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 Understanding the Job Characteristics Model (including Job Enrichment)
One of the most important components of human resources management is job
design or work design, where the focus is on the specifications of the job that will
satisfy requirements of the organization and the person holding the job. It is one core
function of human resources management that cannot be overlooked or skipped,
considering how it is an essential tool in ensuring high job satisfaction among
workers within an organization, and improve productivity and the overall output.

In the course of the life of an organization, there are changes that are bound to affect
how various aspects of management operate. Human resources management is not
immune to these effects and, many times, the HRM of an organization has to adapt
to the changes. One form of adaptation is through implementing job or work
redesigns. Another is through the conduct of various activities and programs that are
aimed at job enrichment.

Unfortunately, job redesign is not something that can be done overnight. There are
several approaches that may be used, and one of the more popular and most
acknowledged approaches is that one developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg
Oldham, and which was aptly called the “Job Characteristics Model”.

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 In this guide, we explore 1) the job characteristics theory and model and 2) how
the job characteristics model can help with job enrichment.

THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS

THEORY
Hackman and Oldham, both organizational psychologists, developed the job
characteristics theory (JCT) and first introduced it in 1976 in the book “Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 16, Issue 2”.

According to this theory, “job design has an effect on motivation, work performance,
and job satisfaction.” It has served as a framework for management to identify how
certain job characteristics affect the outcomes of the jobs.

In a more personal vein, it studies the various factors that make a specific job
satisfying for the organization, and for the person doing the job. Therefore, it
describes the relationship between job characteristics and the responses of
individuals to work or the job being performed.

The Job Characteristics Theory identified five core job dimensions that prompt three
psychological states which, in turn, lead to or have an effect on five work-related
outcomes or results. As we move forward with the discussion, we will expound on
these further.

Out of this theory, the Job Characteristics Model, which is still in full use today, was
also introduced. Basically, this model specifies the conditions under which workers
or individuals will be internally motivate to perform their jobs effectively.

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THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS

MODEL
The Job Characteristics Model was verified when Hackman and Oldham tested it on
658 employees, who are working in 62 different jobs in 7 different businesses or
organizations. The results were deemed to be reliable and conclusive, which is the
reason why it still holds a lot of weight today, despite the number of other job design
theories introduced.

Take a look at the diagram of the Job Characteristics Model, as presented by

Hackman and Oldham.
The Job Characteristics Model Hackman and Oldham

In order to get a full picture of the Job Characteristics Model, we have to go break
down its composition: the five core job characteristics or dimensions, the five work-
related outcomes, and the three psychological states.

Five Core Job Characteristics

Hackman and Oldham provided clear definitions on the five job dimensions or
characteristics.

#1. Skill variety

This refers to the “degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in
carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of different skills and talents of a
person”. Therefore, it follows that the individual will be required to develop a variety
of talents and skills.

This area asks the number of skills and talents that the job requires of the person
that will be working on it. A quick giveaway would be to assess whether the job is
monotonous and repetitive or if it asks the worker to do a number of different tasks or
actions.

Compare two individuals working two different jobs. Job A is pretty much elementary,
with the tasks being performed in a routine and repetitive manner. It does not
demand much skill or ability. Job B, on the other hand, is quite complex, requiring
that the worker be in possession of several skills or abilities. Who, between the two
workers, will have greater chances of experiencing meaningfulness in their jobs?

That’s correct. It’s the one working on Job B, since it requires variety in skills.

#2. Task identity

This is the “degree to which the job requires completion of a whole, identifiable piece
of work; that is, doing a job from beginning to end with visible outcome”. This
involves being able to work on an entire work process, rather than just on bits and
pieces of it. Therefore, it is important to assess whether the job or task has a clearly
defined beginning, middle and end.

Workers tend to find more meaning in their jobs when they can identify a complete
and visible outcome at the end of the day, or of a work cycle. Let us say, for
example, that two workers are involved in the same work process. Worker A is
responsible for only a small part of the work, probably in the first phase. Worker B,
on the other hand, is involved throughout the entire process.

Between the two, Worker B is more likely to find his job meaningful, because he can
see a visible outcome, and he feels more involved in the completion of the process.
For him, a job that he is able to complete, from beginning to end, seems more
worthwhile, than simply working on Phase 1, then not having a hand on the rest of
the process. In fact, he may not even be aware whether the process has been
completed or not, because he is focused on his assigned phase of the process.

#3. Task significance

Task significance is said to be the “degree to which the job has a substantial impact
on the lives of other people, whether those people are in the immediate organization
or in the world at large”. The task – and the job – is significant if it can affect other
people’s lives. And it should not just be the people within the organization, but even
those outside.

For many, a job holds more meaning if it can help improve the well-being of other
people (not just himself), whether physically, psychologically, or emotionally.
Knowing that their job, and their performance thereof, has the capacity to have a
positive impact on others will motivate them further to do better.

Individuals who put great stock on task significance are very keen on finding out
whether the job that they are doing actually matters to other people. For them,
meaning comes in the form of recognition by other people.

#4. Autonomy
This pertains to the “degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedure to be used in carrying it out”.

Autonomy is often seen in positions with managerial, supervisorial and ministerial

functions. Examples of jobs with high levels of autonomy are managers, team
leaders, supervising officers, division and department heads, and senior
management. These jobs tend to become more meaningful to the ones performing
them because they feel greater personal responsibility for their own actions on the
job.

But it’s not just limited to people in managerial positions. Even workers have a strong
sense of personal responsibility if they are left to perform their tasks using their own
efforts and initiatives, and they are allowed to make the decisions and call the shots.

They will definitely feel less of this autonomy if they are made to meekly follow the
instructions of a supervisor, or adhere strictly to what a job procedures manual
provides. This will not help them feel responsible for their actions at all.

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#5. Feedback
Job feedback refers to the

“degree to which carrying out the work activities

required by the job provides the individual with direct
 and clear information about the effectiveness of his or
her performance”.
As much as possible, workers would like to be kept in the loop on their performance
of the job. Not only will this keep them apprised of their progress as workers, it is
also one way for them to boost their self-esteem. If they are told by their supervisors
or managers that they are going a good job, they are likely to feel motivated to
continue with how they are doing so far. In contrast, if they are told that they are not
performing as expected, then they will respond accordingly and improve their
performance.

If all five characteristics are lumped or combined together, we will be able to come
up with a single figure or index that will act as the indicator of the overall motivating
potential of the job being evaluated or redesigned. This index will essentially show
the possibility or likelihood of a job affecting the attitudes and behaviors of the
employee or worker.

This figure or index is called the MPS, or the “motivating potential score”.

Using all five core job characteristics, the formula for the MPS is:

MPS = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance)/3 X Autonomy X

Feedback

The following propositions can be gleaned from the formula:

 If all five core job characteristics are high, there is a high probability that the
worker will experience the three psychological states. This will naturally result to
positive outcomes.

 In order for a job to be considered to have high motivating potential, at least

one among Skill Variety, Task Identity and Task Significance) should also be high.
However, it is a given that the job should also be high on both Autonomy and
Feedback. A low score on any of the two will pull the MPS down.

 A low score on any one of the three does not automatically mean that the job
will have a low motivating potential, since it could be offset by a high score on any of
the other two.

Three Critical Psychological States

According to Faturochman, the only way for the desirable outcomes to appear or
materialize is for the individual to experience all three psychological states, and the
only way to experience these states, is to possess the core job characteristics.

Hackman and Oldham also mentioned motivation, which will definitely be high
among individuals who are able to experience these psychological states.
Psychological State 1. Experience
meaningfulness of work
Individuals have to feel that, when they are working, they are doing something
meaningful. They feel that their work, in and of itself, is meaningful. This means that
they have to feel that what they are doing is generally worthwhile or of value. It
should also hold some importance or significance, especially with respect to a
system or a set of values that the individual, on a personal level, believes in or
accepts.

Looking at the diagram of the model, we can easily see that there is a connection
between meaningfulness of work and the first three core job characteristics. I

 In short, a worker will be able to find more meaning in his job if skill variety, task
identity and task significance are present.

Meaningfulness of work and Skill Variety:

Not only should the job require a variety of skills and talents; it should also have
the appropriate number of skills and talents, and the appropriate skills and talents.

Basically, requiring too many skills and talents may make the job too overwhelming
and complex, so the worker will have difficulty keeping up with it. On the other hand,
a job that requires too little skills and talents may make it too boring and not
challenging at all.

In the same vein, the skills and talents should be a fit for the job itself. There would
be no point requiring a skill or talent that will not contribute to the accomplishment of
a task.