Electric Motors

1 Introduction

Credit: CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=671798

2 Brushed DC Motors
The most popular actuators in mechatronic systems are direct current motors.
They provide precise and continuous control of speed over a wide range of
operating conditions by varying voltage. They operate by running current
through a magnetic field, generated either by a permanent magnet (a) or an
electromagnet (b). DC motors are easier to control.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Parts of a brushed DC motor:

• Armature/Rotor: The rotating part of the motor

1
 • Stator: The stationary part of the motor
• Field Coil: The wires that are generating the magnetic field, generally
part of the stator.
• Brush: Pieces on the stator that physically contact and electrically con-
nect the current source to the split-ring commutator.
• Split-ring commutator: Piece on the rotor that makes contact with the
brushes.

2.1 Physics

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

We can solve for the torque due to a single armature turn and a single set of
poles, starting with the force on a charge moving through a magnetic field -
Lorentz Law.

F = qv × B
Tideal = BbLi = Φi
Where b is the coil breadth, B is the magnetic flux density, L is the coil
length, and i is the current. But the design of the motor often has multiple
turns and multiple poles, and this model assumes the turn is aligned parallel
to the field. All of these effects can be lumped into coefficients kt and Kt . Kt
is known as the torque constant for the motor.

T = kt Φi = Kt i

2
 Since the armature is rotating in a magnetic field, electromagnetic induc-
tion will occur and a back e.m.f. Vb is induced.

Vb = kv Φω = Kv ω
Kv is the back e.m.f. constant for the motor. If we ignore the motor
inductance L, we can solve for the current i, and then solve for the torque T
in terms of voltage V and angular velocity ω.

V − vb V − Kv ω
i= =
R R
Kt
T = Kt i = (V − Kv ω)
R
We can see that (in this ideal case) there’s an inverse linear relationship
between torque T and angular velocity ω. Power P is the product of T and
ω. We can also determine the efficiency of the motor from the ratio of the
mechanical power P and the electrical power expended PE .

PE = V i
P
E=
PE
Typically, a data sheet will provide values for the current and speed of the
motor under no load: inoload and ωnoload at Text = 0. They will also list the
current and torque of the motor when stalled istall and Tstall when ω = 0.
This deviates from the ideal, because even when T = 0 we have some current
flow. This can be attributed to losses in the system, and we can consider the
internal torque Tint is the sum of Text and a friction torque Tf riction . From
the data sheet values, we can relate the torque and the speed like this:

(ωnoload − ω)
T = Tstall
ωnoload
(Tstall − T )
ω = ωnoload
Tstall  
T
i = (istall − inoload ) + inoload
Tstall

3
 Note also that the power is somewhat predictable:

P = Tω
 
(Tstall − T ) ωnoload
Tstall T − T 2


= T ωnoload =
Tstall Tstall
(ωnoload − ω) Tstall
ωnoload ω − ω 2


= ωTstall =
ωnoload ωnoload
In both examples, the power is maximized at T = Tstall /2 and ω =
ωnoload /2, so that Pmax = Tstall ωnoload /4 An example:

Tstall = 10N m
ωnoload = 10rad/s
Istall = 1.1A
Inoload = 0.1A
V = 60V
(ωnoload − ω)
T = Tstall
ωnoload
(Tstall − T )
ω = ωnoload
Tstall
= 10 − T
T
I= + Inoload
Kt
PM = T ω = 10T − T 2
PE = IV = 60(T /10 + 0.1)
10T − T 2
E=
60(0.1T + 0.1)
If we plot torque on the y axis and speed on the x-axis the power peak falls
in the middle, and the efficiency peak falls to the right of that. Pmax = 25W ,
and Emax = 89%.

2.2 Wiring Types

The above equations assume that the inductance L in the circuit is low, which
we can do if the magnetic field is generated by a permanent magnet, or an

4
electromagnet on a separate circuit. However, the field coils are often on
the same circuit as the armature turns, and these are known as series-wound
motors (in series), shunt-wound motors (in parallel), or compound motors
(both series and parallel).
Series-wound motors have a high startup torque and high no-load speed.
The flux Φ is dependent on the current iA , so the torque is proportional
to i2 . T = kt ΦiA = Ki2A . At startup, iA = V /R, so the starting torque
T = k(V /R)2 . Changing the direction of current does not affect the rotation
direction, because both the field and the armature current reverse.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Shunt-wound motors have the lowest starting torques of these designs and
a much lower no-load speed. Rcoil >> Rarmature , and V is virtually constant
across both elements. They generally maintain a constant speed across a
variety of loads.
A compound motor aims to get the best features of each type of motor.
The speed-graphs of each type of motor can be seen above.

5
2.3 Speed control with PWM

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

A DC motor can be controlled by altering the voltage, but in some circuits this
is not practical. Instead, many motors are controlled through pulse-width-
modulation (PWM). A PWM signal generally has a constant frequency and
amplitude, but the fraction of the period in which the signal is high varies.
This is often referred to as a percentage duty cycle

2.4 Direction Control with H-Bridge

An H-bridge is a collection of four transistors that are arranged so that the
motor can be supplied with a positive or negative current, allowing it to run
in both directions. Two transistors are connected to either side of the motor,
and in each pair one of the transistors is connected to the positive supply,
and one to the negative supply. Complementary transistors in each pair are
activated together so that current flows into one motor terminal and out the
other.

6
Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

7
3 DC Brushless Motors

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

8
Brushed motors have problems related to the brushes. The sliding contacts
suffer wear and produce sparks. An alternative design is a brushless motor.
In these motors, the magnet is in the rotor, and the stators contain coils that
produce alternating magnetic fields. proximity sensors (usually magnetic hall
sensors) are used to automatically switch the current. The advantages are
that brushless motors don’t wear as much or experience arcing, having lower
shaft inertia and heating (due to resistive power dissipation)

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

3.1 Motor performance

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

9
4 AC motors

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

There are many types of AC motors; they can generally be gategorized as

single-phase or poly-phase (typically 3-phase), and synchronous or induction
motors. AC motors are generally inexpensive and low maintenance, but are
more difficult to control than DC motors.
The most basic motor is a single-phase squirrel cage induction motor.
An alternating current produces an alternating magnetic field in the stator
windings. This produces, through e.m. induction, an e.m.f in the conduc-
tive rotors, resulting in rotor current flow. When the rotor is stationary,
this results in no net torque, and so these motors must have some starting
mechanism.
The rotational speed is determined by the frequency of the alternating
current. This is the frequency of the alternating magnetic field, and the
motor will typically differ from this frequency by ∼ 3% − 5%. So, for a 50
Hz signal, the motor will rotate slightly less than 50 revolutions per second.

10
 The torque of the motor can be determined from the slip s = (ns − nr ) /ns ,
where ns is the synchronized speed and nr is the actual speed. It varies based
on the motor design, and representative plots can be seen in the above figure
for A) Single-phase, B) Polyphase cage, C) Polyphase cage deep bar, D)
Polyphase double cage.
Three-phase induction motors have three sets of windings in the stator,
that receive current 120 degrees out of sync. The effect is a rotating magnetic
field, with a much smoother magnetic effect than the single-phase induction
motors. These motors are self-starting, and can be reversed by switching any
two of the line connections.

11
 Synchronous motors have a permanent magnet in the rotor instead of a
squirrel cage. These motors run in sync with the frequency of the field coil
current, assuming they have one pair of poles per phase. Otherwise, the
speed is given by the equation ω = 2ωs /p, where ω is angular velocity in
revolutions per second, f ωs is the signal frequency, and p is the number of
poles per phase (2 poles per pair). For example, in the picture They are not
self-starting.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Traditionally AC motors have only been used in fixed-speed applications,

but with improved electronic support, it is now feasible to drive these motors
with variable-frequency signals, making them a more practical solution.

12
5 Stepper motor
A stepper motor provides precise controls by actuating between equal angular
steps. These come in three designs:
Variable Reluctance steppers have a soft iron rotor with teeth that
are pulled in (attracted to) electromagnets on the stator. Each set of elec-
tromagnets pulls the rotor into a new position.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Permanent magnet motors

Permanent magnet motors have a magnet in the rotor, and multiple phases
of electromagnets on the stator. Again, each phase of electromagnet pulls the
magnet into a new position.
One advantage of this versus the Variable Reluctance Motor is that the
permanent magnet provides a small detent torque, meaning it will try to hold
its position even when unpowered.

13
 Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Hybrid motors
Hybrid motors have a permanent magnet in the rotor, oriented axially,
with each end encased in a soft iron toothed head. Electromagnets at multiple
phases are in the stator with corresponding teeth, and the stator teeth of
each phase are slightly out of phase. These motors typically have the largest
number of possible positions. This allows for each phase to pull the rotor to
a new position for each tooth, so that a motor with N phases and M teeth
has N M possible positions.

14
 Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

Important qualities of a stepper motor:

Pulse rate: The speed with which the motor attempts to move from one
step to the next. If the motor is in sync, then the pulse rate times the step
angle equals the angular velocity, but high loads can cause the stepper motor
to fall out of sync.
Phase: the number of independent windings on a motor. Usually, 2-phase
is for light-duty, 4-phase is for high-power, and 3-phase is for variable reluc-
tance.
Step angle: the displacement for one step
Holding torque: The max torque that can be applied without moving a
motor at rest
Pull-in torque: The max torque against which a motor will start, for a
given pulse rate, without missing a step.
Pull-out torque: The max torque that can be applied to a motor in syn-
chronous rotation that can be applied without losing synchronization
Pull-in rate: The maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can
start without losing step
Pull-out rate: The switching rate at which a loaded motor will stay in
sync
Slew range: the range of switching rates between pull-in and pull-out at

15
which the motor runs in synchrony, but can’t startup (or reverse).

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

We can consider a stepper motor to operate in two possible modes. The

slewing mode is similar to how most motors operate, continuous motion with-
out stops and starts. Locked-Step mode is more in line with how the motor
is designed, making discrete steps between each position. The important
distinction is whether the motor can ‘instantaneously’ stop at a specific step.

5.1 Bipolar
In a bipolar stepper motor, the current in each phase coil can be directed in
either direction.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

16
 A full step involves each stator poll being polarized, and one pole-pair
changing their polarization

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

For greater angular resolution, a stepper motor can be run in half-steps.

The half-steps consist of only one pole-pair being active.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

They can even be run in micro-steps by applying fractional amounts of

current to the windings, instead of just turning them on and off.

5.2 Unipolar
In a unipolar configuration, there is only a high and ground connection, and
the current direction is controlled by transistors so that only half of each coil
is in use at one time.

17
 Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

One thing to be aware of is that a single step is effectively a step input,

and if the system is underdamped you’ll get oscillations.

Credit: Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical engineering

18
5.3 Drive circuit

Credit: Alciatore, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems

Credit: Alciatore, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems

19