Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1
2 CONTENTS
4. Construct a right triangle with hypotenuse c such that the median drawn to the
hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the two legs of the triangle.
5. An arbitrary point M is selected in the interior of the segment AB. The squares
AM CD and M BEF are constructed on the same side of AB, sith the segments AM
and M B as their respective bases. The circles circumscribed abut these squares,
6
1.2. 2N D IMO, ROMANIA, 1960 7
with centers P and Q intersect at M and also at another point N . Let N 0 denote the
intersection of the straight lines AF and BC.
6. Two planes, P and Q, intersect along the line p. The point A is given in the plane
P , and the point C in the plane Q; neither of these points lies on the straight line p.
Construct an isosceles trapezoid ABCD (with AB parallel to CD) in which a circle
can be inscribed, and with vertices B and D lying in the planes P and Q respectively.
2. For what values of the variable x does the following inequality hold?
4x2
√ 2 < 2x + 9
1 − 1 + 2x
3. In a given right triangle 4ABC, the hypotenuse BC, of lenght a, is dividen into n
equal parts (n an odd integer). Let α be the acute angle subtending, from A, that
segment which contains the middle point of the hypotenuse. Let h be the lenght of
the altitude to the hypotenuse of the triangle. Prove:
4nh
tan α =
(n2− 1) a
4. Construct a triangle 4ABC, given ha , hb (the altitudes fron A and B) and ma , the
median from vertex A.
5. Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D 0 (whith face ABCD directly above face A0 B 0 C 0 D 0 ).
(a) Find the locus of the midpoints of segment XY , where X is any point of AC
and Y is any point of B 0 D 0 .
8 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
(b) Find the locus of points Z which lie on the segment XY of part (a) with ZY =
2XZ.
6. Considere a cone of revolution with an inscribed sphere tangent to the base of the
cone. A cylinder is circumscribed about this sphere so that one of its bases lies in
the base of the cone. Let V1 be the volume of the cone and V2 the volumen of the
cilinder.
(a) Prove that V1 6= V2 .
(b) Find the smallest number k for which V1 = kV2 , for this case, construct the
angle subtended by a diameter of the base of the cone at the vertex of the cone.
7. An isosceles trapezoid with bases a and c, and altitude h is given.
(a) On the axis of symmetry of this trapezoid, find all points P such that both legs
of the trapezoid subtended right angles at P .
(b) Calculate the distance of P from either base.
(c) Determine under what conditions such points P actually exist. (Discuss varius
case that might arise)
x+y+z = a
x + y 2 + z 2 = b2
2
xy = z 2
where a and b are constants. Give the conditions that a and b must satisfy so that
x, y, z (the solutions of the system) are distinct positive numbers.
√
2. Let a, b, c the sides of a triangle, and T its area. Prove: a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ 4 3T . In
what case does the equality hold?
3. Solve the equation cosn x − sinn x = 1, where n is a natural number.
4. Consider the triangle 4P1 P2 P3 and a point P within the triangle. Lines P P1 , P P2 ,
P P3 intersect the opposite side in points Q1 , Q2 , Q3 respectively. Prove that, of the
numbers PP1QP1 , PP2QP2 , PP3QP3 at least one is less than or equal to 2 and at least one is
grater than or equal to 2.
1.4. 4T H IMO, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, 1962 9
1. Find the smallest natural number n which has the following properties:
3. Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D 0 (ABCD and A0 B 0 C 0 D 0 are the upper and lower
bases, respectively, and edges AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 , DD 0 are parallel) The point X moves
at constant speed along the perimeterof the square ABCD in the direction ABCDA,
and the point Y moves at the same rate along the perimeter of the square B 0 C 0 CB
in the direction B 0 C 0 CBB 0 . Points X and Y begin their motion at the same instant
from the starting position A and B 0 , respectively. Determine and draw the locus of
the midpoints of the segment XY .
5. On the circle K there are given three distinct points A, B, C. Construct (using only
straightedge and compasses) a fourth point D on K such that a circle can be inscribed
in the cuadrilateral thus obtained.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
6. Considere an isosceles triangle. let r be the radius of its circumscribed circle and ρ
the radius of its inscribed circle. Prove that the distance d between the centers of
these two circles is q
d = r (r − 2ρ)
7. The tetrahedon SABC has the following propoerty: there exists five spheres, each
tangent to the edges SA, SB, SC, BC, CA, AB or their extentions.
2. Point A and segment BC are given. Determine the locus of points in space which
are vertices of right angles with one side passing throught A, and the other side
intersecting the segment BC.
3. In an n−gon all of whose interior angles are equal, the lenght of consecutive sides
satisfy the relation a1 ≥ a2 ≥ · ≥ an . Prove that a1 = a2 = · = an .
(1) x 5 + x2 = yx1
(2) x 1 + x3 = yx2
(3) x 2 + x4 = yx3
(4) x 3 + x5 = yx4
(5) x 4 + x1 = yx5
where y is a parameter
5. Prove that
π 2π 3π 1
cos − cos + cos =
7 7 7 2
6. Five students, A, B, C, D, E, took part in a contest. One prediction was that
contestants would finish in the order ABCDE. This prediction was very poor. In fact
no contestant finished in the position predicted, and no two contestants predicted to
finish consecutively actually did so. A second prediction has the contestants finishing
1.6. 6T H IMO, USSR, 1964 11
in the order DAECB. This prediction was better. Exactly two of the contestants
finished in the places predicted, and two disjoint pairs of students predicted to finish
consecutively actually did so. Determine the order in which the contestants finished.
3. Given the tetrahedron ABCD whose edges AB and CD have lenght a and b respec-
tively. The distance between the skew lines AB and CD is d, and the angle between
them is ω. Tetrahedron ABCD is divided into two solid by plane ε, parallel to lines
AB and CD. The ratio of the distances of ε from AB and CD is equal to k. Compute
the ratio of the volumes of the two solids obtained.
4. Find all sets of four real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 such that the sum of any one and
the product of the other three is equal to 2.
contestants who did not solve problem A, the number who solved B was twice the
number who solved C. The number of students who solved only problem A was one
more than the number of students who solved A and at least one other problem. How
many students solved only problem B?
3. Prove: The sum of the distances of the vertices of a regular tetrahedron from the
centre of its circumscribed sphere is less than the sum of the distances of these vertices
from any other poin in space.
kπ
4. Prove that for every natural number n, and for every real number x 6= 2t
(t any
non-negative integer and k any integer),
1 1 1
+ +···+ = cot x − cot 2n x
sin 2x sin 4x sin 2n x
6. In the interior of sides BC, CA, AB of triangle 4ABC, any points K, L, M , respec-
tively, are selected. Prove that the area of at least one of the triangle 4AM L, 4BKM , 4CLK
is less than or equal to one quarter of the area of 4ABC
2. Prove that if one and only one edge of a tetrahedron is greater than 1, then its volume
is smaller than or equal to 81
14 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
4. Let 4A0 B0 C0 and 4A1 B1 C1 be any two acute-angled triangles. Consider all triangles
4ABC that are similar to 4A1 B1 C1 and circumscribed about triangle 4A0 B0 C0
(where A0 lies on BC, B0 on CA and C0 on AB) Of all such triangles, determine the
one with maximum area, and construct it.
c1 = a 1 + a 2 + · · · + a 8
c2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a28
..
.
cn = an1 + an2 + · · · + an8
..
.
in which a1 , a2 , . . . , a8 are real numbers not all equal to zero. Suppose that an infinite
number of terms of the sequence {cn } are equal to zero. Find all natural numbers for
which cn = 0.
6. In a sport contest, there were m medals awarded on n successive days (n > 1). On
the first day, one medal and 71 of the remaining medals were awarded. On the second
day, two medals and 71 of the now remaining medals were awarded; and so on. On
the n-th and last day, the remaining n medals were awarded. How many days did
the contest last. and how many medals were awarded altogether?
1. Prove that there is one and only one triangle whose side lengths are consecutive
integers, and one of whose angles is twice as large as another.
2. Find all natural numbers x such that the product of their digits (in decimal notation)
is equal to x2 − 10x − 22.
1.10. 10T H IMO, USSR, 1968 15
ax21 + bx1 + c = x2
ax22 + bx2 + c = x3
..
.
ax2n−1 + bxn−1 + c = xn
ax2n + bxn + c = x1
4. Prove than in every tetrahedon there is a vertex such that the three edges meeting
there have lengths which are the sides of a triangle.
5. Let f be a real-valued function defined for all real numbers x such that, for some
positive constant a, the equation
1 q
f (x + a) = + f (x) − [f (x)]2
2
(a) Prove that the function f is periodic (i.e. there exists a positive number b such
that f (x + b) = f (x) for all x)
(b) For a = 1, give an example of a non-constant function with the requiered prop-
erties.
∞
$ % $ %
n + 2k n + 2k
X n+1 n+2
= + + · · · + +···
k=0 2k+1 2 4 2k+1
(the symbol bxc denotes the greatest integer not exceding x).
16 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
6. Prove that for all real numbers x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , z1 , z2 with x1 > 0, x2 > 0, x1 y1 − z12 >
0, x2 y2 − z22 > 0, the inequality
8 1 1
2 ≤ +
(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 ) − (z1 + z2 ) x1 y1 − z1 x2 y2 − z22
2
2. Let a, b and n be integers greater than 1, and let a and b be the two bases of two
number systems. An−1 and An are numbers in the system with base a and Bn−1 and
Bn are numbers in the system with base b; these are related as follows:
An−1 Bn−1
< ⇐
⇒a > b
An Bn
4. Find the set of all positive integers n with the property that the set {n, n + 1, n +
2, n + 3, n + 4, n + 5} can be partitioned into sets such that the product of the
numbers in one set equals the product of the numbers in the other set
5. In the tetrahedron ABCD, the angle ^BDC is a right angle. Suppose that the foot
H of the perpendicular from D to the plane ABC is the intersection of the altitudes
of 4ABC. Prove that
(AB + BC + CA)2 ≤ 6 AD 2 + BD 2 + CD 2
6. In the plane are 100 points, no three of them are collinear. Consider all posible
triangles having these points as vertices. Prove that no more than 70% of these
triangles are acute-angled.
1
The xi ’s are the digits in the respective bases, and of course, all of them are lower than the lowest base
18 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
2. Consider a convex polyhedron P1 with nine vertices A1 A2 , ..., A9 ; let Pi be the poly-
hedron obtained from P1 by a translation that moves vertex A1 to Ai (i = 2, 3, ..., 9).
Provethat at least two of the polyhedra P1 , P2 , ..., P9 have an interiorpoint in common.
3. Prove that the set of integers of the form 2k − 3(k = 2, 3, ...) contains an infinite
subset in which every two members are relatively prime.
4. All the faces of tetrahedron ABCD are acute-angled triangles. We consider all closed
polygonal paths of the form XY ZT X defined as follows: X is a point on edge AB
distinct from A and B; similarly, Y, Z, T are interior points of edges BCCD, DA,
respectively. Prove:
(a) If ^DAB + ^BCD 6= ^CDA + ^ABC, then among thepolygonal paths, there is
none of minimal length.
(b) If ^DAB + ^BCD = ^CDA + ^ABC, then there areinfinitely many shortest
polygonal paths, their common length being 2AC sin(α/2), where α = ^BAC +
^CAD + ^DAB.
5. Prove that for every natural number m, there exists a finite set S of points in a plane
with the following property: For every point A in S, there are exactly m points in S
which are at unit distance from A.
6. Let A = (aij )(i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be a square matrix whose elements are non-negative
integers. Suppose that whenever an element aij = 0, the sum of the elements in the
ith row and the jth column is ≥ n. Prove that the sum of all the elements of the
matrix is ≥ n2 /2.
is an integer. (0! = 1)
(x21 − x3 x5 )(x22 − x3 x5 ) ≤ 0
(x22 − x4 x1 )(x23 − x4 x1 ) ≤ 0
(x23 − x5 x2 )(x24 − x5 x2 ) ≤ 0
(x24 − x1 x3 )(x25 − x1 x3 ) ≤ 0
(x25 − x2 x4 )(x21 − x2 x4 ) ≤ 0
5. Let f and g be real-valued functions defined for all real values of xand y, and satisfying
the equation
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = 2f (x)g(y)
for all x, y. Prove that if f (x) is not identically zero, and if |f (x)| ≤ 1 for all x, then
|g(y)| ≤ 1 for all y.
6. Given four distinct parallel planes, prove that there exists a regular tetrahedron with
a vertex on each plane.
−−→ −−→
Here OM denotes the length of vector OM .
20 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
2. Determine whether or not there exists a finite set M of points in spacenot lying in
the same plane such that, for any two points A and B of M,one can select two other
points C and D of M so that lines AB and CD are parallel and not coincident.
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + ax + 1 = 0
has at least one real solution. For all such pairs (a, b), find the minimum value of
a2 + b 2 .
6. Let a1 , a2 , ..., an be n positive numbers, and let q be a givenreal number such that
0 < q < 1. Find n numbers b1 , b2 , ..., bn forwhich
(a) ak < bk for k = 1, 2, · · · , n,
bk+1 1
(b) q < bk
< q
for k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1,
1+q
(c) b1 + b2 + · · · + bn < 1−q
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ).
This process (shuffling, dealing, giving out counters) takes place for at least two
rounds. After the last round, A has 20 counters in all, B has 10 and C has 9. At the
last round B received r counters. Who received q counters on the first round?
2. In the triangle 4ABC prove that there is a point D on side AB suchthat CD is the
geometric mean of AD and DB if and only if
C
sin A sin B ≤ sin2 .
2
Pn 2n+1
3. Prove that the number k=0 2k+1
23k is not divisible by 5 for any integer n ≥ 0.
x1 ≥ x2 ≥ · · · ≥ xn and y1 ≥ y2 ≥ · · · ≥ yn
2. Let a1 , a2 , a3, · · · be an infinite increasing sequence of positive integers. Prove that for
every p ≥ 1 there are infinitely many am which can be written in the form
am = xap + yaq
3. On the sides of an arbitrary triangle ABC, triangles ABR, BCP, CAQ areconstructed
externally with ^CBP = ^CAQ = 45◦ , ^BCP = ^ACQ = 30◦ , ^ABR = ^BAR =
15◦ . Prove that ^QRP = 90◦ and QR = RP.
4. When 44444444 is written in decimal notation, the sum of its digits is A. Let B be
the sum of the digits of A. Find the sum of the digits of B. (A and B are written in
decimal notation.)
5. Determine, with proof, whether or not one can find 1975 points on the circumference
of a circle with unit radius such that the distance between any two of them is a
rational number.
P (b + c, a) + P (c + a, b) + P (a + b, c) = 0
(iii) P (1, 0) = 1.
2. Let P1 (x) = x2 − 2 and Pj (x) = P1 (Pj−1 (x)) for j = 2, 3, · · ·.Show that, for any
positive integer n, the roots of the equation Pn (x) = x are real and distinct.
1.19. 19T H IMO, YUGOSLAVIA, 1977 23
3. A rectangular box can be filled completely with unit cubes. If one places as many
cubes as possible, each with volume 2, in the box, so that their edges are parallel
to the edges of the box, one can fill exactly 40% ofthe box. Determine the possible
dimensions of all such boxes.
4. Determine, with proof, the largest number which is the product of positiveintegers
whose sum is 1976.
with every coefficient aij member of the set {−1, 0, 1}. Prove that the system has a
solution (x1 , x2 , · · · , xq ) such that
(a) all xj (j = 1, 2, ..., q) are integers,
(b) there is at least one value of j for which xj 6= 0,
(c) |xj | ≤ q(j = 1, 2, ..., q).
2. In a finite sequence of real numbers the sum of any seven successive terms is nega-
tive, and the sum of any eleven successive terms is positive.Determine the maximum
number of terms in the sequence.
3. Let n be a given integer > 2, and let Vn be the set of integers 1+kn, where k = 1, 2, ....
A number m ∈ Vn is called indecomposable in Vn if there do not exist numbers
p, q ∈ Vn such that pq = m. Prove that there exists a number r ∈ Vn that can be
expressed as the product of elements indecomposable in Vn in more than one way.
(Products which differ only in the order of their factors will be considered the same.)
a2 + b2 ≤ 2 and A2 + B 2 ≤ 1.
6. Let f (n) be a function defined on the set of all positive integers and having all its
values in the same set. Prove that if f (n + 1) > f (f (n)) for each positive integer n,
then f (n) = n for each n.
2. P is a given point inside a given sphere. Three mutually perpendicular rays from P
intersect the sphere at points U, V, and W ; Q denotes the vertex diagonally opposite
to P in the parallelepiped determined by P U, P V, and P W. Find the locus of Q for
all such triads of rays from P .
3. The set of all positive integers is the union of two disjoint subsets {f (1), f (2), ..., f (n), ...},
{g(1), g(2), ..., g(n), ...}, where
5. Let {ak }(k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...) be a sequence of distinct positive integers. Prove that
for all natural numbers n,
n n
X ak X 1
2
≥
k=1 k k=1 k
6. An international society has its members from six different countries. The list of
members contains 1978 names, numbered 1, 2, ..., 1978. Prove that there is at least
one member whose number is the sum of thenumbers of two members from his own
country, or twice as large as the numberof one member from his own country.
3. Two circles in a plane intersect. Let A be one of the points of intersection. Starting
simultaneously from A two points move with constant speeds, each point travelling
along its own circle in the same sense. The two points return to A simultaneously
after one revolution. Prove that there is a fixed point P in the plane such that, at
any time, the distances from P to the moving points are equal.
26 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
4. Given a plane π, a point P in this plane and a point Q not in π, find all points R in
π such that the ratio (QP + P A)/QR is a maximum.
5. Find all real numbers a for which there exist non-negative real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5
satisfying the relations
5
X 5
X 5
X
kxk = a, k 3 xk = a 2 , k 5 xk = a 3
k=1 k=1 k=1
2. Let 1 ≤ r ≤ n and consider all subsets of r elements of theset {1, 2, ..., n}. Each
of these subsets has a smallest member. Let F (n, r) denote the arithmetic mean of
these smallest numbers; prove that
n+1
F (n, r) =
r+1
1.23. 23RD IMO, BUDAPEST, HUNGARY, 1982 27
4. (a) For which values of n > 2 is there a set of n consecutive positive integers such
that the largest number in the set is a divisor of the least common multiple of the
remaining n − 1 numbers?
(b) For which values of n > 2 is there exactly one set having the stated property?
5. Three congruent circles have a common point O and lie inside a given triangle. Each
circle touches a pair of sides of the triangle. Prove that the incenter and the circum-
center of the triangle and the point O are collinear.
f (m + n) − f (m) − f (n) = 0 or 1
3. Consider the infinite sequences {xn } of positive real numbers with the following prop-
erties:
x0 = 1, and for all i ≥ 0, xi+1 ≤ xi
28 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
(a) Prove that for every such sequence, there is an n ≥ 1 such that
x20 x21 x2
+ + · · · + n−1 ≥ 3.999
x1 x2 xn
(b) Find such a sequence for which
x20 x21 x2
+ + · · · + n−1 < 4
x1 x2 xn
4. Prove that if n is a positive integer such that the equation x3 − 3xy 2 + y 3 = n has
a solution in integers (x, y), then it has at least three suchsolutions. Show that the
equation has no solutions in integers when n = 2891
5. The diagonals AC and CE of the regular hexagon ABCDEF are divided by the
inner points M and N , respectively, so that
AM CN
= =r
AC CE
Determine r if B, M, and N are collinear.
6. Let S be a square with sides of length 100, and let L be a path within S which does
not meet itself and which is composed of line segments A0 A1 , A1 A2 , · · · , An−1 An with
A0 6= An . Suppose that for every point P of the boundary of S there is a point of L
at a distance from P not greater than 1/2. Prove that there are two points X and Y
in L such that the distance between X and Y is not greater than 1, and the length
of that part of L which lies between X and Y is not smaller than 198.
3. Let a, b and c be positive integers, no two of which have a common divisor greater
than 1. Show that 2abc − ab − bc − ca is the largest integer which cannot be expressed
in the form xbc + yca + zab,where x, y and z are non-negative integers.
4. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle and E the set of all points contained in the three
segments AB, BC and CA (including A, B and C). Determine whether, for every
partition of E into two disjoint subsets, at least one of the two subsets contains the
vertices of a right-angled triangle. Justify your answer.
5. Is it possible to choose 1983 distinct positive integers, all less than or equal to 10 5 ,
no three of which are consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression? Justify your
answer.
3. In the plane two different points O and A are given. For each point X of the plane,
other than O, denote by a(X) the measure of the angle between OA and OX in
radians, counterclockwise from OA(0 ≤ a(X) < 2π). Let C(X) be the circle with
center O and radius of length OX + a(X)/OX. Each point of the plane is colored by
one of a finite number ofcolors. Prove that there exists a point Y for which a(Y ) > 0
such that its color appears on the circumference of the circle C(Y ).
30 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
4. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral such that the line CD is a tangent to the circle
on AB as diameter. Prove that the line AB is a tangent to the circle on CD as
diameter if and only if the lines BC and AD are parallel.
5. Let d be the sum of the lengths of all the diagonals of a plane convex polygon with
n vertices (n > 3), and let p be its perimeter. Prove that
2d n n+1
n−3< < −2
p 2 2
where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.
6. Let a, b, c and d be odd integers such that 0 < a < b < c < d and ad = bc. Prove that
if a + d = 2k and b + c = 2m for some integers k and m, then a = 1.
2. Let n and k be given relatively prime natural numbers, k < n. Each number in the
set M = {1, 2, ..., n − 1} is colored either blue or white. It is given that
(i) for each i ∈ M, both i and n − i have the same color;
(ii) for each i ∈ M, i 6= k both i and |i − k| have the same color. Prove that all
numbers in M must have the same color.
4. Given a set M of 1985 distinct positive integers, none of which has a prime divisor
greater than 26. Prove that M contains at least one subset of four distinct elements
whose product is the fourth power of an integer.
5. A circle with center O passes through the vertices A and C of triangle ABC and
intersects the segments AB and BC again at distinct points K and N, respectively.
The circumscribed circles of the triangles 4ABC and 4EBN intersect at exactly
two distinct points B and M. Provethat angle ^OM B is a right angle.
1.27. 27T H IMO, WARSAW, POLAND, 1986 31
for every n.
2. A triangle 4A1 A2 A3 and a point P0 are given in the plane. We define As = As−3 for
all s ≥ 4. We construct a set of points P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , such that Pk+1 is the image
of Pk under a rotation withenter Ak+1 through angle 120◦ clockwise (for k = 0, 1,
2,ldots). Prove that if P1986 = P0 , then the triangle 4A1 A2 A3 equilateral.
3. To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that the sum
of all five numbers is positive. If three consecutive vertices are assigned the numbers
x, y, z respectively and y < 0 then the following operation is allowed: the numbers
x, y, z are replaced by x + y, −y, z + y respectively. Such an operation is performed
repeatedly as long as at least one of the five numbers is negative. Determine whether
this procedure necessarily comes to and end after a finite number of steps.
5. Find all functions f , defined on the non-negative real numbers and taking non-
negative real values, such that:
6. One is given a finite set of points in the plane, each point having integeroordinates.
Is it always possible to color some of the points in the set rednd the remaining points
white in such a way that for any straight line Larallel to either one of the coordinate
axes the difference (in absolutealue) between the numbers of white point and red
points on L is not greaterhan 1?
3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 1. Prove that for
every integer k ≥ 2 there are integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , not all 0, such that |ai | ≤ k − 1
For all i and √
(k − 1) n
|a1 x1 + a1 x2 + · · · + an xn | ≤
kn −
4. Prove that there is no function f from the set of non-negative integers into itself such
that f (f (n)) = n + 1987 for every n.
5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a set of n points
in the plane such that the distance between any two points is irrational and each set
of three points determines a non-degenerate triangle with rational area.
5. Prove that for each positive integer n there exist n consecutive positive integers none
of which is an integral power of a prime number.
1.30. 30T H IMO, BRAUNSCHWEIG, WEST GERMANY, 1989 35
a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = · · · = ak − ak−1 > 0
5. Let 4ABC be a triangle and P an interior point of 4ABC. Show that at least one
of the angles ^P AB, ^P BC, ^P CA is less than or equal to 30◦ .
6. An infinite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . of real numbers is said to be bounded if there is a
constant C such that |xi | ≤ C for every i ≥ 0.
Given any real number a > 1, construct a bounded infinite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .
such that
|xi − xj ||i − j|a ≥ 1
for every pair of distinct nonnegative integers i, j.
2. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Find all functions f : R → R such that
f x2 + f (y) = y + (f (x))2 forall x, y ∈ R
3. Consider nine points in space, no four of which are coplanar. Each pair of points is
joined by an edge (that is, a line segment) and each edge is either colored blue or red
or left uncolored. Find the smallest value of n such that whenever exactly n edges
are colored, the set of colored edges necessarily contains a triangle all of whose edges
have the same color.
4. In the plane let C be a circle, L a line tangent to the circle C, and M a point
on L. Find the locus of all points P with the following property: there exists two
points Q, R on L such that M is the midpoint of QR and C is the inscribed circle
of triangle 4P QR.
5. Let S be a finite set of points in three-dimensional space. Let Sx , Sy , Sz be the
sets consisting of the orthogonal projections of the points of S onto the yz-plane,
zx-plane, xy -plane, respectively. Prove that
6. For each positive integer n, S(n) is defined to be the greatest integer such that, for
every positive integer k ≤ S(n), n2 can be written as the sum of k positive squares.
2. Let D be a point inside acute triangle ABC such that ∠ADB = ^ACB + π/2 and
AC · BD = AD · BC.
4. For three points P, Q, R in the plane, we define m(P QR) as the minimum length of
the three altitudes of 4P QR. (If the points are collinear, we set m(P QR) = 0.)
Prove that for points A, B, C, X in the plane,
5. Does there exist a function f : N → N such that f (1) = 2, f (f (n)) = f (n) + n for
all n ∈ N, and f (n) < f (n + 1) for all n ∈ N?
40 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
6. There are n lamps L0 , . . . , Ln−1 in a circle (n > 1), where we denote Ln+k = Lk . (A
lamp at all times is either on or off.) Perform steps s0 , s1 , . . . as follows: at step si , if
Li−1 is lit, switch Li from on to off or vice versa, otherwise do nothing. Initially all
lamps are on. Show that:
(a) There is a positive integer M (n) such that after M (n) steps all the lamps are
on again;
(b) If n = 2k , we can take M (n) = n2 − 1;
(c) If n = 2k + 1, we can take M (n) = n2 − n + 1.
a1 + a 2 + · · · + a m n+1
≥
m 2
(a) M is the midpoint of BC and O is the point on the line AM such that OB is
perpendicular to AB;
(b) Q is an arbitrary point on the segment BC different from B and C;
(c) E lies on the line AB and F lies on the line AC such that E , Q, F are distinct
and collinear.
3. For any positive integer k, let f (k) be the number of elements in the set {k + 1, k +
2, . . . , 2k} whose base 2 representation has precisely three 1s.
(a) Prove that, for each positive integer m, there exists at least onepositive integer
k such that f (k) = m.
(b) Determine all positive integers m for which there exists exactly one k with
f (k) = m.
1.36. 36T H IMO, TORONTO, CANADA, 1995 41
n3 + 1
mn − 1
is an integer.
5. Let S be the set of real numbers strictly greater than −1. Find all functions f : S → S
satisfying the two conditions:
6. Show that there exists a set A of positive integers with the following property: For
any infinite set S of primes there exist two positive integers m ∈ A and n ∈
/ A each
of which is a product of k distinct elements of S for some k ≥ 2.
3. Determine all integers n > 3 for which there exist n points A1 , . . . , An in the plane,
no three collinear, and real numbers r1 , . . . , rn such that for 1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ n, the
area of 4Ai Aj Ak is ri + rj + rk .
4. Find the maximum value of x0 for which there exists a sequence x0 , x1 . . . , x1995 of
positive reals with x0 = x1995 , such that for i = 1, . . . , 1995,
2 1
xi−1 + = 2xi +
xi−1 xi
42 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
6. Let p be an odd prime number. How many p-element subsets A of {1, 2, . . . 2p} are
there, the sum of whose elements is divisible by p?
3. Let S denote the set of nonnegative integers. Find all functions f from S to itself
such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (f (m)) + f (n) ∀m, n ∈ S
4. The positive integers a and b are such that the numbers 15a + 16b and 16a − 15b are
both squares of positive integers. What is the least possible value that can be taken
on by the smaller of these two squares?
Prove that
P
RA + R C + R E ≥
2
6. Let p, q, n be three positive integers with p + q < n. Let (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) be an (n + 1)-
tuple of integers satisfying the following conditions:
(a) x0 = xn = 0.
(b) For each i with 1 ≤ i ≤ n, either xi − xi−1 = p or xi − xi−1 = −q.
Show that there exist indices i < j with (i, j) 6= (0, n), such that xi = xj .
(a) Calculate f (m, n) for all positive integers m and n which are eitheroth even or
both odd.
1
(b) Prove that f (m, n) ≤ 2
max{m, n} for all m and n.
(c) Show that there is no constant C such that f (m, n) < C for all m and n.
endenumerate
2. The angle at A is the smallest angle of triangle 4ABC. The points B and C divide
the circumcircle of the triangle into two arcs. Let U be an interior point of the arc
between B and C which does not contain A. The perpendicular bisectors of AB and
AC meet the line AU at V and W , respectively. The lines BV and CW meet at T .
Show that
AU = T B + T C
|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn | = 1
44 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
and
n+1
|xi | ≤ i = 1, 2, . . . , n
2
Show that there exists a permutation y1 , y2 , . . . , yn of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn such that
n+1
|y1 + 2y2 + · · · + nyn | ≤
2
6. For each positive integer n , let f (n) denote the number of ways of representing n as
a sum of powers of 2 with nonnegative integer exponents.epresentations which differ
only in the ordering of their summands are considered to be the same. For instance,
f (4) = 4, because the number 4 can be represented in the following four ways:
4; 2 + 2; 2 + 1 + 1; 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
3. For any positive integer n, let d(n) denote the number of positive divisors of n (in-
cluding 1 and n itself). Determine all positive integers k such that d(n2 )/d(n) = k
for some n.
4. Determine all pairs (a, b) of positive integers such that ab2 + b + 7 divides a2 b + a + b.
5. Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC. Let the incircle of ABC touch the sides BC,
CA, and AB at K, L, and M , respectively. The line through B parallel to M K
meets the lines LM and LK at R and S, respectively. Prove that angle RIS is acute.
6. Consider all functions f from the set N of all positive integers into itself satisfying
f (t2 f (s)) = s(f (t))2 for all s and t in N . Determine the least possible value of
f (1998).
for any two distinct points A and B in S, the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment AB is an axis of symmetry for S.
3. Consider an n × n square board, where n is a fixed even positive integer. The board
is divided into n2 unit squares. We say that two different squares on the board are
adjacent if they have a common side.
N unit squares on the board are marked in such a way that every square (marked or
unmarked) on the board is adjacent to at least one marked square.
Determine the smallest possible value of N .
46 CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS OLYMPIAD
3. Let n ≥ 2 be a positive integer. Initially, there are n fleas on a horizontal line, not
all at the same point.
Determine all the values of λ such that for any point M on the line and any initial
position of the n fleas, there is a sequence of moves that will take all the fleas to the
position to the right of M .
1.42. 42N D IMO, WASHINGTON DC, USA, 2001 47
4. A magician has one hundred cards numbered 1 to 100. He puts them into three boxes,
a red one, a white one and a blue one, so that each box contain at least one card.
A member of the audience selects two of the three boxes, choose one card from each
and announces the sum of the numbers on the chosen cards. Given this sum, the
magician identifies the box from which no card has been choosen.
How many ways are there to put all the cards into the boxes so that this trick always
works? (Two ways are considered diferent if at least one of card is put nto a different
box)
5. Determine whether or not there exists a positive integer n such that:
n is divisible by exactely 2000 different prime numbers, and
2n + 1 is divisible by n.
6. Let AH1 , BH2 , CH3 be the altitudes of an acute-angled triangle 4ABC. The incircle
of the triangle 4ABC touches the sides BC, CA, AB at T1 , T2 , T3 , respectively. Let
the lines `1 , `2 , `3 be the reflections of the lines H2 H3 , H3 H1 H1 H2 in the lines T2 T3 ,
T3 T1 , T1 T2 , respectively.
Prove that `1 , `2 , `3 determine a triangle whose vertices lie on the incircle of the
triangle 4ABC.
4. Let n be an odd integer greater than 1, and let k1 , k2 , . . . , kn be given integers. For
each of the n! permutations a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) of 1, 2, . . . , n, let
n
X
S (a) = ki ai
i=1
Prove that there are two permutations b and c, such that n! is a divisor of S (b)−S (c).
5. In a triangle 4ABC, let AP bisect ^BAC, with P on BC, and let BQ bisect ^ABC,
with Q on CA. It is known that ^BAC = 60◦ and that AB + BP = AQ + QB.
What are the possible angles of triangle 4ABC?
ac + bd = (b + d + a − c) (b + d − a + c)
2. BC is a diameter of a circle center O. A is any point on the circle with ∠AOC >
60o . EF is the chord which is the perpendicular bisector of AO. D is the midpoint of
the minor arc AB. The line through O parallel to AD meets AC at J. Show that J
is the incenter of triangle CEF .
3. Find all pairs of integers m > 2, n > 2 such that there are infinitely many positive
integers k for which k n + k 2 − 1 divides k m + k − 1.
4. The positive divisors of the integer n > 1 are d1 < d2 < . . . < dk , so that d1 = 1, dk =
n. Let d = d1 d2 + d2 d3 + · · · + dk−1 dk .
5. Find all functions f from the set R of real numbers to itself such that
(f (x) + f (z))(f (y) + f (t)) = f (xy − zt) + f (xt + yz)
for all x, y, z, t in R.
6. n > 2 circles of radius 1 are drawn in the plane so that no line meets more than two
of the circles. Their centers are O1 , O2 , · · · , On . Show that 1≤i<j≤n Oi1Oj ≤ (n−1)π
P
4
(b) Show that the equality holds if and only if x1 , x2 , . . . , xn form an arithmetic
sequence.
6. Show that for each prime p, there exists a prime q such that np − p is not divisible
by q for any positive integer n.
Chapter 2
50
2.1. 46T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1985 51
4. Define a sequence {ai } by a1 = 3 and ai+1 = 3ai for i ≥ 1. Which integers between
00 and 99 inclusive occur as the last two digits in the decimal expansion of infinitely
many ai ?
R 2π
5. Let Im = 0 cos(x) cos(2x) · · · cos(mx) dx. For which integers m, 1 ≤ m ≤ 10 is
Im 6= 0?
Let F (x) = 3x2 + 7x + 2. Find, with proof, a polynomial g(x) with real coefficients
such that
7. Let k be the smallest positive integer for which there exist distinct integers m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 , m5
such that the polynomial
9. Let
a1,1 a1,2 a1,3 ...
a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 ...
a3,1 a3,2 a3,3 ...
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
be a doubly infinite array of positive integers, and suppose each positive integer
appears exactly eight times in the array. Prove that am,n > mn for some pair of
positive integers (m, n).
52 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
10. Let C be the unit circle x2 +y 2 = 1. A point p is chosen randomly on the circumference
C and another point q is chosen randomly from the interior of C (these points are
chosen independently and uniformly over their domains). Let R be the rectangle with
sides parallel to the x and y-axes with diagonal pq. What is the probability that no
point of R lies outside of C?
R R ∞ −x2 √
11. Evaluate 0∞ t−1/2 e−1985(t+t ) dt. You may assume that −∞
−1
e dx = π.
12. Let G be a finite set of real n × n matrices {Mi }, 1 ≤ i ≤ r, which form a group
P
under matrix multiplication. Suppose that ri=1 tr(Mi ) = 0, where tr(A) denotes the
Pr
trace of the matrix A. Prove that i=1 Mi is the n × n zero matrix.
P
3. Evaluate ∞ 2
n=0 Arccot(n + n + 1), where Arccot t for t ≥ 0 denotes the number θ in
the interval 0 < θ ≤ π/2 with cot θ = t.
Find a simple expression (not involving any sums) for f (1) in terms of b1 , b2 , . . . , bn
and n (but independent of a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).
7. Inscribe a rectangle of base b and height h in a circle of radius one, and inscribe
an isosceles triangle in the region of the circle cut off by one base of the rectangle
(with that side as the base of the triangle). For what value of h do the rectangle and
triangle have the same area?
8. Prove that there are only a finite number of possibilities for the ordered triple T =
(x − y, y − z, z − x), where x, y, z are complex numbers satisfying the simultaneous
equations
x(x − 1) + 2yz = y(y − 1) + 2zx + z(z − 1) + 2xy,
and list all such triples T .
9. Let Γ consist of all polynomials in x with integer coefficienst. For f and g in Γ and
m a positive integer, let f ≡ g (mod m) mean that every coefficient of f − g is an
integral multiple of m. Let n and p be positive integers with p prime. Given that
f, g, h, r and s are in Γ with rf + sg ≡ 1 (mod p) and f g ≡ h (mod p), prove
that there exist F and G in Γ with F ≡ f (mod p), G ≡ g (mod p), and F G ≡ h
(mod pn ).
54 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
√
10. For a positive real number r, let G(r) be the minimum value of |r − m2 + 2n2 | for
all integers m and n. Prove or disprove the assertion that limr→∞ G(r) exists and
equals 0.
11. Let f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + xyz. Let p(x, y, z), q(x, y, z), r(x, y, z) be polynomials
with real coefficients satisfying
Prove or disprove the assertion that the sequence p, q, r consists of some permutation
of ±x, ±y, ±z, where the number of minus signs is 0 or 2.
12. Suppose A, B, C, D are n × n matrices with entries in a field F , satisfying the condi-
tions that AB T andCD T are symmetric and AD T − BC T = I. Here I is the n × n
identity matrix, and if M is an n × n matrix, M T is its transpose. Prove that
AT D + C T B = I.
Prove that A ∩ B = C ∩ D.
123456789101112131415161718192021 . . .
is obtained by writing the positive integers in order. If the 10n -th digit in this sequence
occurs in the part of the sequence in which the m-digit numbers are placed, define
f (n) to be m. For example, f (2) = 2 because the 100th digit enters the sequence in
the placement of the two-digit integer 55. Find, with proof, f (1987).
2.3. 48T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1987 55
y 00 − 2y 0 + y = 2ex .
(a) If f (x) > 0 for all real x, must f 0 (x) > 0 for all real x? Explain.
(b) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all real x, must f (x) > 0 for all real x? Explain.
5. Let !
~ −y x
G(x, y) = , ,0 .
x2 + 4y 2 x2 + 4y 2
Prove or disprove that there is a vector-valued function
(i) M, N, P have continuous partial derivatives for all (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0);
(ii) Curl F~ = ~0 for all (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0);
(iii) F~ (x, y, 0) = G(x,
~ y).
6. For each positive integer n, let a(n) be the number of zeroes in the base 3 represen-
tation of n. For which positive real numbers x does the series
∞
X xa(n)
3
n=1 n
converge?
7. Evaluate q
Z 4 ln(9 − x) dx
q q .
2 ln(9 − x) + ln(x + 3)
56 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
9. Let F be a field in which 1 + 1 6= 0. Show that the set of solutions to the equation
x2 + y 2 = 1 with x and y in F is given by (x, y) = (1, 0) and
!
r 2 − 1 2r
(x, y) = ,
r2 + 1 r2 + 1
10. Let (x1 , y1 ) = (0.8, 0.6) and let xn+1 = xn cos yn − yn sin yn and yn+1 = xn sin yn +
yn cos yn for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. For each of limn→∞ xn and limn→∞ yn , prove that the
limit exists and find it or prove that the limit does not exist.
(Note: if C is a matrix of complex numbers, re(C) is the matrix whose entries are
the real parts of the entries of C.)
12. Let F be the field of p2 elements, where p is an odd prime. Suppose S is a set of
(p2 − 1)/2 distinct nonzero elements of F with the property that for each a 6= 0 in F ,
exactly one of a and −a is in S. Let N be the number of elements in the intersection
S ∩ {2a : a ∈ S}. Prove that N is even.
2. A not uncommon calculus mistake is to believe that the product rule for derivatives
2
says that (f g)0 = f 0 g 0 . If f (x) = ex , determine, with proof, whether there exists an
open interval (a, b) and a nonzero function g defined on (a, b) such that this wrong
product rule is true for x in (a, b).
converges.
4. (a) If every point of the plane is painted one of three colors, do there necessarily
exist two points of the same color exactly one inch apart?
(b) What if three is replaced by nine?
5. Prove that there exists a unique function f from the set R+ of positive real numbers
to R+ such that
f (f (x)) = 6x − f (x)
and
f (x) > 0
for all x > 0.
8. Prove or disprove: If x and y are real numbers with y ≥ 0 and y(y + 1) ≤ (x + 1)2 ,
then y(y − 1) ≤ x2 .
9. For every√n in the set N = {1, 2, . . .} of positive integers, let rn be the minimum value
of |c − d 3| for all nonnegative integers c and d with c + d = n. Find, with proof,
the smallest positive real number g with rn ≤ g for all n ∈ N.
P
10. Prove that if ∞ n=1 an is a convergent series of positive real numbers, then so is
P∞ n/(n+1)
(a
n=1 n ) .
58 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
12. Prove that there exist an infinite number of ordered pairs (a, b) of integers such that
for every positive integer t, the number at + b is a triangular number if and only if t
is a triangular number. (The triangular numbers are the tn = n(n + 1)/2 with n in
{0, 1, 2, . . .})
3. Prove that if
11z 10 + 10iz 9 + 10iz − 11 = 0,
then |z| = 1. (Here z is a complex number and i2 = −1.)
4. If α is an irrational number, 0 < α < 1, is there a finite game with an honest coin
such that the probability of one player winning the game is α? (An honest coin is one
for which the probability of heads and the probability of tails are both 12 . A game is
finite if with probability 1 it must end in a finite number of moves.)
2.5. 50T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1989 59
5. Let m be a positive integer and let G be a regular (2m + 1)-gon inscribed in the unit
circle. Show that there is a positive constant A, independent of m, with the following
property. For any points p inside G there are two distinct vertices v1 and v2 of G such
that
1 A
| |p − v1 | − |p − v2 | | < − 3.
m m
Here |s − t| denotes the distance between the points s and t.
8. Let S be a non-empty set with an associative operation that is left and right can-
cellative (xy = xz implies y = z, and yx = zx implies y = z).ssume that for every a
in S the set {an : n = 1, 2, 3, . . .} is inite. Must S be a group?
9. Let f be a function on [0, ∞), differentiable and satisfying
a) Express µn in terms of µ0 .
n
b) Prove that the sequence {µn 3n! } always converges, and that the limit is 0 only
if µ0 = 0.
60 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
10. Can a countably infinite set have an uncountable collection of non-empty subsets such
that the intersection of any two of them is finite?
11. Label the vertices of a trapezoid T (quadrilateral with two parallel sides) inscribed
in the unit circle as A, B, C, D so that AB is parallel to CD and A, B, C, D are
in counterclockwise order. Let s1 , s2 , and d denote the lengths of the line segments
AB, CD, and OE, where E is the point of intersection of the diagonals of T , and O
is the center of the circle. Determine the least upper bound of s1 −s d
2
over all such T
for which d 6= 0, and describe allases, if any, in which it is attained.
12. Let (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) be a point chosen at random from the n-dimensional region defined
by 0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn < 1. Let f be a continuous function on [0, 1] with f (1) = 0.
Set x0 = 0 and xn+1 = 1. Show that the expected value of the Riemann sum
n
X
(xi+1 − xi )f (xi+1 )
i=0
R
is 01 f (t)P (t) dt, where P is a polynomial of degree n, independent of f , with 0 ≤
P (t) ≤ 1 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Find, with proof, a formula for Tn of the form Tn = An + Bn , where {An } and {Bn }
are well-known sequences.
√ √ √
2. Is 2 the limit of a sequence of numbers of the form 3 n − 3 m (n, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .)?
3. Prove that any convex pentagon whose vertices (no three of which are collinear) have
integer coordinates must have area greater than or equal to 25 .
2.6. 51T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1990 61
4. Consider a paper punch that can be centered at any point of the plane and that,
when operated, removes from the plane precisely those points whose distance from
the center is irrational. How many punches are needed to remove every point?
5. If A and B are square matrices of the same size such that ABAB = 0, does it follow
that BABA = 0?
6. If X is a finite set, let X denote the number of elements in X. Call an ordered pair
(S, T ) of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n} admissible if s > |T | for each s ∈ S, and t > |S| for
each t ∈ T . How many admissible ordered pairs of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , 10} are there?
Prove your answer.
7. Find all real-valued continuously differentiable functions f on the real line such that
for all x, Z x
2
(f (x)) = [(f (t))2 + (f 0 (t))2 ] dt + 1990.
0
where Pj is
(1 − z)(1 − zx)(1 − zx2 ) · · · (1 − zxj−1 )
.
(z − x)(z − x2 )(z − x3 ) · · · (z − xj )
9. Let S be a set of 2 × 2 integer matrices whose entries aij (1) are all squares of integers
and, (2) satisfy aij ≤ 200. Show that if S has more than 50387 (= 154 − 152 − 15 + 2)
elements, then it has two elements that commute.
10. Let G be a finite group of order n generated by a and b. Prove or disprove: there is
a sequence
g1 , g2 , g3 , . . . , g2n
such that
(1) every element of G occurs exactly twice, and
(2) gi+1 equals gi a or gi b for i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n. (Interpret g2n+1 as g1 .)
11. Is there an infinite sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . of nonzero real numbers such that for n =
1, 2, 3, . . . the polynomial
pn (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn
has exactly n distinct real roots?
62 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
12. Let S be a nonempty closed bounded convex set in the plane. Let K be a line and t
a positive number. Let L1 and L2 be support lines for S parallel to K1 , and let L be
the line parallel to K and midway between L1 and L2 . Let BS (K, t) be the band of
points whose distance from L is at most (t/2)w, where w is the distance between L1
and L2 . What is the smallest t such that
\
S∩ BS (K, t) 6= ∅
K
3. Find all real polynomials p(x) of degree n ≥ 2 for which there exist real numbers
r1 < r2 < · · · < rn such that
4. Does there exist an infinite sequence of closed discs D1 , D2 , D3 , . . . in the plane, with
centers c1 , c2 , c3 , . . ., respectively, such that
for 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
a1 + a 2 + · · · + a r
a1 > a 2 + a 3 , a2 > a 3 + a 4 , . . .
(a) b1 ≥ b2 ≥ . . . ≥ bs ,
(b) each bi is in the sequence 1, 2, 4, . . . , gj , . . . defined by g1 = 1, g2 = 2, and
gj = gj−1 + gj−2 + 1, and
(c) if b1 = gk then every element in {1, 2, 4, . . . , gk } appears at least once as a bi .
7. For each integer n ≥ 0, let S(n) = n − m2 , where m is the greatest integer with
m2 ≤ n. Define a sequence (ak )∞ k=0 by a0 = A and ak+1 = ak + S(ak ) for k ≥ 0. For
what positive integers A is this sequence eventually constant?
9. Does there exist a real number L such that, if m and n are integers greater than L,
then an m × n rectangle may be expressed as a nion of 4 × 6 and 5 × 7 rectangles,
any two of which intersect at most along their boundaries?
64 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
11. Let p be an odd prime and let Zp denote (the field of) integers modulo p. How many
elements are in the set
{x2 : x ∈ Zp } ∩ {y 2 + 1 : y ∈ Zp }?
12. Let a and b be positive numbers. Find the largest number c, in terms of a and b, such
that
sinh ux sinh u(1 − x)
ax b1−x ≤ a +b
sinh u sinh u
for all u with 0 < |u| ≤ c and for all x, 0 < x < 1. (Note: sinh u = (eu − e−u )/2.)
2. Define C(α) to be the coefficient of x1992 in the power series about x = 0 of (1 + x)α .
Evaluate !
Z 1 1992
X 1
C(−y − 1) dy.
0 k=1 y + k
3. For a given positive integer m, find all triples (n, x, y) of positive integers, with n
relatively prime to m, which satisfy
(x2 + y 2 )m = (xy)n .
2.8. 53T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1992 65
5. For each positive integer n, let an = 0 (or 1) if the number of 1’s in the binary
representation of n is even (or odd), respectively. Show that there do not exist
positive integers k and m such that
for 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1.
6. Four points are chosen at random on the surface of a sphere. What is the probability
that the center of the sphere lies inside the tetrahedron whose vertices are at the
four points? (It is understood that each point is independently chosen relative to a
uniform distribution on the sphere.)
7. Let S be a set of n distinct real numbers. Let AS be the set of numbers that occur
as averages of two distinct elements of S. For a given n ≥ 2, what is the smallest
possible number of elements in AS ?
9. For any pair (x, y) of real numbers, a sequence (an (x, y))n≥0 is defined as follows:
a0 (x, y) = x,
(an (x, y))2 + y 2
an+1 (x, y) = , for n ≥ 0.
2
Find the area of the region
10. Let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial of degree less than 1992 having no nonconstant
factor in common with x3 − x. Let
!
d1992 p(x) f (x)
=
dx1992 x3 − x g(x)
for polynomials f (x) and g(x). Find the smallest possible degree of f (x).
11. Let Dn denote the value of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) determinant
3 1 1 1 ··· 1
1 4 1 1 ··· 1
1 1 5 1 ··· 1
1 1 1 6 ··· 1 .
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
1 1 1 1 ··· n+1
n o
Dn
Is the set n!
bounded?
n≥2
3. Let Pn be the set of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n}. Let c(n, m) be the number of functions
f : Pn → {1, 2, . . . , m} such that f (A ∩ B) = min{f (A), f (B)}. Prove that
m
X
c(n, m) = j n.
j=1
4. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , x19 be positive integers each of which is less than or equal to 93. Let
y1 , y2 , . . . , y93 be positive integers each of which is less than or equal to 19. Prove
that there exists a (nonempty) sum of some xi ’s equal to a sum of some yj ’s.
5. Show that
!2 !2 !2
x2 − x x2 − x x2 − x
Z Z 1 Z 11
−10 11 10
dx + dx + dx
−100 x3 − 3x + 1 1
101
x3 − 3x + 1 101
100
x3 − 3x + 1
is a rational number.
2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, . . .
as the property that, if one forms a second sequence that records the number of 3’s
between successive 2’s, the result is identical to the iven sequence. Show that there
exists a real number r such that, for ny n, the nth term of the sequence is 2 if and
only if n = 1 + brmc for some nonnegative integer m. (Note: bxrf loor denotes the
largest integer less than or equal to x.)
7. Find the smallest positive integer n such that for every integer m with 0 < m < 1993,
there exists an integer k for which
m k m+1
< < .
1993 n 1994
8. Consider the following game played with a deck of 2n cards numbered from 1 to 2n.
The deck is randomly shuffled and n cards are dealt to each of two players. Beginning
with A, the players take turns discarding one of their remaining cards and announcing
its number. The game ends as soon as the sum of the numbers on the discarded cards
is divisible by 2n + 1. The last person to discard wins the game. Assuming optimal
strategy by both A and B, what is the probability that A wins?
9. Two real numbers x and y are chosen at random in the interval (0,1) with respect
to the uniform distribution. What is the probability that he closest integer to x/y is
even? Express the answer in the form r + sπ, where r and s are rational numbers.
68 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
10. The function K(x, y) is positive and continuous for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, and the
functions f (x) and g(x) are positive and continuous for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Suppose that for
all x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, Z 1
f (y)K(x, y) dy = g(x)
0
and Z 1
g(y)K(x, y) dy = f (x).
0
Show that f (x) = g(x) for 9 ≤ x ≤ 1.
11. Show there do not exist four points in the Euclidean plane such that the pairwise
distances between the points are all odd integers.
12. Let S be a set of three, not necessarily distinct, positive integers. Show that one can
transform S into a set containing 0 by a finite number of applications of the following
rule: Select two of the three integers, say x and y, where x < y and replace them
with 2x and y − x.
2. Find the positive value of m such that the area in the first quadrant enclosed by the
2
ellipse x9 + y 2 = 1, the x-axis, and the line y = 2x/3 is equal to the area in the first
2
quadrant enclosed by the ellipse x9 + y 2 = 1, the y-axis, and the line y = mx.
3. Prove that the points of an isosceles triangle of side length
√ 1 annot be colored in four
colors such that no two points at distance at least 2 − 2 from each other receive the
same color.
4. Let A and B be 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries such that each of A, A + B, A +
2B, A + 3B, A + 4B has an inverse with integer entries. Prove that the same must
be true of A + 5B.
5. Let (rn ) be a sequence of positive reals with limit 0. Let S be the set of all numbers
expressible in the form ri1 + . . . + ri1994 for positive integers i1 < i2 < . . . < i1994 .
Prove that every interval (a, b) contains a subinterval (c, d) whose intersection with
S is empty.
2.11. 56T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1995 69
6. Let f1 , . . . , f10 be bijections of the integers such that for every integer n, there exists
a sequence i1 , . . . , ik for some k such that fi1 ◦ . . . ◦ fik (0) = n. Prove that if A is
any nonempty finite set, there exist at most 512 sequences (e1 , . . . , e10 ) of zeroes and
ones such that f1e1 ◦ . . . ◦ f10e10
maps A to A. (Here f 1 = f and f 0 means the identity
function.)
7. Find all positive integers n such that |n − m2 | ≤ 250 for exactly 15 nonnegative
integers m.
8. Find all c such that the graph of the function x4 + 9x3 + cx2 + ax + b meets some line
in four distinct points.
9. Let f (x) be a positive-valued function over the reals such that f 0 (x) > f (x) for all x.
For what k must there exist N such that f (x) > ekx for x > N ?
!
3 2
10. Let A be the matrix and for positive integers n, define dn as the greatest
4 2
common divisor of the entries of An − I, where I = ((10)(01)). Prove that dn → ∞
as n → ∞.
11. Fix n a positive integer. For α real, define fα (i) as the greatest integer less than or
equal to αi, and write f k for the k-th iterate of f (i.e. f 1 = f and f k+1 = f ◦ f k ).
Prove there exists α such that fαk (n2 ) = fαk (n2 ) = n2 − k for k = 1, . . . , n.
12. Suppose a, b, c, d are integers with 0 ≤ a ≤ bleq99, 0 ≤ c ≤ d ≤ 99. For any integer i,
let ni = 101i + 1002i . Show that if na + nb is congruent to nc + nd mod 10100, then
a = c and b = d.
converge?
3. The number d1 d2 . . . d9 has nine (not necessarily distinct) decimal digits. The number
e1 e2 . . . e9 is such that each of the nine 9-digit numbers formed by replacing just one
of the digits di is d1 d2 . . . d9 by the corresponding digit ei (1 ≤ i ≤ 9) is divisible by 7.
The number f1 f2 . . . f9 is related to e1 e2 . . . e9 is the same way: that is, each of the nine
numbers formed by replacing one of the ei by the corresponding fi is divisible by 7.
Show that, for each i, di −fi is divisible by 7. [For example, if d1 d2 . . . d9 = 199501996,
then e6 may be 2 or 9, since 199502996 and 199509996 are multiples of 7.]
4. Suppose we have a necklace of n beads. Each bead is labeled with an integer and the
sum of all these labels is n − 1. Prove that we can cut the necklace to form a string
whose consecutive labels x1 , x2 , . . . , xn satisfy
k
X
xi ≤ k − 1 for k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
i=1
dx1
= a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn
dt
dx2
= a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn
dt
.. ..
. .
dxn
= an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn
dt
for some constants aij > 0. Suppose that for all i, xi (t) → 0 as t → ∞. Are the
functions x1 , x2 , . . . , xn necessarily linearly dependent?
6. Suppose that each of n people writes down the numbers 1,2,3 in random order in
one column of a 3 × n matrix, with all orders equally likely and with the orders for
different columns independent of each other. Let the row sums a, b, c of the resulting
matrix be rearranged (if necessary) so that a ≤ b ≤ c. Show that for some n ≥ 1995,
it is at least four times as likely that both b = a + 1 and c = a + 2 as that a = b = c.
7. For a partition π of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, let π(x) be the number of elements in the
part containing x. Prove that for any two partitions π and π 0 , there are two distinct
numbers x and y in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} such that π(x) = π(y) and π 0 (x) = π 0 (y).
[A partition of a set S is a collection of disjoint subsets (parts) whose union is S.]
2.12. 57T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1996 71
8. An ellipse,
whose
semi-axes have lengths a and b, rolls without slipping on the curve
x
y = c sin a . How are a, b, c related, given that the ellipse completes one revolution
when it traverses one period of the curve?
9. To each positive integer with n2 decimal digits, we associate the determinant of the
matrix obtained by writing the digits in order across
! the rows. For example, for
8 6
n = 2, to the integer 8617 we associate det = 50. Find, as a function of n,
1 7
the sum of all the determinants associated with n2 -digit integers. (Leading digits are
assumed to be nonzero; for example, for n = 2, there are 9000 determinants.)
10. Evaluate v
u
u 1
8
t 2207 − 1 .
2207 − 2207−...
√
a+b c
Express your answer in the form d
, where a, b, c, d are integers.
11. A game starts with four heaps of beans, containing 3,4,5 and 6 beans. The two players
move alternately. A move consists of taking either
a) one bean from a heap, provided at least two beans are left behind in that heap,
or
b) a complete heap of two or three beans.
The player who takes the last heap wins. To win the game, do you want to move first
or second? Give a winning strategy.
12. For a positive real number α, define
S(α) = {bnαc : n = 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
Prove that {1, 2, 3, . . .} cannot be expressed as the disjoint union of three sets S(α), S(β)
and S(γ). [As usual, bxc is the greatest integer ≤ x.]
2. Let C1 and C2 be circles whose centers are 10 units apart, and whose radii are 1 and
3. Find, with proof, the locus of all points M for which there exists points X on C1
and Y on C2 such that M is the midpoint of the line segment XY .
3. Suppose that each of 20 students has made a choice of anywhere from 0 to 6 courses
from a total of 6 courses offered. Prove or disprove: there are 5 students and 2 courses
such that all 5 have chosen both courses or all 5 have chosen neither course.
4. Let S be the set of ordered triples (a, b, c) of distinct elements of a finite set A.
Suppose that
Prove that there exists a one-to-one function g from A to R such that g(a) < g(b) <
g(c) implies (a, b, c) ∈ S. Note: R is the set of real numbers.
5. If p is a prime number greater than 3 and k = b2p/3c, prove that the sum
! ! !
p p p
+ +···+
1 2 k
7. Define a selfish set to be a set which has its own cardinality (number of elements)
as an element. Find, with proof, the number of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n} which are
minimal selfish sets, that is, selfish sets none of whose proper subsets is selfish.
9. Given that {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } = {1, 2, . . . , n}, find, with proof, the largest possible value,
as a function of n (with n ≥ 2), of
x1 x2 + x2 x3 + · · · + xn−1 xn + xn x1 .
2.13. 58T H ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 1997 73
10. For any square matrix A, we can define sin A by the usual power series:
∞
X (−1)n
sin A = A2n+1 .
n=0 (2n + 1)!
Prove or disprove: there exists a 2 × 2 matrix A with real entries such that
!
1 1996
sin A = .
0 1
11. Given a finite string S of symbols X and O, we write ∆(S) for the number of X’s in
S minus the number of O’s. For example, ∆(XOOXOOX) = −1. We call a string
S balanced if every substring T of (consecutive symbols of) S has −2 ≤ ∆(T ) ≤ 2.
Thus, XOOXOOX is not balanced, since it contains the substring OOXOO. Find,
with proof, the number of balanced strings of length n.
12. Let (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) be the vertices of a convex polygon which contains
the origin in its interior. Prove that there exist positive real numbers x and y such
that
(a1 , b1 )xa1 y b1 + (a2 , b2 )xa2 y b2 + · · · + (an , bn )xan y bn = (0, 0)
2. Players 1, 2, 3, . . . , n are seated around a table, and each has a single penny. Player
1 passes a penny to player 2, who then passes two pennies to player 3. Player 3 then
passes one penny to Player 4, who passes two pennies to Player 5, and so on, players
alternately passing one penny or two to the next player who still has some pennies.
A player who runs out of pennies drops out of the game and leaves the table. Find
an infinite set of numbers n for which some player ends up with all n pennies.
3. Evaluate
! !
x3 x5 x7 x2 x4 x6
Z ∞
x− + − +··· 1 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 2 + · · · dx.
0 2 2·4 2·4·6 2 2 ·4 2 ·4 ·6
74 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
12. The dissection of the 3–4–5 triangle shown below (into four congruent right triangles
similar to the original) has diameter 5/2. Find the least diameter of a dissection of
this triangle into four parts. (The diameter of a dissection is the least upper bound
of the distances between pairs of points belonging to the same part.)
for x > 0.
8. Given a point (a, b) with 0 < b < a, determine the minimum perimeter of a triangle
with one vertex at (a, b), one on the x-axis, and one on the line y = x. You may
assume that a triangle of minimum perimeter exists.
10. Find necessary and sufficient conditions on positive integers m and n so that
mn−1
X
(−1)bi/mc+bi/nc = 0.
i=0
11. Let N be the positive integer with 1998 decimal digits, all of them 1; that is,
N = 1111 · · · 11.
√
Find the thousandth digit after the decimal point of N.
√
12. Prove that, for any integers a, b, c, there exists a positive integer n such that n3 + an2 + bn + c
is not an integer.
2. Let p(x) be a polynomial that is nonnegative for all real x. Prove that for some k,
there are polynomials f1 (x), . . . , fk (x) such that
k
X
p(x) = (fj (x))2 .
j=1
a2n + a2n+1 = am .
5. Prove that there is a constant C such that, if p(x) is a polynomial of degree 1999,
then Z 1
|p(0)| ≤ C |p(x)| dx.
−1
7. Right triangle ABC has right angle at C and ∠BAC = θ; the point D is chosen on
AB so that |AC| = |AD| = 1; the point E is chosen on BC so that ∠CDE = θ. The
perpendicular to BC at E meets AB at F . Evaluate limθ→0 |EF |.
8. Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n such that P (x) = Q(x)P 00 (x), where Q(x) is a
quadratic polynomial and P 00 (x) is the second derivative of P (x). Show that if P (x)
has at least two distinct roots then it must have n distinct roots.
where the sum ranges over all pairs (m, n) of positive integers satisfying the indicated
inequalities. Evaluate
10. Let f be a real function with a continuous third derivative such that f (x), f 0 (x), f 00 (x), f 000 (x)
are positive for all x. Suppose that f 000 (x) ≤ f (x) for all x. Show that f 0 (x) < 2f (x)
for all x.
11. For an integer n ≥ 3, let θ = 2π/n. Evaluate the determinant of the n × n matrix
I +A, where I is the n×n identity matrix and A = (ajk ) has entries ajk = cos(jθ+kθ)
for all j, k.
12. Let S be a finite set of integers, each greater than 1. Suppose that for each integer
n there is some s ∈ S such that gcd(s, n) = 1 or gcd(s, n) = s. Show that there exist
s, t ∈ S such that gcd(s, t) is prime.
2.16. 61ST ANUAL WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION, 2000 79
2. Prove that there exist infinitely many integers n such that n, n + 1, n + 2 are each the
sum of the squares of two integers. [Example: 0 = 02 + 02 , 1 = 02 + 12 , 2 = 12 + 12 .]
converges.
5. Three distinct points with integer coordinates lie in the plane on a circle of radius
r > 0. Show that two of these points are separated by a distance of at least r 1/3 .
10. Let f (x) be a continuous function such that f (2x2 − 1) = 2xf (x) for all x. Show that
f (x) = 0 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
11. Let S0 be a finite set of positive integers. We define finite sets S1 , S2 , . . . of positive
integers as follows: the integer a is in Sn+1 if and only if exactly one of a − 1 or a is
in Sn . Show that there exist infinitely many integers N for which SN = S0 ∪ {N + a :
a ∈ S0 }.
n+1
12. Let B be a set of more than 2 n distinct points with coordinates of the form
(±1, ±1, . . . , ±1) in n-dimensional space with n ≥ 3. Show that there are three
distinct points in B which are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
2. You have coins C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn . For each k, Ck is biased so that, when tossed, it has
probability 1/(2k+1) of falling heads. If the n coins are tossed, what is the probability
that the number of heads is odd? Express the answer as a rational function of n.
For what values of m is Pm (x) the product of two non-constant polynomials with
integer coefficients?
4. Triangle ABC has an area 1. Points E, F, G lie, respectively, on sides BC, CA, AB
such that AE bisects BF at point R, BF bisects CG at point S, and CG bisects AE
at point T . Find the area of the triangle RST .
5. Prove that there are unique positive integers a, n such that an+1 − (a + 1)n = 2001.
6. Can an arc of a parabola inside a circle of radius 1 have a length greater than 4?
Color the squares of the grid so that half of the squares in each row and in each column
are red and the other half are black (a checkerboard coloring is one possibility). Prove
that for each coloring, the sum of the numbers on the red squares is equal to the sum
of the numbers on the black squares.
8. Find all pairs of real numbers (x, y) satisfying the system of equations
1 1
x
+ 2y
= (x2 + 3y 2 )(3x2 + y 2 )
1 1
x
− 2y
= 2(y 4 − x4 ).
√
9. For any positive integer n, let hni denote the closest integer to n. Evaluate
∞
X 2hni + 2−hni
.
n=1 2n
10. Let S denote the set of rational numbers different from {−1, 0, 1}. Define f : S → S
by f (x) = x − 1/x. Prove or disprove that
∞
\
f (n) (S) = ∅,
n=1
11. Let a and b be real numbers in the interval (0, 1/2), and let g be a continuous real-
valued function such that g(g(x)) = ag(x) + bx for all real x. Prove that g(x) = cx
for some constant c.
12. Assume that (an )n≥1 is an increasing sequence of positive real numbers such that
lim an /n = 0. Must there exist infinitely many positive integers n such that an−i +
an+i < 2an for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1?
2. Given any five points on a sphere, show that some four of them must lie on a closed
hemisphere.
82 CHAPTER 2. WILLIAM LOWELL PUTNAM COMPETITION
5. Define a sequence by a0 = 1, together with the rules a2n+1 = an and a2n+2 = an +an+1
for each integer n ≥ 0. Prove that every positive rational number appears in the set
an−1 1 1 2 1 3
:n≥1 = , , , , ,... .
an 1 2 1 3 2
6. Fix an integer b ≥ 2. Let f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, and for each n ≥ 3, define f (n) = nf (d),
where d is the number of base-b digits of n. For which values of b does
∞
X 1
n=1 f (n)
converge?
7. Shanille O’Keal shoots free throws on a basketball court. She hits the first and misses
the second, and thereafter the probability that she hits the next shot is equal to the
proportion of shots she has hit so far. What is the probability she hits exactly 50 of
her first 100 shots?
8. Consider a polyhedron with at least five faces such that exactly three edges emerge
from each of its vertices. Two players play the following game:
Show that the player who signs first will always win by playing as well as possible.
10. An integer n, unknown to you, has been randomly chosen in the interval [1, 2002]
with uniform probability. Your objective is to select n in an odd number of guesses.
After each incorrect guess, you are informed whether n is higher or lower, and you
must guess an integer on your next turn among the numbers that are still feasibly
correct. Show that you have a strategy so that the chance of winning is greater than
2/3.
11. A palindrome in base b is a positive integer whose base-b digits read the same back-
wards and forwards; for example, 2002 is a 4-digit palindrome in base 10. Note that
200 is not a palindrome in base 10, but it is the 3-digit palindrome 242 in base 9, and
404 in base 7. Prove that there is an integer which is a 3-digit palindrome in base b
for at least 2002 different values of b.
12. Let p be a prime number. Prove that the determinant of the matrix
x y z
p p
x y zp
p 2 p 2 p2
x y z
84
3.2. 2N D ASIATIC PACIFIC MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD, 1990 85
triples (a, b, c) such that (a, b), (a, c), and (b, c) belong to S.
5. Determine all functions f from the reals to the reals for which
(1) f (x) is strictly increasing,
(2) f (x) + g(x) = 2x for all real x,
where g(x) is the composition inverse function to f (x). (Note: f and g are said to
be composition inverses if f (g(x)) = x and g(f (x)) = x for all real x.)
2. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be positive real numbers, and let Sk be the sum of the products of
a1 , a2 , . . . , an taken k at a time. Show that
!2
n
Sk Sn−k ≥ a1 a2 · · · an
k
for k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
3. Consider all the triangles ABC which have a fixed base AB and whose altitude from
C is a constant h. For which of these triangles is the product of its altitudes a
maximum?
4. A set of 1990 persons is divided into non-intersecting subsets in such a way that:
a Prove that within each subset, every person has the same number of acquain-
tances.
b Determine the maximum possible number of subsets.
86 CHAPTER 3. ASIATIC PACIFIC MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS
Note: It is understood that if a person A knows person B, then person B will know
person A; an acquaintance is someone who is known. Every person is assumed to
know one’s self.
5. Show that for every integer n ≥ 6, there exists a convex hexagon which can be
dissected into exactly n congruent triangles.
s = a+b+c
2
. Construct a triangle with sides s − a, s − b, and s − c. This process is
repeated until a triangle can no longer be constructed with the side lengths given.
For which original triangles can this process be repeated indefinitely?
2. In a circle C with centre O and radius r, let C1 , C2 be two circles with centres O1 ,
O2 and radii r1 , r2 respectively, so that each circle Ci is internally tangent to C at
Ai and so that C1 , C2 are externally tangent to each other at A.Prove that the three
lines OA, O1 A2 , and O2 A1 are concurrent.
3. Let n be an integer such that n > 3. Suppose that we choose three numbers from the
set {1, 2, . . . , n}. Using each of these three numbers only once and using addition,
multiplication, and parenthesis, let us form all possible combinations.
(a) Show that if we choose all three numbers greater than n/2, then thealues of
these combinations are all distinct.
√
(b) Let p be a prime number such that p ≤ n. Show that the number of ways
of choosing three numbers so that the smallest one is p and the values of the
combinations are not all distinct is precisely the number of positive divisors of
p − 1.
4. Determine all pairs (h, s) of positive integers with the following property: If one draws
h horizontal lines and another s lines which satisfy:
5. Find a sequence of maximal length consisting of non-zero integers in which the sum
of any seven consecutive terms is positive and that of any eleven consecutive terms
is negative.
3. Let (
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 and
g(x) = cn+1 xn+1 + cn xn + · · · + c0
be non-zero polynomials with real coefficients such that g(x) = (x + r)f (x) for some
real number r. If a = max(|an |, . . . , |a0 |) and c = max(|cn+1 |, . . . , |c0 |), prove that
a
c
≤ n + 1.
xn + (2 + x)n + (2 − x)n = 0
Prove that for some i, 0 ≤ i ≤ 1992, there exists a point Q with coordinates (qx , qy )
on the line segment joining Pi with Pi+1 such that both 2qx and 2qy are odd integers.
i For all x, y ∈ R,
and √
2 a1995 − 1994 ≥ a1 + 1.
3. Let P QRS be a cyclic quadrilateral such that the segments P Q and RS are not
parallel. Consider the set of circles through P and Q, and the set of circles through
R and S. Determine the set A of points of tangency of circles in these two sets.
4. Let C be a circle with radius R and centre O, and S a fixed point in the interior of
C. Let AA0 and BB 0 be perpendicular chords through S. Consider the rectangles
SAM B, SBN 0 A0 , SA0 M 0 B 0 , and SB 0 N A. Find the set of all points M , N 0 , M 0 , and
N when A moves around the whole circle.
5. Find the minimum positive integer k such that there exists a function f from the
set Z of all integers to {1, 2, . . . k} with the property that f (x) 6= f (y) whenever
|x − y| ∈ {5, 7, 12}.
3. Let P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 be four points on a circle, and let I1 be the incentre of the triangle
P2 P3 P4 ; I2 be the incentre of the triangle P1 P3 P4 ; I3 be the incentre of the triangle
P1 P2 P4 ; I4 be the incentre of the triangle P1 P2 P3 . Prove that I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 are the
vertices of a rectangle.
4. The National Marriage Council wishes to invite n couples to form 17 discussion groups
under the following conditions:
(a) All members of a group must be of the same sex; i.e. they are either all male or
all female.
(b) The difference in the size of any two groups is 0 or 1.
(c) All groups have at least 1 member.
(d) Each person must belong to one and only one group.
3.9. 9T H ASIATIC PACIFIC MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD, 1997 91
Find all values of n, n ≤ 1996, for which this is possible. Justify your answer.
where the denominators contain partial sums of the sequence of reciprocals of trian-
gular numbers (i.e. k = n(n + 1)/2 for n = 1, 2, . . . , 1996). Prove that S > 1001.
where ma , mb , mc are the lengths of the angle bisectors (internal to the triangle) and
Ma , Mb , Mc are the lengths of the angle bisectors extended until they meet the circle.
Prove that
la lb lc
+ + ≥ 3,
sin A sin B sin2 C
2 2
(a) Prove that if this process is continued indefinitely, then one and only one point
P is interior to every triangle An−2 An−1 An , n ≥ 3.
92 CHAPTER 3. ASIATIC PACIFIC MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS
where N is a positive integer. In order that each person has the same number of
objects, each person Ai is to give or to receive a certain number of objects to or from
its two neighbours Ai−1 and Ai+1 . (Here An+1 means A1 and An means A0 .) How
should this redistribution be performed so that the total number of objects transferred
is minimum?
1. Let F be the set of all n−tuples (A1 , . . . , An ) such that each Ai is a subset of
{1, 2, . . . , 1998}. Let |A| denote the number of elements of the set A. Find:
X
|A1 ∪ · · · ∪ An |
(A1 ,...,An )∈F
2. Show that for any positive integers a and b, (36a + b)(a + 36b) can not be a power of
2.
4. Let 4ABC be a triangle and D the foot of the altitude from A. Let E and F lie on
a line through D such that AE is perpendicular to BC, AF is perpendicular to CF ,
and E and F are different from D. Let M and N be the midpoint of the segments
BC and EF , respectively. Prove that AN is perpendicular to N M .
5. √
Find the largest integer n such that n is divisible by all positive integers less than
3
n.
3.11. 11T H ASIATIC PACIFIC MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD, 1999 93
1. Find the smallest positive integer n with the following property: there does not exist
an arithmetic progression of 1999 real numbers containing exactly n integers.
3. Let Γ1 and Γ2 be two circles intersecting at P and Q. The common tangent, closer
to P , of Γ1 and Γ2 touches Γ1 at A and Γ2 at B. The tangent of Γ1 at P meets Γ2 at
C, which is different from P , and the extension of AP meets BC at R. Prove that
the circumcircle of triangle P QR is tangent to BP and BR.
4. Determine all pairs (a, b) of integers with the property that the numbers a2 + 4b and
b2 + 4a are both perfect squares.
5. Let S be a set of 2n + 1 points in the plane such that no three are collinear and no
four concyclic. A circle will be called good if it has 3 points of S on its circumference,
n − 1 points in its interior and n − 1 points in its exterior. Prove that the number of
good circles has the same parity as n.
for
i
xi =
101
Each of the numbers 1, . . . , 9 is to be written into one of these circles, so that each
circle contain exactly one of these numbers and:
i the sum of the four numbers on each side of the triangle are equal;
ii the sum of the squares of the four numbers on each side of the triangle are equal.
Find all ways in which this can be done.
3. Let 4ABC be a triangle. Let M and N be the points in which the median and the
angle bisector, respectively, at A meet the side BC. Let Q and P be the point in
which the perpendicular at N to N A meets M A and BA, respectively, and O the
point in which the perpendicular at P to BA meets AN produced. Prove that QO
is perpendicular to BC.
4. Let n, k be given positive integers with n > k. Prove that
1 nn n! nn
· < <
n + 1 k k (n − k)n−k k! (n − k)! k k (n − k)n−k
5. Given a permutation (a0 , a1 , . . . , an ) of the sequence 0, 1, . . . , n. A transposition of
ai with aj is called legal if ai = 0 for i > 0, and ai−1 + 1 = aj . The permu-
tation (a0 , . . . , an ) is called regular if after a number of transpositions it becomes
(1, 2, . . . , n, 0). For which numbers n is the permutation (1, n, n − 1, . . . , 3, 2, 0) reg-
ular?
2. Find the largest positive integer N so that the number of integers in the set {1, 2, . . . , N }
which are divisible by 3 is equal to the number of integers which are divisible by 5 or
7 (or both).
3. Let two equal regular n-gons S and T be located in the plane such that their inter-
section is a 2n-gon (n ≥ 3). The sides of the polygon S are coloured in red and the
sides of T in blue. Prove that the sum of the lengths of the blue sides of the polygon
S ∩ T is equal to the sum of the lengths of its red sides.
4. A point in the plane with a cartesian coordinate system is called a mixed point if one
of its coordinates is rational and the other one is irrational. Find all polynomials
with real coefficients such that their graphs do not contain any mixed point.
5. Find the greatest integer n, such that there are n+4 points A, B, C, D, X1 , . . . , Xn in
the plane with AB 6= CD that satisfy the following condition: for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n
triangles ABXi and CDXi are equal.
a2 + b b2 + a
and
b2 − a a2 − b
are both integers.
the orthocentre of triangle ABP and S be the orthocentre of triangle ACQ. Let T be
the point common to the segments BP and CQ. Find all possible values of ^CBP
and ^BCQ such that triangle 4T RS is equilateral.
4. Let x, y, z be positive numbers such that
1 1 1
+ + = 1.
x y z
Show that
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
x + yz + y + zx + z + xy ≥ xyz + x + y + z.
5. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Find all functions f from R to R satisfying:
(i) there are only finitely many s in R such that f (s) = 0, and
(ii) f (x4 + y) = x3 f (x) + f (f (y)) for all x, y in R.
5. Given two positive integers m and n, find the smallest positive integer k such that
among any k people, either there are 2m of them who form m pairs of mutually
acquainted people or there are 2n of them forming n pairs of mutually unacquainted
people.