Inverters

Power Electronics and
Drives (Version 3-2003):

Dr. Zainal Salam UTM-JB
1
Chapter 4
DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)
• General concept
• Single-phase inverter
• Harmonics
• Modulation
• Three-phase inverter
2
DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by
switching the DC input voltage (or current) in a
pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC
voltage (or current) output.
• General block diagram
IDC Iac

-
VDC Vac

-
• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC
3
Simple square-wave inverter (1)
• To illustrate the concept of AC waveform
generation

S1 S3
S4 S2

4
AC Waveform Generation
VDC
S1
S4
S3
+ vO -
VDC
S1
S4
S3
S2
+ vO -
VDC
vO
t1 t2
t
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2
t2 t3
vO
-VDC
t
S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3
S2
5
AC Waveforms
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
3RD HARMONIC
5RD HARMONIC
p
4VDC
Vdc
-Vdc
V1
3
V1
5
V1
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
p 2p
6
Harmonics Filtering
• Output of the inverter is “chopped AC voltage with
zero DC component”. It contain harmonics.
• An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at
the inverter output to reduce the high frequency
harmonics.
• In some applications such as UPS, “high purity” sine
wave output is required. Good filtering is a must.
• In some applications such as AC motor drive,
filtering is not required.
vO 1
+
-
L
C
vO 2
(LOW PASS) FILTER
+
-
vO 1
vO 2
BEFORE FILTERING AFTER FILTERING
DC SUPPLY INVERTER LOAD
7
Variable Voltage Variable
Frequency Capability
t
Vdc1
Vdc2 Higher input voltage
Higher frequency
Lower input voltage
Lower frequency
• Output voltage frequency can be varied by “period”
of the square-wave pulse.
• Output voltage amplitude can be varied by varying
the “magnitude” of the DC input voltage.
• Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor
drive
8
Output voltage harmonics/
distortion
• Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.
• Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very
difficult to filter, due to the filter size and high filter
order. They can cause serious voltage distortion.
• Why need to consider harmonics?
– Sinusoidal waveform quality must match TNB
supply.
– “Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be “de-rated”.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to
determine the “quality” of a given waveform.
9
Total Harmonics Distortion (THD)
( )
( ) ( )
( )
is the impedance at harmonic frequency.
Current THD:
If the rms voltage for the vaveform is known,
....
Voltage THD: If is the th harmonic voltage,
1,
2
2
,
1,
2
2
1,
2
1,
2
2,
2
3,
2
2,
1,
2
2
,
n
n
n
n
RMS
n
n RMS
RMS
n
RMS RMS
RMS
RMS RMS RMS
RMS
n
n RMS
n
Z
Z
V
I
I
I
THDi
V
V V
THDv
V
V V V
V
V
THDv
V n
=
=
-
=
+ + +
=
=

¥
=
¥
=
¥
=
10
Fourier Series
• Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave
shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to analyse wave
shapes.
( )
( )
( )
t
f v a a n b n
b f v n d
a f v n d
a f v d
n
o n n
n
n
o
q w
q q
q q
p
q q
p
q
p
p
p
p
=
= + +
=
=
=

¥
=
where
cos sin
2
1
( )
Inverse Fourier
( )sin ("sin" term)
1
( )cos ("cos" term)
1
( ) ("DC" term)
1
Fourier Series
1
2
0
2
0
2
0
11
Harmonics of square-wave (1)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

= -
=

= -
=

= + -

p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
q q q q
p
q q q q
p
q q
p
2
0
2
0
2
0
sin sin
cos cos 0
0
1
n d n d
V
b
n d n d
V
a
a V d V d
dc
n
dc
n
o dc dc
Vdc
-Vdc
qw
p 2p
12
Harmonics of square wave (2)
[ ( ) ( ) ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
p
p
p
p
p
p p
p
p p p
p
q q
p
p
p
p
n
V
b
n
b
n n
n
n
V
n n
n
V
n n n
n
V
n n
n
V
b
dc
n
n
dc
dc
dc
dc
n
4
When n is odd, cos 1
(i.e. even harmonics do not exist)
0
When is even, cos 1
(1 cos )
2
(1 cos ) (1 cos )
(cos0 cos ) (cos2 cos )
cos cos
Solving,
2
0
=
=
= -
=
= -
= - + -
= - + -
= - +
13
Spectra of square wave
1 3 5 7 9 11
Normalised
Fundamental
3rd (0.33)
5th (0.2)
7th (0.14)
9th (0.11)
11th (0.09)
1st
n
• Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:
– Harmonic decreases with a factor of (1/n).
– Even harmonics are absent
– Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is
50Hz, then nearest harmonic is 150Hz.
– Due to the small separation between the
fundamental an harmonics, output low-pass
filter design can be very difficult.
14
Quasi-square wave (QSW)
( ) [ ]
[ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ]
( a )[ p ]
p
a p a
p
p a p a p a
p a p a
a p a
p
q
p
q q
p
a pa
p a
a
n n
n
V
n n n
n
V
b
n n n n n n
n n n
n n
n
V
n
n
V
b V n d
a
dc
dc
n
dc
dc
n dc
n
cos 1 cos
2
cos cos cos
2
cos cos sin sin cos cos
cos cos
Expanding :
cos cos
2
cos
2
sin
1
2
Note that 0. (due to half - wave symmetry)
= -
= -
= + =
- = -
= - -
= -

=
=
-
-
p 2p
a a a
Vdc
-Vdc
15
Harmonics control
( )
( )
n
n
b
b
Note
V
b
n
n
V
b
b
o
dc
dc
n
n
o
3
1
1
90
general, harmonic will be eliminated if :
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
For example if 30 , then 0,or the third
Harmonics Elimination :
Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting ,
The fundamental , , is controlled by varying
:
cos
4
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
cos
4
If n is odd,
If n is even, 0,
=
= =
=
=
=
a
a
a
a
p
a
p
16
Example
degrees
Repeat (b) and (c) for quasi - square wave case with 30
c) the THDi by using the first three non - zero harmonics
b) the THDv by using the first three non - zero harmonics
a) the THDv using the "exact" formula.
and L 10mH in series. Calculate :
signals. The DC link voltage is 100V. The load is R 10R
A full - bridge single phase inverter is fed by square wave
=
=
=
a
17
Half-bridge inverter (1)
Vo
RL
- +
VC1
VC2
+
-
+
-
S1
S2
Vdc
2
Vdc
2
- Vdc
S1 ON
S2 OFF
S1 OFF
S2 ON
t
G 0
• Also known as the “inverter leg”.
• Basic building block for full bridge, three phase
and higher order inverters.
• G is the “centre point”.
• Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC
link is equally “spilt” into two.
• The top and bottom switch has to be
“complementary”, i.e. If the top switch is closed
(on), the bottom must be off, and vice-versa.
18
Shoot through fault and
“Dead-time”
• In practical, a dead time as shown below is required
to avoid “shoot-through” faults, i.e. short circuit
across the DC rail.
• Dead time creates “low frequency envelope”. Low
frequency harmonics emerged.
• This is the main source of distortion for high-quality
sine wave inverter.
td td
"Dead time' = td
S1
signal
(gate)
S2
signal
(gate)
S1
S2
+
-
Vdc
RL
G
"Shoot through fault" .
Ishort is very large
Ishort
19
Single-phase, full-bridge (1)
• Full bridge (single phase) is built from two halfbridge
leg.
• The switching in the second leg is “delayed by 180
degrees” from the first leg.
S1
S4
S3
S2
+
-
G
+
2
dc V
2
dc V
-
2
dc V
2
dc V
dc V
2
- Vdc
2
dc - V
dc -V
p
p
p
2p
2p
2p
wt
wt
wt
RG V
R G V '
o V
o R G V V V RG ' = -
G is "virtual groumd"
LEG R LEG R'
R R'
- o + V
dc V
+
-
20
Three-phase inverter
• Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by 120
degrees.
• A three-phase inverter with star connected load is
shown below
Z ZY R ZB
G R Y B
iR iY
iB
ia ib
+Vdc
N
S1
S4 S6
S3 S5
S2
+
+
-
-
Vdc/2
Vdc/2
21
Three phase inverter waveforms
13
2,4
2
3,5
4
35
4,6
4
1,5
6
51
2,6
6
1,3
2
Inverter Phase
Voltage
(or pole switching
waveform)
VRG
2400
Interval
Positive device(s) on
Negative device(s) on
2VDC/3
VDC/3
-VDC/3
-2VDC/3
VDC
-VDC
VDC/2
-VDC/2
Quasi-square wave operation voltage waveforms
1200
VDC/2
VDC/2
-VDC/2
-VDC/2
VYG
VBG
lIne-to -ine
Voltage
VRY
Six-step
Waveform
VRN
22
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
1 M
+1
-1
0
2
dc V
2
dc - V
0
0 t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5 t
• Triangulation method (Natural sampling)
– Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier) and
sine wave (modulating) are compared to obtain
PWM waveform. Simple analogue comparator
can be used.
– Basically an analogue method. Its digital
version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.
23
PWM types
• Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown
on previous slide)
– Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.
• Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation
• Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
• Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate
some undesirable harmonics from the output
waveform spectra.
– Highly mathematical in nature
• Space-vector modulation (SVM)
– A simple technique based on volt-second that is
normally used with three-phase inverter motordrive
24
Modulation Index, Ratio
Frequency of the modulating waveform
Frequency of the carrier waveform
M
Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio) M ( )
Amplitude of the carrier waveform
Amplitude of the modulating waveform
M
Modulation Index (Modulation Depth) M :
R
R
I
I
= =
= =
=
=
p
p
1 M
+1
-1
0
2
dc V
2
dc V -
0
0 t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5 t
25
( )
and is an integer (1,2,3...)
where is the frequency of the modulating signal
M
The harmonics are normally located at :
of harmonics in the spectra.
M dulation ratio determines the incident (location)
voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.
where , are fundamental of the output
M
If 0 M 1,
voltage fundamental component
Modulation Index deterrmines the output
R
1
1 I
I
k
f
f k f
o
V V
V V
m
m
in
in
=
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
=
< <
Modulation Index, Ratio
26
Regular sampling
Regular sampling PWM
Sinusoidal modulating
waveform, vm(t)
t Carrier, vc(t) 1 t2
t'1 t'2
t
t
p
2p
v (t) s
pwm v
Regular sampling waveform,
27
Asymmetric and symmetric
regular sampling
T
sample
point
+1 M1sinwmt
- 1
4
T
4
3T
4
5T
4
p
2
Vdc
2
Vdc -
t0 t1 t2 t3
t
asymmetric
sampling
symmetric
sampling
t
Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling
28
Bipolar Switching
1 M
+1
-1
0
2
dc V
2
dc - V
0
0 t 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 5 t
29
Unipolar switching
Unipolar switching scheme
A Carrier waveform B
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
S1
S3
pwm V
30
Bipolar PWM switching: Pulsewidth
characterization
k 1
d
2k d
ak
D
4
d = D
p 2p
carrier
waveform
modulating
waveform
pulse
kth
p 2p
31
The kth Pulse
The kth PWM pulse
D
d 0 d 0 d 0 d 0
d 1k
d 2k
2
+Vdc
a k
2
+Vdc
32
Determination of switching angles
for kth PWM pulse (1)
2 2
1 1
Equating the volt - second,
s p
s p
A A
A A
=
=
v Vmsin(q)
AA p2 p1
2
+ Vdc
2
Vdc -
AS2
AS1
33
PWM Switching angles (2)
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
[ ]
2 sin( )
Similarly,
2 sin sin( )
sin cos( 2 ) cos
The volt - second supplied by the sinusoid,
2
2 2
Similarly for the second half,
2
2 2
of the PWM pulse is given as :
The Volt - second during the first half cycle
2
2
1
2
2 2 2
1
1 1 1
s o m k o
m o k o
s m m k o k
dc k o
o k
dc
k
dc
p
dc k o
o k
dc
k
dc
p
A V
V
A V d V
V
V V
A
V
V V
A
k
k o
d a d
d a d
q q a d a
d d
d d d
d d
d d d
a
a d
= +
= -
= = - -
= -
-

-

=
= -
-

-

=

-
34
Switching angles (3)
( )( )
( ) ( )
[1 sin( )]
of the PWM waveform is given by :
Thus, the pulse width for the first half cycle
is known as modulation
2
By definition, the Modulation Ratio,
sin(
2
2 sin( )
Hence, for the the first half cycle of PWM pulse,
;
To derive the modulation strategy,
2 sin( )
2 sin( )
sin ,
For small angle
1
1
1
2 2
1 1
2
1
k o I k o
dc
m
I
o k o
dc
m
k o
dc k o o m k o
p s
p s
s o m k o
s o m k o
o o
o
M
(V )
V
M
V
V
V V
A A
A A
A V
A V
d d a d
d d d a d
d d d a d
d a d
d a d
d d
d
= + -
=
- = -
- = -
=
=
= -
= -
®
35
PWM switching angles (4)
[ ]
k o[ I k ]
k k
k o I k o
k k
M
M
d d a
d d d
d d
a d
d d a d
a d
1 sin
Hence
For Symmetric Modulation,
Modulation, i.e and are different.
The above equation is valid for Asymmetric
And the trailing edge angle :
1 sin( )
second half cycle of PWM waveform:
Using similar method, pulse width of the
the kth pulse is :
Thus the leading edge switching angle of
1k 2k k
1k 2k
2
2
1
= +
= =
+
= + +
-
36
Example
• For the PWM shown below, calculate the switching
angles pulses no. 2.
1.5V
2V
p 2p
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11 t12
t13
t14
t15
t16
t17
t18 2p
p
a1
carrier
waveform
modulating
waveform
37
Harmonics of bipolar PWM

+ -

+

= -

=

+
+
+
-
-
-
k o
k k
k k
k k
k k
k o
n d
V
n d
V
n d
V
b f v n d
dc
dc
dc
T
nk
a d
a d
a d
a d
a d
a d
q q
p
q q
p
q q
p
q q
p
2
2
0
2
2
1
1
sin
2
2
sin
2
2
sin
2
2
( )sin
1
2
can be computed as :
(kth) PWM pulse
content of each
harmonic
wave symmetry,
waveform is half
Assuming the PWM
D
d 0 d 0 d 0 d 0
d 1k
d 2k
2
+Vdc
a k
2
+Vdc
38
Harmonics of Bipolar PWM
{
}
[
]
Next slide shows the computation of this equation.
pulses over one period, i.e.:
PWM waveform isthe sum of for the
productively.The Fourier coefficent for the
This equation cannot be simplified
2cos cos 2
cos ( ) cos ( 2 )
2
Yeilding,
cos ( ) cos ( 2 )
cos ( ) cos ( )
cos ( 2 ) cos ( )
Which can be reduced to :
1
1 1
2
2 1
1
=
=
+
= - - -
+ + - +
+ + - -
= - - - -
p
k
n nk
nk
k o
k k k k
dc
nk
k k k o
k k k k
k o k k
dc
nk
b b
b p
n n
n n
n
V
b
n n
n n
n n
n
V
b
a d
a d a
p
a d a d
a d a d
a d a d
p
39
PWM Spectra
p 2 p 3p 4 p
M I = 1.0
M I = 0.8
MI = 0.6
MI = 0.4
MI = 0.2
Amplitude
Fundamental
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
NORMALISED HARMONIC AMPLITUDES FOR
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATION
Modulation
Index
40
PWM spectra observations
• The harmonics appear in “clusters” at multiple of
the carrier frequencies .
• Main harmonics located at :
f = kp (fm); k=1,2,3....
where fm is the frequency of the modulation (sine)
waveform.
• There also exist “side-bands” around the main
harmonic frequencies.
• Amplitude of the fundamental is proportional to the
modulation index.
The relation ship is given as:
V1= MIVin
• The amplitude of the harmonic changes with MI.
Its incidence (location on spectra) is not.
• When p>10, or so, the harmonics can be
normalised. For lower values of p, the side-bands
clusters overlap-normalised results no longer apply.
41
Tabulated Bipolar PWM Harmonics
n
MI
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
MR 1.242 1.15 1.006 0.818 0.601
MR +2 0.016 0.061 0.131 0.220 0.318
MR +4 0.018
2MR +1 0.190 0.326 0.370 0.314 0.181
2MR +3 0.024 0.071 0.139 0.212
2MR +5 0.013 0.033
3MR 0.335 0.123 0.083 0.171 0.113
3MR +2 0.044 0.139 0.203 0.716 0.062
3MR +4 0.012 0.047 0.104 0.157
3MR +6 0.016 0.044
4MR +1 0.163 0.157 0.008 0.105 0.068
4MR +3 0.012 0.070 0.132 0.115 0.009
4MR+5 0.034 0.084 0.119
4MR +7 0.017 0.050
42
Three-phase harmonics
• For three-phase inverters, there is significant
advantage if MR is chosen to be:
– Odd: All even harmonic will be eliminated
from the pole-switching waveform.
– triplens (multiple of three (e.g. 3,9,15,21, 27..):
All triplens harmonics will be eliminated from
the line-to-line output voltage.
• By observing the waveform, it can be seen that with
odd MR, the line-to-line voltage shape looks more
“sinusoidal”.
• As can be noted from the spectra, the phase voltage
amplitude is 0.8 (normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage amplitude
is square root three of phase voltage due to the
three-phase relationship
43
Effect of odd and “triplens”
2
dc V
2
dc V -
2
dc V
2
dc V -
2
dc V -
2
dc V -
2
dc V
2
dc V
dc V
dc V
-Vdc
dc -V
p 2p
RG V
RG V
RY V
RY V
YG V
YG V
p = 8,M = 0.6
p = 9,M = 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER
44
Spectra: effect of “triplens”
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Amplitude
0.8 3 (Line to line voltage)
Fundamental
41 43
39
37
45
47
19 23
21 63
61
59
57
65
67
69 77
79
81
83 85
87
89
91
19 23
43
47
41
37
61
59
65
67
83
79
85
89
COMPARISON OF INVERTER PHASE VOLTAGE (A) & INVERTER LINE VOLTAGE
(B) HARMONIC (P=21, M=0.8)
A
B
Harmonic Order
45
Comments on PWM scheme
• It is desirable to have MR as large as possible.
• This will push the harmonic at higher frequencies
on the spectrum. Thus filtering requirement is
reduced.
• Although the voltage THD improvement is not
significant, but the current THD will improve
greatly because the load normally has some current
filtering effect.
• However, higher MR has side effects:
– Higher switching frequency: More losses.
– Pulse width may be too small to be constructed.
“Pulse dropping” may be required.
46
Example
Harmonic
number
Amplitude (pole switching
waveform)
Amplitude (line-to
line voltage)
1 1
19 0.3
21 0.8
23 0.3
37 0.1
39 0.2
41 0.25
43 0.25
45 0.2
47 0.1
57 0.05
59 0.1
61 0.15
63 0.2
65 0.15
67 0.1
69 0.05
The amplitudes of the pole switching waveform harmonics of the red
phase of a three-phase inverter is shown in Table below. The inverter
uses a symmetric regular sampling PWM scheme. The carrier frequency
is 1050Hz and the modulating frequency is 50Hz. The modulation
index is 0.8. Calculate the harmonic amplitudes of the line-to-voltage
(i.e. red to blue phase) and complete the table.

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Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 3-2003):

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