underground water table about 1m below formation level (see Fig. 5.1). Where roads are on sloping ground, longitudinal drains may not be capable of intercepting all the seepage water. In such cases, it may be necessary to install horizontal filter blankets as shown in Fig. 5.7. ‘The Control of a High Water Table in Flat Terrain A high water table can be lowered by the installation of subsoil drainage system, It is desirable that the water table should be maintained at a depth not less than 1m below formation level (see Fig. 5.3). The actual spacing and depth of drains to achieve this requirement will depend on the soil conditions and width of the road formation. In the case of dual carriageways, drains may be necessary under the central reserve as well as under the edges of the formation (see Fig. 5.4). ‘The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade ‘Through a Pervious Road Surface A completely impermeable road surface is difficult to realize in practice and porous subbase has been installed to deal with water percolating through the pavement surface. 5-2PROPOSED CUT SLOPE ORIGINAL WATER TABLE oe GROUND ‘BEDROCK FIG. 5.1 PROPOSED CUT SLOPE ORIGINAL WATER TABLE ‘WET WEATHER SEEPAGE, ‘BEDROCK PROPOSED CUT SLOPE 53SUBGRADE Fic, 5.4 SUBSOIL DRAIN FOR MULTILANES ROAD gees a ‘SHOULDER DESIGN FILTER NATERIAL ‘SUBGRADE MINIMUM 150mm SUBSOIL PIPE WATERTABLE: ‘SUBGRADE SEEPAGE ZONE DESIGN FILTER MATERIAL "STRATUM ie eead SUBSOL PIPEC TIOSHAS 2°¢ “Dla {@anorsa0, 38 OL SSINNOIMI) Tid 3008: LNVIE BBV aNos3a 38 OL SSINNOHL TDAVE Bali XT 3401S GasosoNE GNnOwS nus Jv 30W0%E 38 OL HONS swagn08 ony los 35007 “NOUWL303A 20 WRONG Lay SWANS ‘GNTOYD TWNIORHO BO Wats Toys 307s onuS0G OBLVAULS3 555.3.3 The Control of Water Entering the Subgrade Through a Pervious Road Surface - (Cont'd) (a) Porous Subbase The purpose of the porous, granular subbase is to trap any water infiltrating through the road surface and carry it to the open drains provided beyond the road shoulders and so prevent the softening of the subgrade, The porous subbase consists of 150mm to 300mm of compacted porous material such as sand, gravel, etc., interposed between the base course and the subgrade (see Fig. 5.5). The subgrade has to be properly cambered and free from depressions and the porous subbase must cover the entire road formation and connected to the roadside drain. Unless very careful attention is given to the shaping and cambering of the subgrade, it is probable that most of the water passing into the porous subbase would be trapped in irregularities in the surface of the subgrade, and consequently not entering the drain. Besides acting as a drainage layer, the porous subbase increases the thickness of the pavement design. It also prevents soft clay working up into the base course of a flexible pavement founded on a clay subgrade. It is placed immediately after the preparation of the formation, and will help to prevent the disturbance of the subgrade by construction traffic. It is probable that the improved performance of roads with porous subbase is due to the latter factor rather than the possible drainage, which the subbase effects. DESIGN FLOW CAPACITY Commonly, the design flow capacity of ground water drainage system is based ‘on empirical rule of thumb that have been developed by trial and error over a period of years, or on rather tedious graphical techniques involving the use of flow nets. The purpose of this section is to present a field trial and error method and an approximate analytical method. 5.4.1 Field Trial Method ‘Where earthwork has reached formation level, a useful estimate of the effect of installing drains to lower the level of the ground water at a particular site (see Fig. 5.3) can be obtained by carrying out a simple field trial. Two parallel trenches 500mm wide and about 20m long are dug along the line of the proposed drainage trenches for the road to a depth of about 1m below the level to which it is desired to lower the ground water. A transverse line of boreholes at about 1.5m to 3m intervals is sunk between the centre of the trenches and extended about 3m to 6m either side. Observations are made of the levels of the water table in the boreholes before and after pumping the water out of the trenches for a sufficient period of time to establish equilibrium conditions. By plotting these results, an estimate can be made of the drawdown effect of the drain trenches, and by this means it is possible to establish the correct depth and spacing of the drains. ‘The capacity required for the drainpipes can be estimated from the rate of pumping necessary to keep the trenches free of water. 5-65.4.2 Calculation Method It is always desirable to carry out design flow calculations for the following reasons:- (@) to predict the reduction in the water level due to the provision of subsoil drainage; (&) severe cases where project area is of high water table or excessive seepage. Darcy's Law is commonly used and application of the law needs detailed subsurface investigation to determine the permeability constant (k). Calculation of design flow is sometimes omitted in the design of subsoil drainage. This is due to the fact that solving the flow equations under complicated actual ground conditions is difficult. Q = kia where Q = seepage volume (cu.cm/sec) k = _ coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) A = cross sectional area of seepage layer (sq.cm) hydraulic gradient The application of Darcy's Law is sufficient for most subsoil drainage although it assumes laminar flow and constant viscosity of the water. The use of Darcy's Law requires a determination of the permeability constant (k) and the hydraulic gradient (i) and these two values are not easily obtainable under complicated ground conditions. Some typical values for (k) are shown in Table 5,1. Table 5.1 - Normal Range of Permeability Coefficient of Typical Soils Sol Type | Permeosttty Cormeen" | Descriptive Remarks Cava O.1 or more High permeability ‘Sand 0.1 = 1x10" Moderate permeability Sandy Soll 01x 107-1510" | Cow permeability Clayey Soil Ox 10°- 1x10 Very low permeability Cay 15107 or less Impermeable Source: Japan Road Association 5-75.5 DETAILED SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 Boring and Ground Water Level Measurement Boring and Ground Water Measurements should be done at the project area to identify the underground conditions and level of water table. For water level locations when earthworks have reached formation level, drilling a hole by a small auger should be sufficient. Measurement of the water table is a very important part of the subsurface investigation. ‘The water level in every borchole is taken while drilling is in progress at the following:- (@)__ before work commences in the morning; (b) after work finished in the evening but before water is added to the borehole. ‘The depth of the borehole and the casting (if any) is measured when cach water level measurement is taken. Standpipe Standpipe of 19mm internal diameter rigid unplasticised P.V.C. tubing can be installed in selected boreholes especially directed. (See Fig. 5.8). ‘The bottom of the standpipe is plugged and the lower 0.5m is perforated with slots. ‘The perforated tubing is surrounded by a response zone of an approved granular material used to backfill the borehole to a depth of 1.5m below ground level, ‘The top of the P.V.C. tubing is then sealed with a steel cap to prevent the ingress of surface water. Piezometer Standpipe The piezometer standpipe consists of a porous element 305mm long. It is saturated before placing and is placed centrally in a response zone consisting of 1.0m deep layer of well-graded fine to coarse sand and is, tamped below and above the porous element, The porous clement is connected to 19mm internal diameter rigid unplasticised P.V.C. tubing which finishes close to ground level. All the joints in the tubing are made with coupling sleeves so that there is no change in the internal diameter of the bore and it is sealed to be watertight. 5-85.6 5.5.3 Piezometer Standpipe - (Cont'd) The borehole is then sealed above the Tesponse zone. A stiff grout seal of bentonite 0.5m thick is then formed by evenly depositing a layer of freshly mixed grout. The remainder of the seal is formed by placing grout through a tremie tube, the lower end of which shall be kept below the surface of the grout. The grout is then allowed to settle and set for one (1) hour after completion of placing, The top of the P.V.C. tubing is sealed with a steel cover. (See Fig. 5.9). DETERMINATION OF SOIL COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY (@) When possible, permeability of soil should be determined by testing, Two common laboratory methods of determining the permeability constant (K) are:~ (1) constant-head permeameter test; (2) falling-head permeameter test (©) There are tables and nomographs developed for estimating soil permeability coefficient. A table prepared by Japan Road Association (See Table 5.1) and a nomograph by Moulton (See Fig. 5.10) can be used for estimating soil permeability coefficient. (©) ___ Besides laboratory testing, measurement of soil permeability should be made in the field by adopting one of the above two methods, after a normal borehole test has been carried out. 5.6.1 In-situ Permeability Test (@) Variable Head in Soils ‘The set-up and typical recording of the test are presented in Tables 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. The coefficients of permeability at the depth of borehole arc determined by using the so called falling- head method. Water in the borehole is filled up to the top of casing and the change in water level with time is monitored for a period of time. The formula for computing the coefficient of permeability is given as follows:- 2mR Hy K = loge M(t) He where K coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) R radius of casing (em) t initial testing time (minute) t2 = _ final testing time (minute) Hi initial head Hy final head 5-9(a) (b) Variable Head in Soils - (Cont'd) ‘The formula for determining the coefficient of permeability from packer test results is given in the United States Bureau of Land Reclamation “Earth Manual” (1963) as:- Q K= x loge (Lit) for L > 10r 2nLHy where K coefficient of permeability (cnvsec) Q rate of flow (cu.cm.sec) L_ = _ test section length (em) Hi = total dynamic head (cm) rt = radius of test hole (em) Packer Test in Rock A single packer is lowered to the required depth, and is supported on drill rods, which are also used to supply water under pressure to the test section. At the top of the drill hole, the rods are connected via a water swivel and a high pressure: piston water supply pump capable of delivering at least 100 litres/minute. In addition, at the end coupled to the swivel hose, one pressure gauge and a volumeter are included to allow the measurement of water flow and pressure in various stages. ‘The test carried out in stages being cycled up to a maximum ‘head and then down again. In the case of leakage (unsound rock), the test is performed only for the attainable pressure. ‘At each pressure stage, the pressure is held constant and the volume is measured over a period of 5 minutes. ‘The permeability is calculated from the volume of flow and the net dynamic head applied to the test section. ‘The net dynamic head (H) is:- Hy (Hy + Hh + Hb) He where Hy the pressure head (from the pressure gauge) H, = _ head due to the height of the pressure gauge above the ground level Hy = dopth of ground water or middle of test section if the drill hole is dry H, = _ head loss in the equipment Note: In rocks with a permeability of less than 1 x 10° cm/s, (H,) is not likely to be significant and therefore negligible. 5-10CEMENT MIKED WITH SAND J>—— 19mm 1.0. P.V.C. PIPE GROUND LEVEL GROUND LEVEL COARSE SAND ce [s t PERFORATED © ) SECTION }—— Pwv.c. cover ‘im SAND PLUG| COARSE SAND FIG. 5.8 STANDPIPE INSTALLATION S11CEMENT MIXED WITH SAND fe—— 19mm |.D. PV.C. PIPE GROUND LEVEL GROUND LEVEL CEMENT BENTONK SLURRY wewrowre [soo COARSE SAND PIEZOMETER TIP [1000 SOIL/SAND BACKFILL (BOTTOM OF BOREHOLE) FIG. 5.9 PIEZOMETER STANDPIPE INSTALLATION 5-12Re a 5 a é 5 5 (um /sa)\suswa0 sao ~ Pp LV Ma a [OVNI ‘aVIANVaD A00/44 08 = 1 cave WI0/at LI = PA wug9 = Og we = 0024 BTA (as) 3 wen] ~ Og ge (xz = camssy) “uuaeD cunges = 9 g (228) Pe = 3) = ausora = u tp re eee ce a wae gy Big GES HOS 002 ‘ON ONIESHE INZOHEE - 002, 5-13208/wo 0b X SEL = yw /wo 60h x Lb = (s196'0) ‘ONSYO 40 401 MOUI CHANSYIM 36 O1 GAR WIIVA OL H1a90 = 3ION (18660) AuMiavanaad 40 1N319145300 REILSROTId 30 34M wu RET 40 wasn | wwoer = yoLvaad0 7 Maw : $40 Hs, (w)aa71007F 35“ON 0" TiOH3HOa 40 NOLO (0) OMISYD 40 dO1 MOTE H1da0 Z-Ha ON TOHROS ISL ALTIEVANe GVSH TlavRVA (GVSH_TAVRIVA) 1S3L_ALTBVANN MLISNI 2S TiavL 5-14(om) 0 (qu9/61) aa 05000038 (ue 0001) extva 30 o¥OH Wor = te /n, vinmsos “WOUMIA HOAs TON “BATT aLyMaNNOR® 2 OH 0 sri * mH Jo sana 1 Huon ASL vo ouce aH 33M ‘OILS 40 NOUWLIUARDINI OUYANG [AOU 40 Saat SINS 40 NOUWLAUSINI ord uz ou “sea ue mW unnevara (ora 120 anaiousa00] wol | xuuva ouvis| + uv sal wos'd? OL wod'sz = (Hiaaa) NOUD3S S31 5-15TABLE 5.4 - MEASUREMENT OF W.L. FOR STANDPIPE / PIEZOMETER STANDPIPE NO, OF STANDPIPES : BH4 {INSTALLATION OF STANDPIPE DEPTH TO 30.70m b.g.l) DATE TIME | W.L. MEASURED FROM | DATE TIME | W.L. MEASURED FROM GROUND LEVEL (m) GROUND LEVEL (m) 18/06/87 23.93 04/07/87 26.74 49/06/87. 24.21 05/07/87 26.63 20/06/87 24.46 06/07/87 26.53 21/06/87 24.67 07/07/87 26.22 22/06/87 24.9 08/07/87 26.01 23/06/87 23.97 09/07/67, 25.85 24/06/87. 23.99 soorer |____2588 25/06/87 24.25 11/07/87 25.90 26/06/87 24.38 12/07/87 25.91 27/06/87 24.45 13/07/87 25.92 28/06/87, 25.07 14/07/87 25.94 29/06/87 25.24 15/07/87 25.92 30/06/87 25.52 16/07/87 25.93, 01/07/87 25.58, 02/07/87 25.64 03/07/87 25.68 516 vee COREAMTSASunbrOOATNINED5.7 DESIGN OF FILTER MATERIAL In the past little attention has been paid to the nature of the material backfill into the drainage trench and that surrounding the drain pipe. It has been found that the usage of unsuitable filter material has resulted in an inefficient drainage system, which after few years has ceased to function owing to the silting up of the backfill. In addition, where the drains are installed in silty sandy soil, fine silts are often washed through the voids leading to the formation of large voids (also known as "soil piping" or “internal erosion") which have caused failure in pavements due to lack of the structural integrity of the underlying soil. General characteristics required for the filter material are:~ (a) ___ the stability of grains, i.e. not early weathered nor dissolved. (b) proper gradation, well graded natural gravel or graded crashed rock is most suitable. Filter material selected must be able to fulfill these requirements:- (@) it must prevent finer material, usually the subgrade soil, from piping or migrating into the drainage layer and clogging it. (b) it must be permeable enough to cary water without any significant resistance. (©) it must be strong enough to carry the loads applied and, for aggregate filters, to distribute live loads to the subgrade. Filter material can consist of standard / design gradings of soil particles or synthetic filter cloth. ‘The procedure, which is now commonly adopted, is to use specially selected or designed filter materials, 5.7.1 Design Filter Material - Standard Gradings and Design Gradings The aim of filter design is to ensure that the pores in the filter are fine enough to prevent the migration of coarser soil particles (soil piping) which will support the soil mass. Filter design criteria therefore needs to relate to the pore size of backfill material and the particle sizes of the soil around the drain, filter material must also be sufficiently permeable to allow the flow of water. The design life of filter material should be 10 to 15 Years. Generally, we have to design filter materials for:- (@) predominantly clay soils (b) predominantly sandy or gravel soils 5-17@) o) Predominantly Clay Soils ‘Concrete sand complying to MS 30, Zone 2'grading or similar material has proved quite satisfactory for all silty and clayey soils, The concrete sand is fine enough to act as a filter for silts, and will protect the drain from any fine non-cohesive particles in clays. Fig. 5.11 and Table 5.5 show the particles size distribution for concrete sand MS 30. Table 5.5 - The Particles Size Distribution for Concrete Sand MS 30 BS, 410 Test Sieve Percentage by Weight Passing BS. Sieves {0.0mm 100 90 - 100 75 - 100 55-90 35-59 8-30 0-10 ‘The first step in the design of filter material for sandy or gravel soils is to obtain a particle size analysis of the subgrade soil in which it is proposed to install the drain and to plot a curve of particle size distribution in the usual manner. The limits for the Particle size distribution of the filter materials are based on the requirements shown in Fig. 5.12. @® Filtration or Piping Ratio To prevent silt or fine particles of the base soil from being washed into the filter material (soil piping). (See Fig. 5.12). DisF s5 Dass (ii) Permeability Ratio To ensure that the filter material must have a higher permeability rate than that of the subgrade. DISF >5 Diss 5-18288 “Sd UNVS ALAYONOD WOA NOMMGIGISIC aZIS IOMWaVd 11'S-DLd zan00] me | 30 [00 [ener] per [ssco|mneon om SoS ae (ww) 371s JIOLaYd t 2 g B 8 a 5 5 8 2 a g Z a ONISS¥d JOVINIOYId S19o Predominantly Sandy or Grayel Soils - (Cont'd) (iii) Hole Ratio For the filter material to be prevented from being carried away through the holes of the drain pipes, the following must hold: DasF >2 D (diameter of hole) Notes: (1) DIS is used to designate the size of the sieve that allows fifteen percent (15%) by weight of the filter material to pass through it. Similarly, D8ss designates the size of sieve that allows eighty-five (85%) by weight of the base soil to pass through it. Particle sizes smaller than the 75 um sieve refer to Hygrometer analysis results. (2) The filter must not be gap-graded (i.e. when some sieve fractions are scarce or missing altogether), Where the soil around a drain is gap-graded, filter design shall be based only on the particles finer than the gap in the grading. Such precautions are intended to ensure that the finer soil cannot migrate through the coarser particles and therefore clog the drain. 3) _ If the soil contains layers of fine material, the filter shall be designed from the grading of the finer soil. (4) Filter material shall not have more than five percent (5%) of its weight passing through the 75 um sieve, to prevent migration of fines from the filter into the drain. Examples in Section 5.7.3 show how to design filter materials for different types of base soil 5.7.2 Synthetic Filter Cloth / Fabrics ‘The recommended minimum engineering fabric selection criteria in filtration / drainage applications shall be as follows:- @) -ations) (soils with 50% or less particles by weight passing 75 um sieve; EOS < Dss of adjacent soil (ii) soils with more than 50% particles by weight passing 75, um sieve; (ii) the Equivalent Opening Size shall be obtained in the following manner:~ 5-205.7.2, Synthetic Filter Cloth / Fabrics - (Cont'd) Five (5) fresh samples shall be tested. About 150 gm of each of the following fractions of sand composed of sound rounded Particles shall be as tabulated below:- ‘Table 5.6 - Composition of Sand Fraction From 150 gm Samples Percentage Retained On (iv) The cloth shall be fixed to a standard sieve having openings larger than the coarsest sand used in such ‘manner that no sand can pass between the cloth and the sieve wall. The sand shall be oven-dried, Shaking shall be accomplished as described in ASTM D422, and shall be continued for 20 minutes. Determine by sieving (using successively coarser fractions) that fraction of sand of which five percent (5%) or less by weight passes the cloth: the equivalent opening size of the cloth sample is the "retained on" Standard Metric sizes of this fraction, Notes: (1) whenever possible, fabric with the largest possible EOS shall be preferred. (2) when protected soil contains particles 25mm size to those passing the U.S. 75 um sieve, use only the gradation of soil passing the U.S. 4.75 mm sieve in selecting the fabric. (&) Clogging Resistance (Severe / critical applications: * woven fabrics percent open area > 4.0% and EOS > 150 um sieve (0.149 mm); ** woven fabrics not meeting item (*) and all other fabrics gradient ratio < 3.0; Gi) Less severe / less critical applications all fabrics equivalent Darcy permeability of fabric > 10 times Darcy permeability of soil to be drained, 5-21© @ @ Gi) Ce ition Ri vents, Fibres used in the manufacture of engineering fabrics shall consist of long-chain synthetic polymer, composed of at least 85% by weight of polypropylene, -ethylene, - ester amide, or-vinylidene-chloride, and shall contain stabilizers and / or inhibitors added to the base plastic (as necessary) to make the fabric resistance to deterioration from ultraviolet and heat exposure. ‘The engineering fabric shall be exposed to ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) for no more than 30 days total in the period of time following manufacture until the fabric is covered with soil, rock, concrete, etc. Physical Property Requirements (all fabrics) Table 5.7 - Physical Property Requirements Fabric (*) Fabric Unprotected | Protected Grab Strength 0.9 KN 0.45 KN (ASTM D 1682) Puncture Strength ** 355N 155N (ASTM D 751-68) Burst Strength *** 2.2 KN/m 1.1 KNim. (ASTM D 751-68) + Fabric is said to be protected when used in drainage trenches or beneath / behind concrete (portland or asphalt cement) slabs. All other conditions are said to be unprotected. Tension testing machine with ring clamp, steel ball replaced with an 8 mm diameter solid steel cylinder with hemispherical tip centered within the ring clamp. Diaphragm test method. 5-225.7.3 Examples of Filter Design Example 1 ‘Suppose a subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with gradings as shown in Fig. 5.12. (a) ForFiltration DisF 5 Dass Disk <5 x Dass 5 x 0.25 (from Fig. 5.12) 1.25mm_— hence, DisF < 1.25mm (b) For Permeability Disk > 5 x Diss 5 x 0.02 (from Fig. 5.12) 010mm hence, DisF > 0.1mm wan A backfill material should be chosen for the drain that is within the specifications above. Please note in Figure 5.12 that it is desirable that the gradation curve of the filter material is smooth and parallel to that of the subgrade. Example 2 A subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with gradings as shown in Fig. 5.13. (@) Filter Design @ — ForFiltration D1sF <5 Diss DisF <5 x Dass 5 x 0.21 (from Fig. 5.13) 1.05mm hence, DisF < 1,05mm 5-23PASSING PERCENT (%) T 0 (HOLE Siz) ‘ALLOWABLE, RANG! Drs SUBGRADE = 002mm ‘OF Das (FILTER) LGRADIATION CURVE OF SUBGRADE IGRADIATION CURVE OF FLTER MATERIAL 5 Dis (SUBORADE) = 0.1mm 5 Das (SUBGRADE) EE coma Wnt OF 6 (HH 1 SIEVE SIZE (mm) FIG. 5.12 GRADATION OF FILTER MATERIAL 3 g g LATED MATERIALS PERCENTAGE PASSING 8 8 to 0 GRAIN SIZE. (mm) FIG. 5.13 FILTER AND SLOT DESIGN FOR EXAMPLE 2 5-245.7.3, Examples of Filter Design - (Cont’d) (b) Gi) For Permeability DisF 25 Diss Disk > 5 x Diss 5 x 0.085 (from Fig. 5.13) = 0.425mm hence, DisF > 0.425mm Slot Design A backfill material should be chosen for the drain that is within the specification given above. A suitable material might have 85% size of between 3-Smm. The maximum allowable hole sizes in pipes used with the material would be given by:- Maximum dia. of circularhole = DssF = 5.0mm = 4.2mm Maximum dia, slots width = Dssr x 1 12 If the holes in the pipe are too large, a coarser filter material must be placed next to the pipe. The grading of the coarser material must be able to prevent migration of the filter into the pipe. It should therefore be designed in the way indicated above, except that the finer filter material is considered as the base soil. Example 3 A subsoil drain is to be constructed in a base soil with gradings as shown in Fig. 5.14. (a) ForFiltration DisF <5 Dass DisF < 5 x Dass 5 x 1.05 (from Fig. 5.14) 5.25mm hence, DisF < 5,25mm 5-25PERCENTAGE FINER _ Bs 8 8 8 8 GRAVEL TI 10 SIEVE SIZE (mm) FIG. 5.14 FILTER DESIGN FOR EXAMPLE 3 5-265.73 Examples of Filter Design - (Cont'd) (b) For Permeability Disk 25 Diss Disk > 5 x Diss 5 x 0.025 (from Fig. 5.14) = 0,125mm hence, DisF > 0.125mm The backfill chosen for the drain should lie within the calculated grading limits, TYPES OF SUBSOIL DRAINS The type of subsoil drain to be used will depend mainly on the source and the volume of water to be handled. All subsoil drains should be surrounded with an appropriate filter to prevent soil piping and at the same time have adequate conductivity to remove seepage flow. Granular or synthetic (Geotextile) materials can be used as filter membrane and free draining aggregates with or without a subsoil pipe is commonly used as the water conductivity medium, Four (4) types of subsoil drain commonly used are:~ @ (o) © @ 5.81 single size aggregate filled trench lined with synthetic filter cloth (See Fig. 5.15); subsoil pipe and single size aggregate filled trench lined with synthetic filter cloth (See Fig. 5.16); porous / perforated / slotted pipe with design filter material (See Fig, 5.17); other proprietary types. Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.15) In this type of subsoil drain, the trench is lined with geotextiles (made up of very fine holes and high porosity) protecting gravel filled trench. The geotextile acts as a filter as it allows water seeping from the soil to pass through while preventing most soil particles from being carried away by seepage water. 5-275.8.1 5.8.2 5.8.3 5.8.4 Single Size Aggregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.15) - (Cont'd) The recommended minimum geotextile selection criteria in filtration applications is discussed earlier in detail under Section 5. This type of subsoil drain requires less control of aggregate gradings and can handle only relatively low seepage volume of water. However, this type of subsoil drain is quite expensive duc to high cost of geotextile material. ‘Subsoil Pipe and Single Size Agaregate Filled Trench Lined with Synthetic Filter Cloth (See Fig. 5.16) It is a combination of subsoil pipe and aggregates. It can handle large seepage volume of water but is even more expensive than the type mentioned under Section 5.8.1. Porous / Perforated / Slotted Pipe with Design Filter Material (See Fig. 5.17) Consists of a trench in which a line of subsoil pipe is laid and the trench backfilled with suitable filter material. ‘The common types of pipes available are follows:~ (i) porous concrete pipes (ii) asbestos cement slotted pipes (ii) perforated PVC pipes (iv) unglazed earthenware This type of subsoil drain requires stringent control of gradings and can handle large seepage volume of water. Among the four it is the cheapest type of subsoil drain. Other Proprietary Types Currently in the market, there are other patented types of subsoil drain which are marketed by various manufacturers. Proprietary types should be given due consideration and there is no reason why they cannot be used if they are proven to be suitable after proper evaluation and field tests as described under Section 5.4.1. If in doubt, the Engineer should refer the new products to IKRAM for advice. 5-2859 DRAIN PIPE DESIGN (@) Diameter of Pipe Minimum diameter of pipe used should be 150mm. (b) Gradient of Pipe Absolute minimum gradient: 1 ; 300 Desirable minimum gradient: 1: 100 (© Perforations @ slot width < — Dasr 12 (i) hole diameter < Desk Gii) average surface opening of porous pipe < DesF 12 The perforated or slotted pipes shall have holes in the lower half of their circumference only. ‘This is to increase the interception ability of the pipes and to reduce the in washing of filter material. (@ Cover of Pipe Subsoil pipes shall have a minimum cover of 300mm (from top of pipe to formation level) if it is not subjected to vehicular loading. If there is vehicular loading minimum cover shall be 1.0m. (©) Subsoil Drain Sumps Subsoil.drain shall be connected into stormwater sumps or under some circumstances separate subsoil sumps may be necessary. These sumps have two functions:- (i) For Inspection Usually at the start of a subsoil drain, a simple inspection sump should be provided. (ii) For Cleaning Purposes Spacing of the sumps should not be more than 120m apart and have a minimum horizontal dimensions of 600mm if less than 1.2m deep, and 900mm when deeper than that 5-295.9 Drain Pipe Design - (Cont'd) © Pipe Outlet Pipe outlets should be located at no more than 120m spacing. Subsoil drain outlets shall be constructed on a relatively steep grade to ensure unimpeded pipe discharge. The outlets shall also be paved to prevent erosion and to be clearly visible for inspection and maintenance. Figure 5.19 shows a typical pipe outlet for subsoil drain. It should be noted that under certain circumstances subsoil pipes can function exclusively as a subsoil drain, or be a combination of stormwater, and subsoil drain. Therefore the types of subsoil drainage which do not utilise a pipe cannot be properly maintained and as such cannot be recommended for permanent installation. 5-30‘SHOULDER ROADSIDE DRAIN ‘SUBGRADE | AGGREGATE BACK FILL 25mm — 40mm SINGLE SIZE AGGREGATE J+—— ONE LAYER FILTER CLOTH ‘ALL ROUND FIG. 5.15 SINGLE SIZE At TE FILLED TRENCH THETIC FILTER CLO’ ROADSIDE DRAIN ‘SUBGRADE [-——ONE LAYER FILTER CLOTH ALL ROUND 12mm — 25mm SINGLE SIZE AGGREGATE ite 180mm @ SUBSOIL PIPE FIG. 5.16 SUBSOIL PIPE SIZE_AGGREGA' RENCH_LINED 'HETIC FILTER C! 5-31“SHOULDER ‘SUBGRADE DESIGN FILTER MATERIAL MINIMUM 150mm # SUBSOIL PIPE FIG. 5.17 POROUS/PERFORA' TED PIPE WITH DESIGN FILTER MATERIAL tot NSS EEE Lot to Lt 1 SPACING ~ SPACING i < supsol-—F-— To _(TO BE DESIGNED) ae CCENTERUNE TRANSVERSE SUBSOIL DRAIN Se Tel FIG. 5.18 EXAMPLES OF ARRANGEMENT OF TRANSVERSE SUBSOIL DRAIN 5-32[—LONG GALV. SCREW (SET IN PLASTIC OR HEAD WALL PLUG) 1.61nm DIA. GALV. THE WIRE TWISTED AROUND EACH -}——150mm 9 PIPE te TOP VIEW 73,15,100 Sel GALV. WIRE NETTING 19mm (MESH) FIG. 5.19 TYPICAL PIPE OUTLET FOR SUBSOIL DRAIN e 5-33ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 6 - DRAINAGE Main Committee Members Nafisah Hj, Abdul Aziz - Chairman Ahmad Fuad Emby - Deputy Chairman ‘Wan Suraya Mustatfa - Secretary Normala Hassan + Alternate Secretary ‘Teh Ming Hu - Committee member Lim Kim Oum - Committee member Alias Hashim - Committee member Low Kom Sing = Committee member Nor Asiah Othman > Committee member Johan Les Hare Abdullah - Editor mmittee Mem! Dra ‘Teh Ming Hu = Chairman Wan Suraya Mustaffa = Secretary Ahmad Fuad Emby - Committee member ‘Lam Kok Hong - Committee member Yap Lee Chor - Committee member Letchumanan Allagappan = Committee memberACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Volume 5 is a review of the Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 - INTERMEDIATE GUIDE TO DRAINAGE DESIGN OF ROADS, the chapter was authored originally by Soon Ho Sin and Muhamad Amin Mahmud of Public Works Department Malaysia. Volume 5 now provides guidelines to the practical design of subsoil drainage, with worked examples provided to assist users. Thanks are due to: - REAM Standing Committee on Technology and Road Management for the ‘guidance and encouragement given in the preparation of Volume 5. Members of the Technical Committee 6 - Drainage and Sub-Committee for Subsoil Drainage for their untiring efforts to ensure timely completion of Volume 5.