•

"Book Review

Asian Processes and Development

Administration in Retrospect
KE~NETH ESPANA BAUZON:~

A review of Henry S. Albinski (ed.), Asian Political Processes: Essays and Readings
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1971), 426 pp. and Edward W. Weidner (ed.), Develop-
ment Administration in Asia (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1970),
431 pp,

Asia has for many years aroused the which as a substantiation of the as-
curious eye of the West not only for pirations that, in the first place,
its vast natural resources but also for prompted movements. for indepen-
the many fascinating facets of its cul- dence.
ture. With their emergence from the
The challenge of development par-
yoke of colonial rule many Asian
ticularly among developing countries
countr.es must forge a national iden-
in Asia encompasses a broad spectrum
tity while coping with the needs of
establishing viable economic, political, related to the establishment of a
and social systems. But while the healthy economy, stable political sys-
direction of the efforts of these coun- tem, and a socio-cultural environment
tries may be towards a self-reliant pos- conducive to the attainment of these
ture, the post-colonial era has pre- ends. This challenge has indeed sti-
sented a new set of myriad problems mulated scholars particularly in iden-
ranging from the selection of choices tifying problem areas and in formulat-
upon which to direct national efforts ing, in both theoretical and practical
to the problems of acquiring and em- levels, possible solutions, that would
ploying the appropriate tools of im- guide governmental policies. Among
plementation. It is apparent that the the more fairly recent materials that
realm of decision-making in these have emerged dealing with the prob-
countries has to contend with the pre- lems of development are Asian P~li­
vailing conditions which still manifest ticai Processes: Essays and Readings
some vestiges of the past and not to (1971), edited by Henry S. Albinski,
readily reject whatever comes from, or and Development Administration in
is associated with, the former colonial Asia (1970), edited by Edward W.
rulers. Yet much of what is already Weidner. Both works are a result of
past is more desirable to be forgotten efforts of some scholars, both Oriental
if it shows a tendency to obstruct pre- and Western, who have collectively or
sent efforts to attain development individually undertaken studies con-
cerning social processes in Asia and
Q Ph. D. in Political Science candidate, the ways and means of inducing the
Duke University. development best suited to its con-

237

238 PHIUPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBUC ADMINISTRATION
text. It may be added that these two
works compliment each other such
that both could even be volumes of
the same book: Albinski sets the pace
by exploring the terrain upon which
development and its administration,
which are the primary concern of
Weidner, could be applied. The merits
of these books lie not entirely in their
success in imparting fully the con-
tours of this terrain and in the pro-
fundity of their conclusions but also
in their candid recognition of the wide
diversities permeating through Asian
societies and their energetic efforts to
examine the implications of these
diversities to development.
II
To lend more meaning to the dis-
cussion, it is deemed appropriate to
cast a critical eye on the notions of
development as propounded by some
of the contributors in the books. It
seems that the writers agree that de-
velopment involves a transition from
one set of conditions to another and
that this transition should as much as
possible be a conscious and deliberate
one. Weidner starts out with his sug-
gestion that development involves
growth, whether under conditions of
system change or not, in the direction
of modernity and particularly in the
direction of nation-building and socio-
economic progress (p. 8).1 This growth
1 He defines nation-building as "the de-
liberate fashioning of an integrated politi-
cal community within fixed boundaries in
which the nation-state is the dominant po-
litical institution" (Ibid.) He adopts Mil-
•
requires, as implied, the active involve-
ment of a central machinery, possibly
the bureaucracy, backed by the state's
coercive instruments to carry out the
conscious attempt to fashion the 'Em-
vironment as demanded by the neces-
sities of, growth. But the essence 'OT
development as growth towards mod-
ernity is rendered ambiguous when
Albinski comes up with a definition
of political modernization as the abil-
ity and means by which systems' ac-
quire the capacity to sustain and con-
tinuously effect new types of organi-
zation (Preface) as if development,
modernization and modernity convey
strictly the same essence to mean the
"integrated political community" of
Weidner which is deemed essential in
sustaining material and social welfare.
Furthermore, both definitions neces-
sarily reflect the as.sertive role of the
bureaucracy and the mobilization of all
other functions supportive of the
bureaucracy such as those of the mili-
tary and the private sector because
of their legitimizing role notwith-
standing their potential for dysfunc-
tion. It seems, then, that a strong
bureaucracy, which presupposes the
presence of a strong leadership, is a
prerequisite in the administration of
development.
ton Esman's definition of socio-economic
progress as "the sustained and widely dif-
fused improvement in material and social
welfare" from Esman, "The Politics of De-
velopment Administration" in Montgomery
and Siffin (eds.), Approaches to Develop-
ment: Politics, Administration and Change
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), pp. 59-
87. .
July
 ASIAN PROCESSES AND DEV. ADM.
This brings us to the subject of de-
velopment administration. But first
let us clarify the term "administra-
tion" in relation to development.
Riggs provides us with an initial idea
that administration is defined func-
tionally in terms of the implementa-
tion of a policy, law, or norm (Weidner
p.38). In other words, administration
performs a function in contradistinc-
tion to bureaucracy which refers pri-
marily to a "hierarchy of positions" or
"structures." Riggs, thus, associates
development administration necessari-
ly with the question of "how" or the
manner of implementing decisions in
such a way that the goal of transform-
ing society could be enhanced by
maintaining a desirable level of "auto-
geny" without necessarily undermin-
ing the "discretionary powers" of a
social system vis-a-vis another.s This
can be understood in the light of his
own explanation that one social sys-
tem, e.g., the administrative system,
interacts with others performing dif-
ferent but related roles and that the
successful interaction as shown by the
output it produces reflects the level
of maturity or integration of the var-
ious functionally differentiated com-
ponents of the whole social system.
2 Riggs uses the term "autonomy" to con-
vey three meanings: first, the capacity
of political and administrative systems to
make choices... ,to bring about environ-
mental changes by deliberate programs and
self-conscious decisions (discretion), second,
the degree of independence a role or a
social system has vis-a-vis other roles or
social systems (autogeny); and third, the
ability of ego to stand apart from the roles
he plays and view ,them as alter egos (de-
tachment) pp. 33-36; 61.
1975
•
239
Various Asian scholars,· it is
heartening to note, have come up with
their own notions of development ad-
ministration. This is significant be-
cause it indicates a growing concern
among Asians themselves to deal with
the problems of development and not
to rely wholly on the ideas of Western
scholars who, in many cases, display
lack of adequate comprehension of the
Asian terrain. This significance, how-
ever, is rather modest compared to
the ideals which development repre-
sents and with the realization that
efforts towards development start out
basically from the same social and
political framework that was in exis-
tence when the colonizers departed
from the area. It is to be expected,
therefore, that the substance of de-
velopment and its definition offered
by the various writers may contain
elements of Western bias despite ef-
forts at objectivity.
Jose V. Abueva of the Philippines
views development administration as
the increasing ability of the political
system. .. to implement its collective
decisions (p. 132). The task of imple-
mentation is lodged on the administra-
tive machinery, usually with the sup-
port of legitimate force. Inayatullah of
Pakistan understands the concept as
the complex of organization ar-
rangements for the achievement of
action through public authority in
pursuance of (1) social and economic
goals and (2) nation-building (p. 278).
B.S. Khanna of India proposes that
the concept is an administration
geared to the tasks of economic; so-
cial, and political development in-
240 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

duced by an increasing tempo, mo- Abueva's position is rather at variance

mentum, and diversity emanating from the rest in this case, pointing to
from the elite and groups of people the implementation of the agency's
(p. 220). A Korean scholar, Hahn- collective decisions as the goal. The
Been Lee, considers the concept as in- spirit of his definition, however, does
dicating the growing capability of the not preclude socio-economic and poli-
administrative system to cope con- tical progress as goals of the Philip-
tinuously with problems created by pines. Rather, his definition hints at
social progress (p. 109). Finally, a more pragmatic approach to devel-
Nguyen-Duy Xuan of Vietnam adopts opment owing to the peculiarity of
Weidner's notion of the concept as the conditions at hand in the country.
administration of development pro- This will be further elaborated in a
grams designed to achieve nation- subsequent section of this essay.
building objectives and promotes so- One significant trend becoming
cio-economic progress (pp. 368-369). 3 manifest among developing Asian
If a second look could be accorded countries is the growing consciousness
to the above notions of development of the utilization of coercive mech-
administration, the striking similarity anisms inherent in the state organi-
of the ends. and means is readily no- zation. Thus, even countries which
ticeable. Insofar as the means is con- have a tradition of consensual politics
cerned, all of them point to the ad- have gradually shifted to a direction
ministrative system as the primary im- characterized by a more restrained
plementing agency that should be politics, the consolidation of loose
backed by legitimate force which could power groups into one dominant group
be analogous to what Inayatullah re- or party, the growing strength of the
fers to as public authority; for Khan- executive as the power local point, ac-
na, it must be a result of the interac- cented by an increasing level of in-
tion between the elite and groups of stitutionalization and integration of
people; and for Lee, the administrative the dominant value-patterns and
agency should manifest growth in ca- structures deemed eufunctional at
pability. On the other hand, con- least by the power-wielders.
cerning the ends, most of them com- India is rather an exceptional case
monly point to the goals of socio-eco- because, despite the continued do-
norr.ic and political progress, with minance of the Congress Party over
Inayatullah and Nguyen-Duy Xuan other political parties, Indian politics
using the term nation-building pre- is still basically consensual being
sumably to mean political progress in based largely on the participation of
the context of Weidner's explanation. individuals and groups struggling to
translate through the electoral process
3 As adopted from Weidner's Technical
Assistance in Public Administration (Chica-
their influence into policy decisions.
go: Public Administration Service, 1964), But this process, as. Paul R. Brass
p.2oo.' points out, merely leads to the weak-

'July

,.
ASIAN PROCESSES AND DEV. ADM.
ness attributed to the Indian political
system in general and to the Con-
gress Party in particular. India is
proliferated with political parties re-
presenting various interests and de-
mands and Brass regards this as a
symptom of a "low degree of institu-
tionalization of electoral process" es-
pecially so when these parties fail in
their bid for power, in much the same
manner that the intensity and per-
sistence of factionalism has consider-
ably diminished Congress Party's co-
herence and its ability to maintain
and mobilize effectively the loyalties
of its members (pp. 187, 190). These
weaknesses have obviously affected,
and to some extent undermined, In-
dia's economic program which re-
quires, for success, changes in the in-
stitutional, organizational, and cogni-
tive realms. of Indian life.
It is not merely the recognition of
the diversities now prevalent among
many Asian countries that called for
mechanisms away from consensualism.
These diversities are themselves mani-
festations of a traditionally diffused
culture that tends to inhibit and even
frustrate developmental programs.
The inability of a weak Political sys-
tem with a disoriented administrative
machinery, even with a strong leader-
ship, to harmonize, regularize, and or-
ganize the diverse interests or atti-
tudes into a single potent pattern to
approximate the desirable degree of
integration stalls the forward move-
ment of a nation towards develop-
ment. If by integration we mean, as
Riggs does, the level in which the dif-
ferentiated components find an effec-
1975
241
tive linkage with each other (p. 60) in
a manner that would enhance a more
orderly and specialized sets of struc-
tures and roles (Albinski, Preface),
and if it is this type of integration
that is desirable insofar as it appeals
to the perceptions of the develop-
mentalist elites, then the shift from
consensualism attains its goal. Con-
sensualism loses out, insofar as it
identifies with the dysfunctional ele-
ments of plural politics because, to
borrow Professor Braibanti's words,
of its diminished "operative utility in
a highly dynamic state of efferves-
cence."
III
The matrix of development now de-
serves our attention. Indeed it is ne-
cessary before one would attempt to
consider the intricacies involved in
finding a middle ground between a
program for development and its mat-
rix or terrain, i.e., the culture of the
people, the processes of socialization,
interest articulation, and mobilization,
the nature of the elite and the people
and the pattern of their relationships.
This is compelled primarily by the
idea that development administration
impinges on its environment and vice
versa. Riggs brings this out in rela-
tion to his idea of autonomy that an
administrative system managed by
human beings can consciously and de-
liberately affect and influence its en-
vironment (Weidner, p. 29) and it is
this fact that makes the outcome of
interactions between the system and
its environment predictable to a cer-
tain degree.

242: PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
The peculiarity of Asian cultural
and political processes are what AI-
binski's book sought to bare out and
explain. On the whole, however, he
seems to view these processes with the
unsuspecting innocence of a child, des-
cribing these processes but without
being conscious. of the need to trans-
form rather than maintain, in whole
or in part, certain features of the proc-
esses rendered outmoded by time.
Culture as a bedrock of politics and
society at large plays a particularly
important role in development. AI-
binski, however, seems not to fully
appreciate this by failing to provide
an operational definition and to ex-
plain adequately how culture impinges
on the political processes to substan-
tiate his position that the character
and distribution of attitudes within a
society and a person's attitude towards
his role affect the outcome of poli-
tics (Albinski, p. 3). This inadequacy
typifies his lack of sophistication in
welding together, despite "introduc-
tion" for each part in the five parts of
the book, into one coherent theme.
Thus, as a result, each article intend-
ed to lend empirical s.upport to a cen-
tral thesis that is not there hangs
loosely and this situation threatens
to jeopardize the well-meant inten-
tions of each of the individual con-
tributors.
The role of culture is either one
that impedes development, in which
case it needs to be transformed, or one
that enhances development, in which
case the innovators need to be more
alert and cautious as not to pursue it
beyond the capacity of the system
•
and the people to ac.commodate or
absorb the strains and stresses in-
volved,
But as culture varies from one
country to another and from one pe-
riod to another, the innovators them-
.
selves are the best judge to determine
in each particular case the appropriate
strategy for development. The family,
for instance, has been an indispensable
factor in achieving modernization for
Japan (pp. 355-368). This was aptly
perceived by the leaders of the Meiji
Restoration and the succeeding gene-
ration of leaders while the Japanese
people continued to inculcate in them-
selves a type of "self-motivated
achievement orientation" which was
largely responsible for propelling J a-
pan to a position of world eminence.
George A. Devos explains that J a-
panese familism "in its psychological
and attitudinal aspects has been a
•••
strong integrative force placing cons-
traints toward cooperation on all seg-
ments of the society (p. 358).
But while the nation was looked
upon as an extension of the family in
Japan thereby paving the ground-
work for a family-oriented network
of obligations and expectations on a
national scale, the family in the Philip-
pines, for purposes of comparison, has
largely tended to delay a more de-
mocratized distribution of wealth,
privilege and position despite the fact
that the family has been a dominant
force in politics. This is partly due
to the structure of politics, partly to
the orientation of the family, partly to
the attitudes of groups and individuals
vis-a-vis their roles which ultimately
July
•
ASIAN PROCESSES AND DEV. ADM.
bounce back to the culture of the so-
ciety in general. This does not pre-
clude, however, the possibility that
the Filipino family could itself be a
potent force for development just as
it has been in politics if only some
features of the culture bearing on ha-
bits and attitudes could be discarded
and replaced with a new set manifest-
ing, say, an egalitarian orientation.
Abstracted from the wider social
culture is what Abueva refers to as
"administrative culture." He explains
that this segment of culture performs
a role which is mainly regulatory and
which molds. administrative behavior
in that it defines "the desirable, pro-
per, required, permissible, tolerable,
and prohibited kinds of behavior
among the actors in the administrative
system" (Weidner, p. 135). When one
deals, therefore, with keeping the ad-
ministrative system adequately equip-
pedfor a developmental program, one
has to reckon with the existing culture
which weaves through every corner of
the administrative structure and im-
pinges on the role or function being
performed by an individual in a cer-
tain position vis-a-vis another.
One may view the existing adminis-
trative culture as corrupt and deca-
dent while those who wish to main-
tain it may deem it inevitable and
necessary in the absence of a better
alternative. Abueva does not really
make a categorical conclusion as to
whether or not his findings based on
data from a group of middle civil ser-
vants in the Philippines is a reflection
of the entire national picture. As a
case in point, his study makes refe-
~975
243
renee to the "personalization" or roles
in the bureaucracy (p. 156) particu-
-Iarly in the matter of recruitment. To
Western scholars this may be appalling
or objectionable and may even be re-
garded as a symptom of corruption. To
many Filipinos, however, this seems
to be the more logical and pragmatic
approach owing to the nature of per-
sonal relationships and social func-
tions and structures which are yet
largely undefined and undifferentiated
in the Western sense. This condition
manifests itself in the bureaucratic
system that is almost thoroughly
alien. It seems tenable to conclude
then that, based on the observation
that the Philippine bureaucratic sys-
tem has survived to this day despite
the so-called personalization of roles,
personalization per se is not the prob-
lem for the lag in movement in the
bureaucratic structure. The problem
may lie on how res.ources are actually
allocated through the personalized
role. In other words, it could be a
matter of choice or decision, a matter
that tests the actor to discriminate
between alternative choice when con-
fronted with a situation requiring de-
cision.
To further illustrate this point,
Abueva explains in his study that
government officials feel that provid-
ing services is a matter, not of duty,
but of a personal favor, while the peo-
ple view these services as favors asked
by them from these officials (p. 156).
In the matter of recruitment, at least
two criteria are used in the considera-
tion of an aspirant: merit, and the na-
ture of the aspirant's relationship,

244 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
whether personal or non-personal and
official or non-official, with the person
performing the function of approving
or disapproving recruitment. Competi-
tions, therefore, necessarily hinge on
these two criteria. While it has been
an official policy that merit should
count, it is, also vital that an aspirant
must be directly or indirectly, through
the intercession of an influential in-
termediary, related to the official
whose decision is crucial in the mat-
ter. As is often the case, the aspirant
who has the proper access to the de-
ciding official tends to prevail over the
others who do not have a similar ac-
cess regardless of their other qualifi-
cations. The aspirant's chance in
getting the position is, even more ac-
cented if he possesses other qualities
required in the performance of this
position. On the other hand, officials
tend to favor him who has both quali-
fications with a stress on the relation-
ship aspect. The reason is logical and
understandable. While efficiency in
the administrative machinery is sup-
posed to be enhanced by the expertise
of those who operate it, this quality
will all but be dissipated if the subor-
dinate-superordinate relationship is
not smoothened by, say, the subor-
dinate's lack of rapport with, or per-
sonal loyalty to, his superior. But
even if the subordinate lacks special
qualifications so long as he devotes
loyalty to his superior, the machinery
can move along to a desired direction,
given the superior's ability to lead,
because the operation is not impeded
by the lack of smooth inter-personal
relationship between the performers.
•
" The issue of corruption, while it
has been the concern of development-
alists and scholars alike, achieves a
degree of relevance to the present dis-
cussion. However, it is an issue which
has a value-content. An attempt to
establish an operational meaning of
this word will not therefore be at-
tempted here. The competence of de-
,.
termining the line that divides what
is corrupt from what is not corrupt
and of enforcing whatever standard is
established lies in those vested with
the garment of legitimacy either to
maintain or transform the established
order. The dominant value, especial-
ly when it is the value of the elite, can
contribute significantly to the mobi-
lization of the people for a particular
go.al. Albinski was quite right in de-
termining that when values are widely
shared and substantial, they will per-
form a diffusive role on public dis-
content and will even serve to
strengthen the standing of the power-
wielders (p. 253). But he strays when
he says that the "secularization of cul-
ture," regardless of its degree, is neces-
sarily an indicator of modernity (Pre-
face). While modernity is induced
partly by the secularization of culture,
the secularization must reach a certain
degree before it can be considered an
indicator of modernity. Otherwise,
modernity will remain an elusive goal.
The example posed by Indonesia dur-
ing the period of Sukarno illustrates
.
this point. Sukarno and those who
shared powers with him attempted to
secularize their values in the form of
an ideology known as "Guided Demo-
cracy." The role of ideology in this
case' cannot be under-emphasized in-
July
.
 ASIAN PROCESSES AND DEV. ADM. '245

asmuch as an ideology, especially so tem, and other forms of aid that may
when it is elite-formulated, can pro- be deemed necessary. Naturally, this
vide a rationalization for the main- involves the participation of such de-
tenance of certain norms and values. veloped countries as the United
The account of Herbert Faith (pp. States. The authors justify this by
48-63) points to the fact that while the pointing to the political instability,
secularization of these norms and va- poor economy, lack of administrative
lues helped Sukarno to re-entrench expertis.e and other resources of the
himself more in political power and in many Asian countries aspiring for de-
assuring the legitimacy of his govern- velopment. While this justification
ment in the eyes of some segments of may be tenable, it is also important to
the population, no significant amount bear in mind that such assistance, at
of modernity has been achieved in least in the psychological level of the
either political or economic realm. Con- recipient people, may cultivate a feel-
tributory factors to this situation in- ing of dependence or may stunt the
clude a) the ineffectiveness of the growth of self-reliance on indigenous.
(Indonesian) government's adminis- resources. Furthermore, the nature of
trative machinery, and b) the lack of foreign assistance in the administra-
cohesion among the political elite par- tion of development, while it fosters
ticularly in the manner of settling dis- cooperation among countries mutually
putes. Faith finally concludes that the interested in development, may dis-
economic and administrative decline turb established domestic patterns.
has. in tum resulted in deprivations and institutions thus causing their
which have weakened belief in the breakdown to the detriment of the
government's. moral claims, and that recipient people who may be unduly
the government had consequently to displaced in the process. There is suf-
intensify its indoctrinating and ag- ficient evidence that much of what is.
gression-channelling activities in order indigenous could be mobilized for de-
to sustain belief in its. right to rule velopment purposes while govern-
(pp. 62-63). ments become wary of the potential
dysfunctional role of foreign assis-
Innovation as an ingredient of de- tance. This is not to say that foreign
velopment presupposes a planned and assistance per se is dysfunctional,
deliberate attempt. The authors. de- What is dysfunctional could be the
serve commendation for devoting con- manner of its application and the var-
siderable effort in pointing this out ious channels through which it goes
and the intricacies involved in the
from the donor to the ultimate re-
process as well, both in the theoretical ceiver.
and practical planes. They seem to
agree in concert, furthermore, that a The book edited by Albinski is an
country's development should entail ideal introductory piece for individuals
technical assistance, the reinforce- inclined to learning the dynamics of
ment of the public administration sys- politics and the social setting of the

1975

•
246 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
countries 'represented in this study.
However, its approach is still basical-
ly traditional, founded on the assump-
tion that the democratization of power
at the present state of diversity among
many developing Asian countries
within a framework of a politics of
consensus can induce development.
It has been the experience of these
countries, owing to the fundamental
alien-ness of their political and ad-
ministrative systems and to the lack
of competence, or unpreparedness, of
their indigenous populations to live
and operate under such conditions,
that constant breakdowns in their
political and administrative machine-
ries have resulted in a wide gap be-
tween performance and expectations.
As a result of this experience, a new
trend is evolving. It is this trend
that the book edited by Weidner at-
tempts to identify, explain, and even
justify. Its theoretical sophistication
and high level of achievement in the
empirical plans, though representing
only a handful of areas in Asia and
the Pacific, represents a mature at-
tempt to land a clearer understanding
to the nature of development, dissect-
ing with meticulous care some of the
problems attendant to it, and laying
bare the conditions that are likely to
impinge on efforts at development.
The authors themselves hesitate
•
to put a categorical label to this trend.
Whether this is deliberate or uncon-
scious on their part is unimportant.
Demagogues may seize on it and use
it to justify their claim to power. It
is enough that the authors have done
what they have done because cons-
cientious students of development, es-
pecially the political elite in regimes
with development orientation to whom
this book is also addressed, could dis-
cern just the same the sincerity of
their intention and the subtlety of the
message they wish to impart.
,.
July