Sensors: Lecture I

1 Introduction
What is a sensor?: something that “provides a mechanism for collecting
different types of information about a particular process or system”.
A diagram of an Instrumentation System

1.1 Sensor Classifications

:
There are multiple ways to categorize sensors, each of which are relevant
to their application and system integration.
Analog: Continuum, uninterrupted series. The ouptut changes in a con-
tinuous way.
Digital: Sequence of discrete events. Each event is separate from the
previous and next events. They do not require converters when interfaced
with a computer monitoring system
Active: Requires external power for their operation.

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 Passive: Output (a change in the electrical properties) is produced from
the input parameters directly. These are typically self-generating materials
such as piezoelectrics, thermoelectrics, and radioactive sensors.
Null type: Deflection due to the measured input is balanced by an op-
posing calibrated force
Deflection type: Physical output is unbalanced and proportional to the
measured quantity.

1.2 Sensor characteristics

There are various parameters that quantify the quality of a sensor

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 Sensitivity: S , ∆O
∆I , where O is the output, I is the input. Qualitatively,
how much the sensor responds to stimulus

example:
If you have a strain gauge in which the resistance R increases by 100 Ω for
every 5 mm that beam tip deflects, then the sensitivity is 20 Ω mm−1

Resolution: Smallest increment in the measured value that can be de-

tected.

example:
For our previous strain gauge, imagine you can only detect changes of 40 Ω
or higher. In that case, the resolution of the sensor is 2 mm

Accuracy: A , %true value = O−O Ot , where Ot represents the true value

t

of the measured quantity. Qualitatively, how close to the true value your
measured value is.

example:
If you know your displacement is 110 mm but your strain gauge is consis-
tently measuring it at 100 mm, your accuracy is ±10 mm

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 Precision: Ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings
within a given accuracy. It is often expressed as an error (O ± ∆O)

example:
If the strain gauge output varies a lot between sampling, it has low pre-
cision, but if the measurements stay consistent (regardless of whether the
measurement is correct) then precision is high

Backlash: Maximum distance/angle through which any part of a me-

chanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion
in the attached part

example:
If you have a set of calipers with 1 mm resolution but if you push them
forward and then back, they can move 5 mm before registering a change, that
effect is backlash.

Repeatability: Ability to produce the output signal exactly when the

same measured input is applied under the same environmental conditions.
This is similar to precision.

Linearity: How much O = f (I) deviates from a linear approximation.

Sensors often have a linear range and a nonlinear range.

example:
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A sensor without Sout = kSin is linear, but a sensor Sout = kSin is not.

Drift: How much a sensor reading changes over time without a corre-
sponding input change.

Hysteresis: How much the input/output relationship changes depending

on the input history - for example, resistance change in a strain gauge as
strain is increasing vs decreasing.

2 Transducer Classes
Resistive (∆R), Capacitive (∆C), Inductive (∆L), Piezoelectric (∆V ).

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 R

V L
C

3 Resistive sensors
3.1 Physics

D
R=ρ
A
V = IR

3.2 Potentiometers
a potentiometer is a transducer in which a measured quantity results in a
potential difference. In this case, a displacement moves a circuit connection
along a resistor, changing the signal voltage. This is an analog, passive,
deflection type sensor.
The wiper effectively splits the potentiometer resistor into two separate
resistors, each with resistance proportional to their length. The total poten-
tiometer resistance is Rp , and the resistance of the components on either side
of the wiper are R1 and R2 . The lengths of the resistor on either side of the
wiper are L1 and L2 . The measured voltage V between the two resistors is
proportional to R2 and L2 . The displacement x = L1 .

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 V V
E E

Rp = R1 + R2
Lp = L1 + L2
ER2 EL2
V = =
R1 + R2 L1 + RL2
x = L1
∂V
S= = E/(Ltot )
∂x

3.3 Strain gauge sensors

When a change in length results in a change in resistance. The Gauge Factor
GF is defined as
∆R/R
GF ,
∆L/L
Consider a rectangular cuboid of some conductive material. If the ma-
terial is placed under some strain a , it’s crosssectional axes will undergo a
corresponding stain t = −νa , where ν is the poisson’s ratio. The resistance
R of this object is R = ρD/A, where ρ is the material resistivity, D is the
length, and A is the crosssectional area.

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 Credit: CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=893221

Do
Ro = ρ
Wo Ho
∂R
Ro + ∆R ≈ Ro + a
∂a
∂R ρ ∂D ρD ∂W ρD ∂H D ∂ρ
= − 2 − +
∂a W H ∂a W H ∂a W H 2 ∂a W H ∂a
ρDo ρDo (−νa Wo ) ρDo (−νa Ho )
= − − +0
Wo Ho Wo2 Ho Wo Ho2
∆R ≈ Ro (1 + 2ν) a
This assumes an unbonded strain gauge; one that is not attached to any
material along its length, and only constrained at one end. Many strain
gauges are bonded – attached to a substrate such as a polymer to support
the gauge, make installation easier, and prevent excessive strain. This can
affect the relationship between strain and resistance, so it’s often better to
measure the GF before use.

3.4 Wheatstone Bridge

Strain gauges are often deployed in a wheatstone bridge — a collection of
resistors oriented as shown in the figure below. Under the zero-load condition,
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 , and ∆V = 0.
If the strain gauge resistance R3 changes, then

R3 E R4 E R3 R1 − R4 R2
∆V = − =E
R2 + R3 R1 + R4 (R2 + R3 )(R1 + R4 )

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 Credit: Alciatore and Histand, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems

In many applications, R1 = R2 = R4 , and R3 = R + ∆R. When ∆R is

small,

(R + ∆R)R − R2 ∆R ∆RE
∆V = E =E ≈
(2R + ∆R)(2R) 4R + 2∆R 4R
These assemblies have three purposes: (1) They center the resting voltage
at 0, which makes amplification and signal processing easier. They make the
sensor resistant to temperature effects, since heat will increase resistance uni-
formly and leave the output signal unchanged. They also allow integration of
multiple strain sensors in different orientations to isolate specific phenomena,
such as pressure or beam bending.

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3.5 Orientations

Credit: Alciatore and Histand, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems

If we only care about a uniaxial load P , we can use a single strain gauge like
in the top left figure.

P = Aσx = AEx

If instead we know the component is loaded biaxially, we can use two strain
gauges. Consider the long thin tube (top right) with an internal pressure p

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 σx σy
x = −ν
E E
σy σx
y = −ν
E E
E
σx = (x + νy )
1 − ν2
E
σy = (y + νx )
1 − ν2
pr
σx =
t
pr
σx =
2t
tσx tE
p= = (x + νy )
r r(1 − ν 2 )
This works if we know the directions of the stresses, but in order to get
the full stress tensor σ1 , σ2 , and τ , we need three strain sensors, and we can
arrange these in a rosette pattern (bottom).

 
E a + c 1
q
2 2
σmax,min = ± 2 (a − b ) + 2 (b − c )
2 1−ν 1+ν
E
q
τmax = 2 (a − b )2 + 2 (b − c )2
2 (1 + ν)

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 You can also use additional strain gauges in a wheatstone bridge to iso-
late strains when there are multiple strains in a material. For instance, if
two strain gauges are placed on either side of the bar, they will both ex-
tend/compress under an axial load, but if the bar bends, one will extend
while the other compresses. Depending on how these are integrated into the
wheatstone bridge, the final output will be substantial for one mode, while
negligible for the other.

3.6 Applications
Besides strain, strain gauges can be adapted through mechanisms to measure
other phenomena:
Pressure: through the same mechanism, pressure will result in stress and
strain on a material.
Displacement: Either axially, or through a cantilevered beam with a
strain sensor on one side.
Acceleration: a cantilevered mass, with a strain gauge on the cantilever

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3.7 Resistive Temperature Sensors
3.7.1 temperature coefficient

Resistance in any material is dependent in part on the temperature. This is

expressed through multiple temperature coefficients (α, β), although gener-
ally only α is used.

R = Ro 1 + α(T − To ) + β(T − To )2 ...

R ≈ Ro (1 + α(T − To ))

αCu = 0.00431/K, αP t = 0.00391/K, αN i = 0.00681/K

3.7.2 Thermistors

A transducer whoes operation relies on the principle of change in semicon-

ductor resistance with change in temperature. Based on the above and in
general, the thermistors are governed by:
1
= A + B ln(R) + C ln(R)3
T

3.8 Photo sensors

3.8.1 Photodiodes

Standard diodes effectively only allow current flow in one direction: Very low
resistance in one direction, very high resistance in the other.

- +
Dark Current

- + Increasing Intensity

Photodiodes, when in the dark, operate in the same way. However, when
exposed to light, extra hole-electron pairs are produced and current is allowed
in the opposited direction. This reverse current is nearly proportional to the
intensity of the light.

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3.8.2 Photoresistors

Photoresistors have a resistance which depends on the intensity of the light

falling on it, decreasing linearly as intensity increases.

3.8.3 Phototransistors

When there is no light, there is a very small collector-to-emitter current.

When there is light, a base current is produced proportional to the light
intensity.

4 Induction Transducers
Often used for proximity sensing, motion/position detection.

4.1 Physics
The inductance L measured in Henrys H of a coil is

 
2 A
L=N µ = N 2 µG = N 2 P
`
here N is the number of coils, µ is the permeability of the medium around
the coil, A is the cross-sectional area of the coil, ` is the coil length, G is the
geometric factor, and P is the permeance.
Mutual induction is when an electromagnetic field is induced in one circuit
due to a change in current in another, resulting
√ in voltage and current in the
first current. The mutual inductance M = k L1 L2 , where L1 and L2 are the
inductance values of each coil and K is the coefficient of coupling.

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 dI1
V1 = L 1
dt
dI2
V2 = M
dt p
M = = N1 N2 P21 = k L1 L2

an LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer works by measuring

changes in this mutual inductance. It consist of a central, primary coil and
two secondary coils, with a magnetically permeable core.The primary coil P
is supplied an alternating current, which induces a magnetic field in the core
and mutual induction in the secondary cores S1 and S2 . When the core is
central, the induced voltages ES1 and ES2 are equal. as the core moves in
one direction or the other, the secondary coil that the core moves toward sees
an increase in mutual inductance, while the other coil sees a decrease. This
difference can be measured as a signal ouput Eo .

dIp
Vp = Lp
dt
dIs1
Vs1 = M1 = k1 sin(ωt − φ)
dt
dIs2
Vs2 = M2 = k2 sin(ωt − φ)
dt
Vo = V1 − V2 = (k1 − k2 ) sin(ωt − φ) = δk sin(ωt − φ)

Here φ represents a phase shift between the primary and secondary signals.
Unless you include some phase-sensitive sensor, the signal from the LVDT
is measured off of the amplitude of the signal. This means that the sensor
cannot distinguish between ∆k sin(ωt) and −∆k sin(ωt); in both cases, the
amplitude of the signal is ∆k. So many inductive sensors give a signal that
is symmetric for positive and negative displacements.

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5 Capacitive sensors
5.1 Physics

Ar o
C=
dZ
1 t
V (t) = I(τ ) dτ + Vo
C to
Capacitance C can be calculated from the overlapping area A between two
plates, the distance d seperating the plates, and the permittivity  of the
medium between the plates. The Voltage V can be calculated by C and the
current I(t).
Therefore, we can change the capacitance three ways: Changing the over-
lap, changing the plate separation, and changing the material between the
two plates.
For plates separating, the Sensitivity S is:
∂C r o A
S= =− 2
∂d d
For plates sliding, therefore changing the overlapping area:
∂C r o
S= =
∂A d

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 Capacitance
d
Displacement

For a capacitor that has a changing inner material:

o o
C= (A1 1 + (A − A1 )2 ) = (A1 (1 − 2 ) + A2 )
d d
∂C o (1 − 2 )
S= =
∂A1 d
∂C wo (1 − 2 )
S= =
∂x d

6 Piezoelectric sensors

d d+δ

+ - + -

Certain materials generate a voltage when undergoing deformation. This

occurs in reverse as well; when an electric field is applied, a deformation is
induced.This is because the charge is not symmetric inside a piezoelectric
crystal. One side is positive, and the other is negative. When the material is

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strained, these charges separated and each side becomes more polarized.
Q
V =
C
Q = Fd
dt
V = F = gtP
0 r A
where Q is the charge, Cp is the capacitance of the piezo material, F
is the force, d is the piezoelectric coefficient, t is the piezo thickness, r is
permittivity, P is the pressure/stress on the PZT, and g = d/r o is the
voltage sensitivity. d is often presented in units of pC/N , and g in units of
V m−1 Pa−1 .
Note that this value changes between materials, and is different for each
axis of the material, relative to the crystal structure. Piezo structures gener-
ally have some inherent resistance Rp as well. These materials can be used
to measure pressure, strain, force, and acceleration.

example: Polyvinylidene fluoride:

PVDF: g = −339 × 10−3 V m−1 Pa A 1 mm thick sheet of PVDF, under a
uniform pressure of 200 Pa, results in a potential of 68 mV.

6.1 a little more detailed...

Consider that:

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 D = E ⇒ Di = ij Ej
S = sT ⇒ Si = sij Tj
S = sT + δ t E ⇒ Si = sij Tj + dij Ej
D = δT + E ⇒ Di = dij Tj + ij Ej

 
0 0 0 0 d15 0
δ =  0 0 0 d24 0 0
d31 d32 d33 0 0 0
 
T1
    T2    
D1 0 0 0 0 d15 0 T3 
 11 0 0 E1
D2  =  0 0 0 d24 0 0   + 0 22 0
     E2 
T4
D3 d31 d32 d33 0 0 0 T5  0 0 33 E3
T6
D is the electric charge density displacement,  is the permittivity, E is
the electric field strength, S is the strain, s is the compliance, and T is the
stress.

6.2 Accelerometers

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7 Voltage-Based Thermal Sensors –Thermocouples

Tsense

- N P +
- +

Tref

V
When two dissimilar materials are joined to form a circuit at different
temperatures T1 and T2 , a small emf, e1 and e2 , are produced at the junctions
and the difference of these voltages cause a current to pass through. The
junction changes its temperature as heat is absorbed or generated.

Z Tsense
V = (S+ (T ) − S− (T )) dT
Tref

where S represents the Seebeck Coefficient for each material.

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