33

CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The literature has established several factors that have a bearing on the

link between human behaviour and workplace safety. In reality people are

different. Their values differ, what others hold with high esteem might be

considered insignificant by others. Some people derive pleasure from

engaging in risky behaviours while others guard vigilantly against risks.

Human nature is chaotic. If it is not harnessed effectively by the rule of law

the wheel of civilization would stop running. Organizational establishments

are faced with a huge challenge of enforcing safety compliance in the

workplace. As in a soccer match, to maintain order one has to play by the

rules. To ensure that order is maintained, the referee is put in place. The same

applies to the workplace.

Cha, et al., 2006; Gandz and Murray 1980; Gillen et al., 2002; Gold

and Carbon, 2002; Grandey et al., 2002; Henshaw, et al., 2007.; Holness et

al., 2004; Millan, et al., 2003; Mygind et al., 2006; Ortiz et al., 2000; WHO

2008. The authours in their research study concluded that the literature on

workplace safety and health administration reveals that much of the subject

has been covered in different parts of the world. The ground thus covered

tends to focus predominantly on disease prevention, psychosocial factors at

the workplace, safety concerns at the workplace, workplace politics,

workplace spirituality, epileptic medication at the workplace, safety climate at

 34

the workplace, safety management, Exposures to chemicals and perceptions

of risks1

Macintosh and Gough, 1998; Anderson and Gough (2004) argues

that safety and health in the workplace have become an integral component to

the viability of business for employers, labour unions, governments, and

environmentalists in general2

Dryzek and Schlosberg (2005) argue that “Environmental justice

demands the right to participate as equal partners at every level of decision

making including needs assessment, planning, implementation, enforcement

and evaluation” of workplace conditions3.

Bennet (2002) in his research study argues that workers, unlike tools

or objects of production, are living human beings that need to be involved in

the improvement of working conditions and should participate at all levels,

including international levels, on issues that affect their livelihoods. Workers’

perspectives need to be considered in devising and carrying out health and

safety measures at the workplace4.

Burton (2006) in his study found that human perception and

experience of environmental safety management are sparse. These studies

tend to focus on behavioural qualities of the workers at the workplaces5

Asuzu,1998; Spee, 2006; Skinner, 2006;Loewenson, 2004; Jurdak and

Shahin, 2001; Meo And Khlaiwi, 2003; Kuye, 2001Rantanen, 1997; Harris

and Kahwa 2003; Gyekye and Salminen, (2005) argues on issues such as

occupational hygiene, global equity challenges, policies, problem solving,

 35

welding health hazards, health education, asbestos problems, responsibility

assignment, health and safety and equity in the workplace6

Alexander and Halpern: 2004, Barret: 2005, Buhlungu 2006,

Burns and Marshall: 2004, Lock and Munnik:200.., Lund and Ardington

(2006) In South Africa workplace studies address issues of trade unions and

democracy, job security and conditions of work, race and labour, workplace

concerns, education and labour market as well as statistical quantities of

studied variables. Therefore in South Africa studies concerning to worker

perspectives is extremely rare. It is this gap that this study seeks to fill by

analysing workers ‘perceptions of occupational health and safety measures in

the workplace7

Bennet (2002) argues in his study that workers’ views on occupational

safety and health in the workplace are often ignored due to various

management styles and a shortage of safety regulations, allowing for little

reflection for worker contribution. Workers as subordinates often find

themselves compelled to simply comply with and submit to rules and policies

already in place at the workplace. He states that in many industries, the plight

of workers is left in the hands of health and safety professionals, industrial

hygienists, academics and industrial managers8.

Johnston and Sidaway (2005) believe that applied geography needs

to be prioritising “human welfare before economic welfare, equity before

efficiency and quality of life before quantity of goods”. Reflecting on

academics’ works9
 36

Jurdak, M. and Shahin, I., 2001: Problem Solving Activity in

Workplace and School: The Case of Constructing solids. Springerlink.

Educational Studies in Mathematics. 47: 297-31510.

Graham (2004) writes that education helps to provide the appropriate

skills needed to achieve social status and make healthy lifestyle choices.

Adverse health effects the psychosocial work environment. This leaves them

prone to workplace hazards and leads to adverse effects on production by way

of absenteeism11.

Parboteeah and Kapp (2007) in their study of ethical climates and

workplace safety behaviour found that egoistic behaviour relates positively to

injuries and negatively to safety in the workplace. Further they also

discovered that benevolence and principled attributes relate negatively to

injuries but positively to safety enhancing behaviour in the workplace. Finally

they suggest that the life style of an individual significantly affects safety and

health in the workplace12.

Amweelo, (2000) in his study explains that a study highlighting

statistics gathered from Namibian workplaces on common causes of

workplace incidents revealed that the most common incidents at the

workplace occur more often due to ordinary negligent human activity than use

of dangerous machinery and substances. This also indicates the significance

of the role played by individual workers in ensuring safety and health in the

workplace13.
 37

Hallowes and Butler (2003) state that in South Africa agriculture and

industry were virtually unaffected by environmental regulation as the actual

basis of colonial and apartheid policies continued unabated14.

Parker (1999: 215) writes that the corporate veil frequently wards off

the penetration of standards into the corporate world and prevents the

imposition of legal sanctions. Further the author states that commonly

preferred solution to the problem of ensuring that values permeate the internal

working of corporations is to require large institutions to regulate themselves,

which is often found to be effective by some and problematic by others15.

Hayes et al., (1998) in his research found that towards or on pay-days,

workers’ behaviour might change and affect the state of safety and health so

as to have an impact on workplace safety conditions. It could also mean that

the first working days or two after pay-days negatively affect attitudes on

workplace safety conduct, depending on individual ethical moral mind-set16

Magendaz, (2004) in his research raises a concern as to value; what is

valuable to the workers might not coincide with what is valuable to the

company. The objectives of the company might be totally different to those of

the workers. This would have a bearing on compliance with rules and

regulations put in place by the establishment17.

Arkadov, Evanov and Serov, (2006) argues in their research findings

that the attractiveness of an enterprise’s investment is not only determined by

its economic productivity but also by its organizational level of environmental

use, protection and security18.

 38

Petric and Quinn (2001) states that .Business leadership plays a

significant role in the moral capability and performance of an organization.

Business leaders of high integrity are more likely to be aware of and respond

rapidly to stakeholders’ moral concerns19

Oliveira and Almeida (2008) in their study found that safety and

occupational health has become an integral component of management plans

as a necessary dimension in conducting sound business20

Cascio,Wayne (1986) explains research findings that safety hazards

are those aspects of the work environment that have the potential of

immediate and sometimes violent harm to an employee; for example, loss of

hearing, eye sight, or body parts, cuts, sprains, bruises, broken bones, burns

and electric shock21.

Cole, (2002) explains in his research paper that health hazards as those

aspects of work environment that slowly and cumulatively (and often

irreversibly) lead to deterioration of an employee’s health; for example:

cancer, poisoning and respiratory diseases. Typical causes include physical

and biological hazards, toxic and carcinogenic dusts and chemicals and

stressful working conditions22

Michael. (2006) also states that employees frequently participate in

safety planning through safety committees, often composed of workers from a

variety of levels and departments. A safety committee generally meets at

regular scheduled times and has specific responsibilities for conducting safety
 39

reviews, and makes recommendations for changes necessary to avoid future

accidents23.

Robert and John, (2004) explains that a healthy person is free of

illness, injury or mental and emotional problems that impair normal human

activity. Health management practices in organizations strive to maintain the

overall well-being of individuals. Safety on the other hand refers to protecting

the physical well-being of people24

Salon (2001) concludes in his study that effective safety management

requires an organizational commitment to safe working conditions. But more

importantly, well designed and managed safety programmes can pay

dividends for associated costs such as worker’s compensation and possible

fines. Furthermore, accidents and other safety concerns usually decline as a

result of management efforts emphasizing safety25

Michael (2006) states that to encourage employees to work safely,

many industries have used safety contests and have given employees

incentives and rewards for safe work behaviour. Jewellery, clocks, watches

and even vacation trips have been given as rewards for good safety records.

Further the author found that unfortunately, some evidence indicates that

incentives tend to reinforce understanding and “creative” classifying of

accidents. This concern about safety incentives is that employees and

managers do not report accidents and injuries so that they may collect the

incentive rewards26.
 40

Eva and Oswald (1981) emphasize that when accidents occur, they

should be investigated by the employer’s safety committee. Investigation at

the scene should be done as soon as possible after an accident to ensure that

the conditions under which the accident occurred have not changed

significantly. The second phase of investigation is the interview of the injured

employee, his or her supervisor and witnesses to the accident. This is

followed by recommendations .Organization should monitor and evaluate

their safety efforts. Just as organizational accounting records are audited, a

firm’s safety efforts and records should be audited periodically as well27.

Wayne, Cacio (1992) states that employers frequently complain that

there is no systematic method of quantifying costs and benefits when dealing

with employees’ safety and health conditions. Technically that is true, but

there is a behaviour costing model that may provide a useful start. It is

important to distinguish nondiscretionary from discretionary safety and health

expenditures. Some states and local agencies require firms to comply with

safety and health regulations. To comply, firms may have to purchase and

install special equipment, such as machine guards, safety switch interlocks,

and non slip flooring. These costs are nondiscretionary. To do otherwise is to

risk heavy fines and losses from liability and damage suits28.

Cacio, Wayne. (1992) again emphasized that, beyond mere

compliance, however, companies have a number of options regarding the

degree to which they invest in employee safety and health. A motivational

poster programme (e.g. “think safety”) is a token effort that requires minimal

expenses. Creation of a safety committee to encourage active employee

 41

complaints is more expensive. The highest-cost option includes regular safety

training for all employees. The training may involve films, lectures by safety

experts or hands-on drills and demonstrations with safety and emergency

apparatus29.

Boyd. (2003) states that for each of these levels of safety and health

programmes, investment costs are measurable. They include the salaries and

wages of employees participating in the programme, the costs of outside

services used and the costs to implement the programmes. Unfortunately, the

benefits to be derived from such programmes cannot be traced as easily to the

bottom line. Certainly, the most quantifiable benefit resulting from the

successful introduction of a safety and health programme is a reduction in

casualty and workers’ compensation insurance rates30

Pirani and Reynolds. (1976) indicate that accidents results from two

broad causes: unsafe work condition (physical and environmental) and unsafe

work behavior .Unsafe physical conditions include defective equipment,

inadequate machine guards, and lack of protective equipment. Unsafe

environmental conditions are noise, radiation, dust, fumes, and stress.

Accidents often result from an interaction of unsafe acts. Thus if a particular

operation forces a worker to lift a heavy part and twist to set it on a bench,

then the operation itself forces the worker to perform the unsafe act. The

unsafe condition itself must be corrected either by redesigning the flow of

material or by providing the worker with a mechanical devise for lifting.

Engineering controls attempt to eliminate unsafe work conditions and to

 42

neutralize unsafe worker behaviors. Management controls attempt to increase

safe behaviors31.

Cacio, Wayne. (1992) outline four approaches in promoting job safety

and health. These are;

• Technical responses-this involves replacing or redesigning equipment,

modifying physical work places and providing worker protection

(engineering controls).

• Information responses-which refers to changes in the way that health

and safety information is transmitted within the organization.

• Administrative responses include changes in the authority structure or

in policies and procedures with respect to safety and health (e.g.

upgrading the safety function and shifting it from engineering to the

human resource department)

• External responses refer to legal or political actions to change the

enforcement of safety and health regulations32.

Mills, Quin. (1983) states in his study that, organizations attempted to

avoid employees’ problems that were not job related. Although aware of the

existence of these problems, most managers did not believe they should

interfere with employees’ personal lives. In recent years, however, cost

considerations, unions and government legislation altered this approach. As a

result, many large organizations and a growing number of smaller ones are

attempting to help employees with personal problems. These problems

include not only alcohol and drug abuse but depression, anxiety, domestic
 43

trauma, financial problems, and other psychiatric/medical problems. This help

is not purely altruistic; it is largely based on cost savings33.

Litwin and Stringer, (1968). A primary result of personal problems

brought to the workplace is reduced productivity. Increased cost of insurance

programmes, including sickness and accident benefits, are a direct result of

personal problems brought to workplace. Permanent loss of trained employees

due to disability, retirement and death is also associated with troubled

employees. Difficult to measure, but a very real cost associated with troubled

employees, is the loss of business and a damaged public image34.

David and Stephen (1999) indicated that unhealthy work environment

is a concern to us all. If workers cannot function properly at their jobs because

of constant headaches, watering eyes, breathing difficulties, or fear of

exposure to materials that may cause long term health problems, productivity

will decrease. Consequently, creating a healthy work environment not only is

the proper thing to do, but it also benefits the employer35.

Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009) argues that the control of

occupational health hazards decreases the incidence of work related diseases

and accidents and improves the health and morale of the work force, leading

to decreased absenteeism and increased worker efficiency. In most cases the

moral and economic benefits far outweigh the costs of eliminating

occupational hazards36.

International Labour Organization (2012) Physical hazards are a

common source of injuries in many industries. They are perhaps unavoidable

 44

in many industries such as construction and mining, but over time people

have developed safety methods and procedures to manage the risks of

physical danger in the workplace37.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2012) fall is

a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in

construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and

maintenance38.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. (2012) Many

machines involve moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards

with the potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound

workers if used unsafely. Various safety measures exist to minimize these

hazards, including lockout-tag out procedures for machine maintenance and

roll over protection systems for vehicles39.

Harris, James R. and Richard S. Current (2012) According to the

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, machine-related injuries were

responsible for 64,170 cases that required days away from work in 2008.

More than a quarter of these cases required more than 31 days spent away

from work. That same year, machines were the primary or secondary source

of over 600 work-related fatalities. Machines are also often involved

indirectly in worker deaths and injuries, such as in cases in which a worker

slips and falls, possibly upon a sharp or pointed object40.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012.)

Confined spaces also present a work hazard. The National Institute of

 45

Occupational Safety and Health defines "confined space" as having limited

openings for entry and exit and unfavorable natural ventilation, and which is

not intended for continuous employee occupancy. These kinds of spaces can

include storage tanks, ship compartments, sewers, and pipelines. Confined

spaces can pose a hazard not just to workers, but also to people who try to

rescue them41.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2012) Noise

also presents a fairly common workplace hazard: occupational hearing loss is

the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million

workers exposed to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242

million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability42.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2012) Noise

is not the only source of occupational hearing loss; exposure to chemicals

such as aromatic solvents and metals including lead, arsenic, and mercury can

also cause hearing loss43.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012)

Temperature extremes can also pose a danger to workers. Heat stress can

cause heat stroke, exhaustion, cramps, and rashes. Heat can also fog up safety

glasses or cause sweaty palms or dizziness, all of which increase the risk of

other injuries. Workers near hot surfaces or steam also are at risk for burns44

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012)

Dehydration may also result from overexposure to heat. Cold stress also poses
 46

a danger to many workers. Overexposure to cold conditions or extreme cold

can lead to hypothermia, frostbite, trench foot, or chilblains.45

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012)

Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical injuries can be divided

into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by

contact with electric energy46.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012) Specific occupational safety and

health concerns vary greatly by sector and industry. Construction workers

might be particularly at risk of falls, for instance, whereas fishermen might be

particularly at risk of drowning. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

identifies the fishing, aviation, lumber, metalworking, agriculture, mining and

transportation industries as among some of the more dangerous for workers47.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012)

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring

more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States

and in the European Union. In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among

construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all

workers. Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal

injuries among construction workers48

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2012) Proper

safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as

securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of

occupational injuries in the construction industry49.

 47

Veritas Consulting (2013.) Health and safety legislation in the

construction industry involves many rules and regulations. For example, the

role of the Construction Design Management (CDM) Coordinator as a

requirement has been aimed at improving health and safety on-site50.

J.Sulaiman and M.Alaguthankamani (2012) conclude the company

has given maximum effort and dedication to implement the labour laws and

regulations and it has succeeded in implementing effective safety and health

management considering the type of safety and health problems, accidents,

employees and technology in its organizational settings and also good level of

satisfaction among employees regarding healthy and safety has been

achieved51.

J.Sulaiman & M.Alaguthankamani (2007) study on organizational

factors on safety in Taiwan and Japan reported that the influence of

organizational factors in both countries were different due to dissimilar

culture. For example, they discovered that Taiwanese leadership style was

“Top-Down Directive” where top management communicated safety policies

and involved in safety activities while Japanese safety leadership was more

focused on “Bottom-Up Participative” where top management promoted

employees’ participation in any safety activities52.

Cheyne, A., Oliver, A., Tomas, J.M., & Cox, S. (2002) have

demonstrated that effective safety management improves level of safety in

organization and thus can be seen to decrease damages and harm from

incidents53
 48

Carder, B. & Ragan, P.W. (2003) Safety climate is considered to be

the precise indicator of overall safety culture while safety management

practices display the safety culture of top management and as a result, good

safety management practices are reflected in enhanced safety climate of all

employees. The terms “culture” and “climate” have been used

interchangeably in the literature to reveal employees’ attitudes towards

safety54

Erickson, J. A. 2000 described safety culture as “the attitudes, beliefs,

and perceptions shared by natural groups as defining norms and values, which

determine how they react in relation to risks and risk control systems”55.

Abdullah, Spickett, Rumchev & Dhaliwal 56 Hsu, Lee, Wu, and

Takano (2007) study on organizational factors on safety in Taiwan and Japan

reported that the influence of organizational factors in both countries were

different due to dissimilar culture. For example, they discovered that

Taiwanese leadership style was “Top-Down Directive” where top

management communicated safety policies and involved in safety activities

while Japanese safety leadership was more focused on “Bottom-Up

Participative” where top management promoted employees’ participation in

any safety activities56.

Marsh et al. (1995) noted that management commitment plays a vital

role in all aspects of safety intervention. Management commitment to safety

indicates the extent to which the organization’s top management demonstrates

positive and supportive safety attitudes towards their employees’ safety (Hsu

et al., 2007). From a prior study, Yule, groups as defining norms and values,
 49

which determine how they react in relation to risks and risk control

systems”57.

Vassie & Lucas (2001) effective training assists workers to have a

sense of belonging and thus, is more accountable for safety in their

workplace. In addition, a company objective and communication of the

objective to all workers is the crucial aspect of effective health and safety

management as lack of communication may hinder employee involvement58

Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1971) Members of

The Society of Air Safety Investigators consider themselves to be members of

a profession. Let us examine that assumption for a moment. A profession has

been defined as a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and

intensive preparation, including instruction in skills and methods as well as in

the scientific, historical or scholarly principles underlying such skills and

methods, maintaining by force of organization or concerted opinion high

standards of achievement and conduct, and committing its members to

continued study and to a kind of work which has as its prime purpose the

rendering of a public service59.

Greenwood, M. and H.M. Woods, 1919 - A brief review of some of

the most influential historical assumptions, principles and rules discloses the

present state of accident theory60.

Newbold suggested the "accident proneness" concept. Their work still

influences some accident investigation, particularly in the police accident

investigation field with its focus on license revocation or suspension

 50

proceedings which reflect this concept. Investigators still look for data in

accidents that will support the idea that "conditions" such as attitudes,

attentiveness and so forth "cause" accidents.61

Ames, J.S., 1928 - This statistical work focused on static conditions

and set the pattern for untold man years of research into "unsafe conditions"

as causes of accidents. In aviation, Ames contributed much to perpetuation of

this view62.

Heinrich (1936) suggested the "domino" theory of accidents. His idea

was that accidents are a sequence of events in a predetermined proceed/follow

relationship, like a row of falling dominos. This view changed the thrust of

investigations toward the events involved, rather than the conditions. It

represented a redirection of the search for understanding of the accident

phenomenon on the basis of a "chain--of--events" that had occurred63.

Kreml, F. (ed.), 1940: - An accident "reconstruction" approach

emerged not long thereafter which was refined extensively in the highway

accident investigation field by Baker. The reconstruction focused on

identification of the linear chain of events theory of the accident

phenomenon64.

Driessen, G.J., (1970) explained work at Bell Laboratories in missile

system safety produced another breakthrough in the field65.

U.S. Army Materiel Command, (1971) this was the "fault tree

analysis" method, generally credited to H. A. Watson. It provided an objective

for the analytical effort in the sense of management by objectives, and it

 51

provided a procedure by which informed speculations about accident events

sequences were organized in a visible, easily criticized and readily understood

display. This work introduced a "branched events chains" concept of

accidents through use of the "and/or" logic gates66.

Civil Aeronautics Board, 1962- About the same time, air safety

investigators contributed another milestone in the accident investigation field.

The Civil Aeronautics Board published the first chart on which were plotted

the flight data recorder (FDR) data. This chart was the first display of the

parallel events along a time scale, showing what can be viewed as a "multi--

linear events sequence" on which the findings were partially based. It appears

to be the first to use the time term, about which more will be said shortly. It

also is the predecessor of the "multilinear events sequence theory" for the

accident phenomenon67.

Haddon, W., Jr., 1968 - In the latter 1960's, a medical doctor changed

accident investigation approaches significantly with his insistence on an

etiologic basis for looking at accident trauma. Haddon also introduced a

matrix of accident phases and components of the accident events sequence.

This work was influenced by DeHaven's research in 1942, but it was Haddon

who brought about the directions in accident research which now largely

dominate the highway accident field at the Federal level68.

Surry, J., 1969 –Attempts to organize these and other related concepts

into a general accident model are indicated in the SASI Forum article. The

concept of homeostasis is an essential theory for the understanding of

accidents. The term is generally applied in medicine to a state of

 52

physiological equilibrium produced by a balance of functions and chemical

composition in an organism. I propose this concept be extended to

"activities," in the sense that an operational equilibrium is produced by a

balancing of interrelated functions and capabilities in response to varying

influences arising as the activity progresses toward its intended outcome69.

Benner, L., 1975 - The last event in the process must be the last

injurious event directly linked to one or more of the pre--existing actors in the

activity. The problem of secondary harm can be treated by considering the

impinged activity in the accident sequence70.

U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, 1971 The product of the

process charting effort could take two forms. First, a detailed chart with all

the actions by all the actors who acted in the specific accident would be

generated, for all immediate users in need of a complete technical description

of the accident. The second output could be an abbreviated, more generalized

model, such as found in NTSB surface accident report71

Benner, L., 1975 Criteria for entries on such a general process chart

would depend on its use; reference 19 describes possible use for development

of countermeasure strategies72.

U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, 1973- The accident

process flow chart preparation seems most nearly available in air carrier

investigations. The FDR charts, now routinely slotted, are often correlated

with the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) data in a linear form which could

readily be converted to a multilinear events chart. Actions of others such as

 53

air traffic controllers, as indicated by the ATC tapes, could be added. Any

gaps in the events sequence discovered by the application of the

proceed/follow logic tests for any of the actors could be bridged by the use of

logic tree analysis methods. On a linear scale, the same technique can be used

in light aircraft accidents73.

Benner, L., 1975:- It appears that "templates" of accident processes

could be developed so each accident does not constitute a mystery for the

investigator. Accumulation of accident data in chart form would make

available a "library" of accident processes for numerous purposes such as

training, design, safety regulations, and etc74.

SUMMARY

This chapter advances the view that employees play a central role in

the creation of a workplace environment and that through their unions they

exert significant influence in their workplaces. Training the human resource

to meet the requirements of the health and safety of the organization has

become imperative. The various methods adopted to evaluate the prevailing

health and safety awareness, implementation of health and safety initiatives

compel the workforce to put forth their best. There are different studies

concentrating on the individual aspects of Training, Occupational training on

health and safety alone. Therefore this research attempts and the study is

carried out to find the effectiveness of health and safety training programmes,

awareness evaluation and benefit for the companies independently and also to

establish the relationship among the employee’s health and safety with

organizational performance and productivity.

 54

REFERENCES

01. Cha, C.C. Shie, R.C. and Chang, T.Y., 2006: Workers’ exposures to
potential health Risk to air Toxics in a Petrochemical Complex
Assessed by Improved Methodology Springer- Verlag.

02. McIntosh, M. and Gough, R., 1998: The Impact of Workplace on

Occupational health and safety; A Study of four Manufacturing plants.
An International Journal of Human Factors in Manufacturing, Wiley
Science.

03. Dryzek and Schlosberg: 2005, Debating the Earth Pub. Oxford.
Duvenhage, D.J. and Shingles, T., 2002: Synthol reactor technology
development Elsevier Science Direct. 121

04. Bennet, D., 2002: Health and Safety Management Systems: Liability or
Asset Pub Healthcare Institute.

05. Burton, A., 2006: Human Experimentation: A rule Gone Awry

PubMed. Cambray, G., 2006: Oryx Gas to Liquids Plants springs
SASOL technology onto the global stage Science in Africa.

06. Asuzu, M.C., 1998: Health and Safety at the Workplace in Nigeria
Finnish Institute of Research West African Journal of Medicine 15(1)
36 – 44.

07. Alexander, P. and Halpen, R., 2004: Introduction: Comparing Race

and Labour in South Africa and the United States. Pub. Rand
Afrikaans University and University of Toronto.

08. Bennet, D., 2002: Health and Safety Management Systems: Liability or
Asset Pub Healthcare Institute.

09. Johnston, R.J. and Sidaway, J.D., 2004: Geography and Geographers
 55

10. Jurdak, M. and Shahin, I., 2001: Problem Solving Activity in

Workplace and School: The Case of Constructing solids. Springerlink.
Educational Studies in Mathematics. 47: 297-315.

11. Graham, H., (2004) Social Determinants and their Unequal

Distribution: Clarifying Policy Understandings. Blackwell Publishers.
Health Assessment Systems Vol. 82(1), pp. 101-124.

12. Parboteeah, K.P. and Kapp, E. A., 2007: Ethical Climates and
Workplace Safety behaviours; An Empirical Investigation
Springerlink... Journal of Business Ethics. 80: 515 – 529

13. Amweelo, M., 2000: A government report on workplace incidences;

African News Letter on Occupational Health and Safety. Vol. 10, 4-8.

14. Hallowes, D. and Buttler, M., 2003: Forging the Future Pub
Groundwork Pietermaritzburg.

15. Parker, C., 1999: Compliance, Professionalism and Regulatory

community; The Australian Trade Practice. Pub. Cardiff University.
Journal of Business Ethics. 28: 339 – 351.

16. Hayes, B.E. Parender, J. Smecko, T. And Trask, J., 1998: Measuring
Perceptions of Workplace Safety; Development and Validation of
Work Safety Scale. Elsevier Science USA. Journal of Safety Research
Vol. 29 No.3.

17. Magendaz, D., 2004: Conflict and Complexity in Value Theory;

Kluwer Pub. Netherlands. The Journal of Value Inquiry.

18. Arkadov, G.V. Evanov, E.A., Serov, G.P., 2006: Status and Direction
of Development of Ecological Management in the Nuclear Power
Station; Springerlink.
 56

19. Petric, J.A. and Quinn, J.F., 2001: The Challenge of Leadership
Accountability for Integrity Capacity as a Strategic Asset. Kluwer
Academic Pub. Netherlands. Journal of Business Ethics. 34: 331 –
343-127

20. Oliveira, O.J. and Almeida, R.A., 2008: Occupational Health

Management; a Case Study of a Brazilian Producer of Automotive
Battery. Springerlink

21. Cascio, W.F. (1986).Managing Human Resources Productivity,

Quality of Life, Profit: New York: MC Grew-Hill

22. Cole, G.A. (2002).Personnel and Human Resource Management,

London: Thompson Learning Bedford Row.

23. Michael, A. (2006).A handbook of Human Resource Management

Practice, London: Kogan Page Ltd.

24. Robert L.Mathis and John H.Jackson. (2004).Human Resource

Management: Melisa Acuna.

25. Salon, G. (2001).Far from remote People Management, 27 September,

pp34-36

26. Michael, A. (2006).A handbook of Human Resource Management

Practice, London: Kogan Page Ltd

27. Eva, D.and Oswald R. (1981).Health and Safety at Work, London: Pan
Books.

28. Casco, W.F. (1992).Managing Human Resources Productivity, Quality

of Life, Profit: New York: MC Grew-Hill.

29. Cascio, W.F. (1992).Managing Human Resources Productivity,

Quality of Life, Profit: New York: MC Grew-Hill.
 57

30. Boyd, C. (2003).Human Resource Management and Occupational

Health and Safety, London: Routledge.

31. Pirani, M. and Reynolds, J. (1976).Gearing up for Safety, Personnel

Management.

32. Cascio, W.F (1992).Managing Human Resources Productivity, Quality

of Life, Profit: New York: MC Graw-Hill.

33. Quin, Mills, D. (1983).Planning with people in mind, Harvard

Business Review, November December, pp97-105.

34. Litwin, G.H. and Stringer, R.A. (1968).Motivation and Organisation

Climate, Boston: Harvard University Press.

35. David A.D and Stephen P.R. (1999): Human Resource Management,
Concepts and application, USA: Rogressive International
Technologies.

36. Encyclopaedia. (2009).Occupational health and safety

37. "Hazardous Work". International Labour Organization Retrieved

December 26, 2012.

38. "Fall Injuries Prevention in the Workplace". NIOSH Workplace Safety

and Health Topic National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Retrieved July 12, 2012.

39. "Machine Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Retrieved 11 July
2012.

40. Harris, James R. and Richard S. Current. "Machine Safety: New &
Updated Consensus Standards". Prof Saf 2012 May; 57(5):50-57.
 58

http://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/pastissues/057/05/F1Har_0512.
pdf.

41. "Confined Spaces". Workplace Safety & Health Topics. National

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3 August 2012.

42. "Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention". Workplace Safety & Health
Topics. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Retrieved 3 August 2012.

43. "Preventing Occupational Hearing Loss: A Practical Guide". National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. June 1996. Retrieved 3
August 2012.

44. "Heat Stress". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 8 August 2012.

45. "Cold Stress". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 9 August 2012.

46. "Electrical Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 7
August 2012.

47. "Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities 2010". Injuries, Illnesses, and

Fatalities. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 9 August 2012.

48. "Construction Safety and Health". Workplace Safety & Health Topics.
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3
August 2012.

49. "OSHA's Fall Prevention Campaign". Occupational Safety and Health

Administration. Retrieved 6 August 2012.
 59

50. "Health and safety in the Construction Industry". Veritas Consulting.

11 March 2009. Retrieved 20 March 2013.

51. Dr.J.Sulaiman - Assistant Professor & Research Supervisor, P G and

Research Department of Commerce, the New College (Autonomous).
M.Alaguthankamani - Assistant Professor, Dept of Business
Administration Faculty of Science and Humanities SRM University
Volume: 3 | Issue: 3 | March 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X.

52. Dr.J.Sulaiman - Assistant Professor & Research Supervisor, P G and

Research Department of Commerce, the New College (Autonomous).
M.Alaguthankamani- Assistant Professor, Dept of Business
Administration Faculty of Science and Humanities SRM University
Volume: 3 | Issue : 3 | March 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X.

53. Cheyne, A., Oliver, A., Tomas, J.M., & Cox, S. 2002. “The
architecture of employee attitudes to safety in the manufacturing
sector”, Personnel Review, vol. 31, pp. 649 – 670.

54. Carder, B. & Ragan, P.W. 2003. “A survey-based system for safety
measurement and improvement”, Journal of Safety Research, vol. 34,
no. 2, pp. 157 – 165.

55. “Corporate culture: the key to safety performance”, Occupational

Hazards, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 45-50.

56. Hsu, S.H., Lee, C.C., Wu, M.C., & Takano, K. 2007. “Exploring cross-
cultural differences in safety climate of oil refinery plants in Japan and
Taiwan”, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Business
and Information.

57. Marsh et al. (1995) The Employer’s responsibility to maintain a Safe

and Healthful Work environment: An Historical review of societal
 60

expectations and Industrial practices. Springer Science Employee

Response Right Journal. 19: 173 – 192.

58. Vassie, L.H. & Lucas, W.R. 2001. “An assessment of health and safety
management within working groups in the UK manufacturing sector”,
Journal of Safety Research, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 479 – 490.

59. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1971, G & C Merriam

Company, Springfield MA

60. Greenwood, M. and H.M. Woods, 1919: A Report on the Incidence of

Industrial Accidents upon Individuals with Special Reference to
Multiple Accidents. British Industrial Fatigue Research Board, No. 4.

61. Newbold, E.M., 1926: A Contribution to the Study of the Human

Factor in Causation of Accidents. British Industrial Health Research
Board, No. 34.

62. Ames, J.S., 1928: First National Aeronautical Safety Conference, 17th
Annual Safety Congress, National Safety Council Transactions,
Chicago, IL.

63. Heinrich, H.W., 1936: Industrial Accident Prevention, McGraw Hill,

New York, NY.

64. Kreml, F. (ed.), 1940: Accident Investigation Manual, Traffic Institute,

Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.

65. Driessen, G.J., 1970: Cause Tree Analysis, Measuring How Accidents
Happen and the Probabilities of Their Cause. Presented to American
Psychologic
 61

66. U.S. Army Materiel Command, 1971: Fault Tree Analysis as an Aid to
Improved Performance, AMC Safety Digest, May 1971, Washington,
D.C.

67. Civil Aeronautics Board, 1962: Aircraft Accident Report SA 361,

United Airlines, Inc. DC-8 N 8013 U, and Transworld Airlines, Inc.

68. Haddon, W., Jr., 1968: The Changing Approach to Epidemiology,

Prevention and Amelioration of Trauma; the Transition to Approaches
Etiological Rather than Descriptively Based, American Journal of
Public Health, 58:8.

69. Surry, J., 1969: Industrial Accident Research, University of Toronto,

Toronto, Canada.

70. Benner, L., 1975: D.E.C.I.D.E. in Hazardous Materials Emergencies,

Fire Journal, 69:4, July, 1975.

71. U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, 1971: Highway Accident

Report HAR 71-6, Liquefied Oxygen Tank Explosion Followed by
Fires in Brooklyn New York, May 30, 1970.

72. Benner, L., 1975: D.E.C.I.D.E. in Hazardous Materials Emergencies,

Fire Journal, 69:4, July, 1975.

73. U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, 1973: Aircraft Accident

Report AAR 73--16, United Air Lines, Inc. Boeing 737, N9031U
Chicago--Midway Airport, Chicago, IL.

74. Benner, L., 1975: Risk, Responsibility and Research, presentation to

the Council Committee on Chemical Safety of the American Chemical
Society, Chicago, IL, August 20, 1975