ARTICLE IN PRESS

LWT 38 (2005) 709–715

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Composition of green and roasted coffees of different cup qualities

Adriana S. Franca, Juliana C.F. Mendonc- a, Sami D. Oliveira
Núcleo de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Café, DEQ/UFMG, Chemical Engineering, R. Espı´rito Santo, 35-6 andar, 30160-030,
Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
Received 18 June 2004; accepted 27 August 2004

Abstract

One of the most important criteria used for assessing coffee quality is based on sensory analysis and is referred to as cup quality.
The presence of defective coffee beans is quite relevant to coffee quality. However, the majority of data on coffee properties are
restricted to supposedly good quality beans. Therefore, the present study is aimed at an evaluation of physical and chemical
attributes of coffees of different qualities, both green and roasted. Arabica coffee samples, previously classified by cup as soft (higher
quality), hard, rioysh and rio (lower quality), were roasted at 200 1C for 1 h. Regarding attributes of green coffee beans, both bean
density and volume were higher for the soft sample compared to the rio one. The soft sample also presented higher protein levels,
due to its higher caffeine contents. The rio sample presented lower lipid contents, probably associated to the presence of defective
beans. Acidity increased and pH levels decreased as cup quality decreased, probably due to the effect of defective beans that
undergone fermentation (sour beans). After roasting, the rio sample presented higher density and trigonelline levels, indicating that
it did not roast to the same degree as the other samples.
r 2004 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Coffee; Cup quality; Proximal composition; Caffeine; Trigonelline

1. Introduction point cooling is required in order to avoid burning the

The characteristic flavor and aroma of coffee result
from a combination of hundreds of chemical com-
pounds produced by the reactions that occur during
roasting. This process can be divided into three
consecutive stages: (i) drying, (ii) roasting or pyrolysis
and (iii) cooling. The first stage is characterized by a
slow release of water and volatile substances, during the
first half of processing. Bean color changes from green
to yellow. Pyrolysis reactions take place during the
second stage, resulting in considerable changes in both
physical and chemical properties of the beans. Large
quantities of CO2, water and volatile substances are
released and the beans turn brown, due to sugar
caramelization coupled to Maillard reactions. At this
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 31 32381777;
fax: +55 31 32381789.
E-mail address: franca@deq.ufmg.br (A.S. Franca).
coffee (Sivetz & Desrosier, 1979; Rodrigues, Borges,
Franca, Oliveira, & Correa, 2003).
Roasting is a complex process from a chemistry point
of view, since hundreds of chemical reactions take place
simultaneously. Some examples include Maillard and
Strecker reactions, degradation of proteins, polysac-
charides, trigonelline and chlorogenic acids (De Maria,
Trugo, Aquino Neto, Moreira, & Alviano, 1996). Sugars
and trigonelline will act as aroma precursors, originating
several substances (furans, pyrazines, pirroles, pyridines,
etc.) that will affect both the flavor and aroma of the
beverage. Thermal degradation of chlorogenic acids will
result on phenolic substances that will contribute to
bitterness (Clifford, 1985). Even though caffeine does
not take part in any reaction, it should also contribute to
bitterness, besides its known pharmacological effects
(Macrae, 1985). Thus, evaluation of trigonelline, chloro-
genic acids and caffeine, in both green and roasted
coffee, could be of relevance in establishing coffee

0023-6438/$30.00 r 2004 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2004.08.014
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710 A.S. Franca et al. / LWT 38 (2005) 709–715
quality. Furthermore, a few studies have proposed the
use of these substances for determination of the degree
of roast (Stennert & Maier, 1996), as genotype selection
criteria (Guerrero & Suárez, 2001) and for species
differentiation (Martı́n, Pablos, & González, 1998; Ky
et al., 2001).
The quality of coffee is commonly evaluated accord-
ing to criteria such as bean size, color, shape, processing
method, crop year, flavor and presence of defects
(Banks, McFadden, & Atkinson, 1999). Among those,
flavor (cup quality) and presence of defects (type
classification) are the most important criteria employed
worldwide in coffee trading. In Brazil, coffees are
officially categorized by reference to a flavor scale as
presented in Table 1 (Banks et al., 1999). This
classification, or cup quality, is assessed using the
brewing method of steeping (Lingle, 1993).
The term defect is employed in commercial practice in
reference to the presence of defective (black, sour or
brown, immature, insect-damaged or bored, broken,
etc.) beans and also of extraneous matter (husks, twigs,
stones, etc.) in a given coffee sample (Franca, Oliveira,
Mendonc- a, & Silva, 2004). The presence of defects is
quite relevant in establishing coffee quality, for they are
associated to problems during harvesting and pre-
processing operations. This is accounted for as type
classification (Table 2), according to which coffee is
categorized depending on the number of defects present
in a 300 g sample. Each type of defect is counted as an
equivalent to one black bean. For example, two sour
beans or five insect-damaged beans correspond to one
black bean, which is equivalent to one defect.
Defective coffee beans are usually not commercialized
in international markets, for they affect the quality of
the beverage when roasted with nondefective beans.
Currently, these defective beans comprise a figure of
about 20% of the total coffee production in Brazil, and
they are separated from the nondefective beans prior to
commercialization. Since they also represent an invest-
ment in growing, harvesting and handling in the coffee
production chain, coffee producers have adopted the
practice of dumping them in the Brazilian internal
Table 1
Summary description of the coffee cup classification system
Classification
Flavor characteristics
Strictly soft Low acidity, mellow sweetness, pleasant row of the
mouth easiness
Soft Same characteristics as strictly soft, only less
accentuated
Softish Same characteristics as soft, only less accentuated
Hard Lacks sweetness and softness
Rioysh Iodine, medicine like inky flavor from microbe-tainted
beans
Rio Same characteristics as rioysh, only more accentuated
Table 2
Summary description of the type classification system
Type no Maximum allowable number
of defects per 300 g sample
NY 2 6
NY 3 13
NY 4 30
NY 5 60
NY 6 120
NY 7 240
NY 8 450
market. The majority of the roasting industry in Brazil
has been using these defective beans in blends with
healthy ones, and, overall, a low grade roasted and
ground coffee is consumed in the country.
The chemistry of flavor development during roasting
of coffee is highly complex and still not well understood.
More than 800 volatile compounds have been identified
in coffee. However, the question of which ones and their
corresponding precursors are the most relevant con-
tributors to coffee flavor and aroma has not yet been
answered. Thus, in view of the large variety of coffees
available, of variations in processing and storage
conditions, and also of the fact that the literature data
on both physical and chemical attributes of coffee are
mostly in reference to good quality beans, an investiga-
tion of the chemical composition of coffee samples of
different qualities is relevant. In view of the above, the
objective of the present study was to evaluate physical
and chemical attributes of coffees of different qualities.
2. Methodology
Arabica green coffee samples previously classified by
cup and type were used in the roasting tests (Table 3).
The coffee samples were provided by Sindicato da
Indústria de Café do Estado de Minas Gerais (Minas
Gerais, Brazil). Eight samples of 100 randomly selected
beans were separated from every lot. Half of the samples
were roasted in a convective oven at 200 1C for 1 h. All
samples (and respective replicates) were roasted simul-
taneously in a single batch in order to assure that the
roasting conditions were the same for all of them. Also,
two samples of approximately 300 g were separated
from each lot and the defective (sour, immature, bored)
and nondefective beans were manually separated and
weighted, in order to determine the mass composition of
defective and nondefective beans.
The average volumes of the beans were calculated
from measurements of major, minor and intermediate
diameters of individual beans. It was assumed that each
bean could be taken as half a triaxial ellipsoid. Average
bean density was evaluated as the ratio between the
weight of the 100 beans sample and the sum of the
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A.S. Franca et al. / LWT 38 (2005) 709–715
Table 3
Classification of coffee samples used in this study
Sample Type
1 NY 3/4
2 NY 3/4
3 NY 7/8
4 NY 7/8
volumes. Bulk density was evaluated as the ratio
between the weight and the volume of the 100 beans
sample in a 50 ml graduated recipient (Dutra, Oliveira,
Franca, Ferraz, & Afonso, 2001).
The nitrogen (method 920.87) and fat (method
920.97) contents of the coffee samples were determined
according to official AOAC procedures (AOAC, 1995).
Nitrogen content (N2) was determined with a Kjeldahl
Digestion System (Tecnal, Brazil), using cupric sulfate
and potassium sulfate as catalysts (method 979.09).
Protein content was calculated as nitrogen  6.25. Fat
content was obtained from a 6 h hexane extraction at
60 1C. Ash content was calculated from the weight of the
sample after burning at 580 1C for 17 h (Clarke &
Walker, 1975). Moisture content was measured based on
sample weight-loss after oven-drying at 105 1C for 16 h
(ISO, 1983). Carbohydrate content was estimated by
difference: 100 g—total grams of water, protein, lipids
and ash. pH was measured with a pH meter (Micronal,
Brazil) with glass electrode at 25 1C. Titratable acidity
was evaluated by titration with NaOH, according to
AOAC (1995). (method 920.92).
Caffeine, trigonelline and 5-caffeoyilquinic acid con-
centrations were also measured, since previous studies
have indicated that those substances could vary with
coffee quality (Franca et al., 2004). Ground coffee
samples (1 g) were extracted with distilled boiling
water (100 ml) and the extracts were analysed by HPLC.
A Shimadzu Chromatograph (model LC-10VP) with
a photo-diode array detection (PDA) system and a
Supelco C18 column (5 mm, 150 mm  4.6 mm), with a
C18 pre-column were employed. The mobile phase
consisted of methanol, water and acetic acid (15:85:1)
at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. A caffeine, trigonelline and
5-caffeoyilquinic acid (5-CQA) standard solution was
employed for the identification of their respective peaks
and subsequent quantitation.
Cup classification was employed for sample identifi-
cation throughout this paper. The obtained data were
submitted to analysis of variance and the means were
compared by the Duncan test at 5% probability.
3. Results and discussion
Average results for the distribution of defective and
nondefective beans in the coffee samples are shown in
711
Fig. 1. The high-quality samples (soft and hard)
presented the smallest amounts of defective beans, less
Cup than 5%. The percentage of defective beans in the low-
quality samples (rioysh and rio) varied from approxi-
Soft mately 30–40%. The lowest quality sample (rio)
Hard
presented less defective beans than the rioysh one.
Rioysh
Rio However, approximately 75% of the defective beans in
the rioysh sample corresponded to insect-damaged
beans. The amount of sour beans was much higher for
the rio sample, which could explain its lower cup
quality.
Results for physical attributes are shown in Table 4.
Bean density values were in the ranges reported in the
literature: 1200–1300 kg/m3 (Sivetz & Desrosier, 1979;
Clarke, 1987; Dutra et al., 2001; Franca et al., 2004) and
450–800 kg/m3 (Sivetz & Desrosier, 1979; Rodrigues et
al., 2003) for green and roasted beans, respectively.
Regarding green beans, both bean density and volume
were higher for the soft (high-quality) sample and lower
for the rio (low-quality) sample. No differences were
detected in bulk density prior to roasting. The lower
values observed for bean volume in the rio sample could
be associated to the presence of sour beans. Previous
studies (Franca et al., 2004) have shown that such
defective beans are smaller than nondefective ones. As
expected, there was a significant decrease in both bean
and bulk densities after roasting. The lowest quality
sample (rio) presented the highest values of density after
roasting and the lowest increase in volume. Even though
all samples were submitted to the same roasting
conditions, these results could be an indication that
the rio sample did not roast to the same degree as the
others. Previous studies have shown that beans that
swell less should roast more slowly (Clarke, 1987) and
that defective beans, mainly black and sour, should
roast to a lesser degree than healthy beans, under the
same roasting conditions (Franca et al., 2004).
The proximate composition of green and roasted
coffee beans is shown in Table 5. Since total carbohy-
drate was determined by difference, carbohydrate values
presented in Table 5 will not be discussed in the present
study. Green coffee samples presented an average of
9 g/100 g moisture content, with the highest value for the
rioysh sample and the lowest value for the rio sample,
for the same relative humidity (75%). Moisture levels
are within the range reported in the literature: 8.5–13 g/
100 g (Clarke, 1985). After roasting, moisture levels
decreased to an average of 1.5 g/100 g, with no
differences among the samples. Protein levels for green
coffee were also in the range reported in the literature:
11–16.5 g/100 g (Macrae, 1985). It is noteworthy to
mention that this range is based on the determination of
crude nitrogen and multiplication by the factor 6.25.
After corrections for caffeine-nitrogen and trigonelline-
nitrogen, protein values should be in the range of 9–13 g/
100 g. The highest quality sample (soft) presented higher
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712 A.S. Franca et al. / LWT 38 (2005) 709–715

Bored Sour 1.1%

Sour 0.7% 1.8% Immature Bored
1.6% 1.3%

Others
1.0% Others
1.0%

Non-defective
96.5% Non-defective
95.0%

(a) (b)

Immature 4.2%
Immature Sour 4.7% Sour 8.8%
0.4%

Bored
Non-defective Bored Non-defective 10.7%
60.0% 30.6% 73.7%

Others
Others 2.6%
4.3%
(c) (d)

Fig. 1. Distribution of defective beans in the coffee samples: (a) soft; (b) hard; (c) rioysh and (d) rio. Others=broken beans, husks, twigs, stones, etc.

Table 4
Physical attributes of coffee beans

Sample Soft Hard Rioysh Rio

Green beans
Bean density (kg/m3) 1314.870.1a 1275.774.5b 1285.1719.6ab 1241.4712.2c
Bulk density (kg/m3) 641.973.3a 650.873.6a 634.7713.8a 639.478.2a
Volume  109 (m3) 117.270.6a 95.771.6b 111.174.2a 103.072.3b
Roasted beans
Bean density (kg/m3) 634.3715.3b 635.979.6b 631.976.6b 670.179.5a
Bulk density (kg/m3) 333.777.0c 348.372.9b 338.371.7bc 365.272.4a
Volume  109 (m3) 203.975.0a 164.371.1b 196.874.6a 167.5716.1b
Increase in volume (%) 74 72 77 63

Mean values with the same letter in the same line do not differ significantly by the Duncan test at 5% probability.

protein levels in comparison to the others. There are no
evidences that suggest that the protein contents in
coffees of different qualities or even of different species
(arabica vs. robusta) should be noticeably different
(Macrae, 1985). The soft sample presented approxi-
mately 20% more caffeine than the others (Table 6),
which could explain its higher protein levels. Crude
protein levels did not vary significantly after roasting.
Only the soft and rio samples presented a slight decrease
in protein content. Considering the high temperatures
attained during roasting, one should expect a significant
change in protein levels. However, due to the formation
of volatiles nitrogenous components, protein deter-
mined by Kjeldahl nitrogen changes only slightly. Even
though differences were small, protein levels after
roasting were the highest in the soft sample and the
lowest in the rio sample. Again this could be attributed
to the higher levels of caffeine of the soft sample
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Table 5
Proximal composition of coffee beans (g/100 g green coffee d.b.)

Sample Soft Hard Rioysh Rio

Green beans
Water 9.0570.06bc,x 9.2070.03ab,x 9.3870.01a,x 8.9470.09c,x
Protein 16.1170.13a,x 14.4770.28b,x 14.7971.01b,x 14.6170.33b,x
Fat 11.1370.13a,x 10.3170.16b,x 9.6570.51c,x 10.5370.10b,y
Carbohydrate 68.2870.78 70.4270.59 70.9272.03 69.9970.93
Ash 4.5970.57a,x 4.8970.07a,x 4.9070.06a,x 4.8170.47a,x
Roasted beans
Water 1.4970.06a,y 1.3570.04b,y 1.4770.04ab,y 1.5670.04a,y
Protein 14.8770.14a,y 14.2470.27b,x 14.5070.28ab,x 12.7870.04c,y
Fat 10.3670.05c,y 10.9470.18a,x 10.7370.11b,x 10.6970.14bc,x
Carbohydrate 62.1470.10 62.2570.07 62.4170.47 61.4970.88
Ash 4.1570.35a,x 4.4070.06a,x 4.4270.05a,y 3.9070.59a,x

Mean values with the same letter in the same line (a,b) or in the same column (x,y) for a specific substance do not differ significantly by the Duncan
test at 5% probability; d.b.=dry basis.

Table 6
Titrable acidity and pH levels of coffee beans

Sample Soft Hard Rioysh Rio

Green beans
Acidity (ml/100 g) 207.278.6c,x 229.778.2b,x 219.776.6bc,x 263.3712.6a,x
pH 5.570.0a,y 5.470.0b,y 5.570.0a,y 5.370.0c,y
Roasted beans
Acidity (ml/100 g) 101.070.3a,y 108.478.6a,y 108.979.0a,y 114.070.4a,y
pH 6.0470.00c,x 6.4570.01b,x 6.4670.03ab,x 6.5070.01a,x

Average values for three replicates. Mean values with the same letter in the same line (a,b) or in the same column (x,y) for a specific parameter do not
differ significantly by the Duncan test at 5% probability.

compared to the rio one after roasting (Table 7).
According to the literature, the lipid contents of green
arabica coffee beans is in the range of 9–16 g/100 g
(Folstar, 1985; Speer & Kölling-Speer, 2001). The values
obtained in the present study (Table 5) are within the
reported range, with the soft sample presenting slightly
higher lipid contents than the others. Healthy coffee
beans have been found to present higher oil contents
than defective (black, sour and immature) ones (Barros
Júnior, 2004). After roasting, lipid contents did not vary
significantly, as expected. Data on lipid contents in the
literature are usually a bit higher for roasted coffee in
comparison to green coffee, but this occurs only because
data for roasted coffee are usually expressed in roasted
basis and do not take into account the overall dry matter
content loss during roasting (Folstar, 1985). The average
mineral content (ash) in both green and roasted coffee
was in the range of 4–5 g/100 g, without significant
differences among coffee samples.
The results for titratable acidity and pH values are
shown in Table 6. It can be observed that, prior to
roasting, the soft beans presented the lowest acidity and
the highest pH values, whereas the opposite was
observed for the rio sample. There is an indication that
acidity should increase and pH should decrease as cup
quality diminishes. This could be associated to the effect
of sour beans on cup quality. According to Mazzafera
(1999), low quality coffee is associated with high acidity
contents, mainly due to bean fermentation. Further-
more, Mazzafera (1999) showed that immature beans
presented higher acidity values than both black and sour
beans. Thus, the increase in acidity with the decrease in
cup quality observed in the present study could be
associated to the combined effect of sour and immature
beans. Acidity levels decreased considerably after
roasting. No significant differences were detected among
the samples, since both the hard and rioysh samples
presented high standard deviation values. However, the
tendency for increase in acidity with decrease in cup
quality can still be observed. pH values increased after
roasting, with the values increasing as cup quality
decreased.
The results obtained for chemical attributes are shown
in Table 7. Regarding green beans, the highest and
lowest caffeine levels were found in the highest (soft)
and lowest (rio) quality samples, respectively. The same
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714 A.S. Franca et al. / LWT 38 (2005) 709–715

Table 7
Caffeine, trigonelline and 5-CQA contents of coffee beans

Sample Soft Hard Rioysh Rio

Green beans
Caffeine (g/100 g) 1.0770.02a,x 0.8670.00b,x 0.9070.04b,x 0.7370.02c,x
Trigonelline (g/100 g) 0.6470.28a,x 0.9170.03a,x 0.8570.03a,x 0.6370.26a,x
5-CQA (g/100 g) 2.3970.00ab,x 2.3170.03ab,x 2.4870.17a,x 2.1870.04b,x
Roasted beans
Caffeine (g/100 g) 0.6870.07a,y 0.5770.02ab,y 0.6470.01a,y 0.5170.02b,y
% Loss 36 33 29 29
Trigonelline (g/100 g) 0.1770.02ab,y 0.1670.00b,y 0.2070.00a,y 0.1970.00a,y
% Degradation 73 83 76 70
5-CQA (g/100 g) 0.1170.00b,y 0.0970.00c,y 0.1770.00a,y 0.1270.00b,y
% Degradation 95 96 93 94

Mean values with the same letter in the same line (a,b) or in the same column (x,y) for a specific parameter do not differ significantly by the Duncan
test at 5% probability; Concentrations are in g/100 g green coffee dry basis.

tendency was maintained after roasting. Values for
green coffee are within the range reported in the
literature: 0.9–1.9% (Macrae, 1985). Roasting caused
an approximate reduction of 30% in caffeine content.
Since the solubility of this compound in water increases
with temperature, the caffeine loss may be attributed to
a drag by water vapor released during roasting. Previous
studies (Dutra et al., 2001) have reported that caffeine
was detected in the exhaust gas from roasting. No
differences were observed in both trigonelline and 5-
CQA levels for the green samples. After roasting, both
the rioysh and rio samples presented slightly higher
trigonelline levels than the hard and soft samples. This
could be attributed to the presence of sour beans in
those samples. Previous studies (Franca et al., 2004)
have shown that, under the same roasting conditions,
trigonelline levels were higher for defective beans in
comparison to nondefective ones. Even though 5-CQA
levels presented variations among the samples after
roasting, there was no correlation with cup quality.
However, 5-ACQ levels found in the present study are
below the levels reported in the literature: 3–5% d.b.
(Clifford, 1985; Farah, 2004). Also, recent studies
(Farah, 2004) have shown that the levels of 5-CQA
tend to increase as cup quality decreases. Thus, the
methodology employed in the present study for evalua-
tion of 5-CQA levels should be revised according to
literature guidelines (Ky, Noirot, & Hamon, 1997;
Farah, 2004).
4. Conclusions
Physical and chemical attributes of coffees of different
cup qualities were evaluated for both crude and roasted
beans. The determined attributes allowed for differen-
tiation between the higher (soft) and lower (rio) quality
coffee samples. The only parameters that presented
variation among all green coffee samples were acidity
and pH. Also, the obtained results show that defective
beans play an important role in coffee quality, prior to
and after roasting.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support from
CNPq, CAPES (Brazilian Government agencies) and
FAPEMIG (Minas Gerais State Government agency)
and thank Sindicafé-MG (Minas Gerais State Coffee
Industries Union) for providing the coffee samples.
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