Geophysical Prospecting 3,705-718, 1990

NUMERICAL M O D E L L I N G O F S T A N D A R D A N D
C O N T I N U O U S VERTICAL ELECTRICAL
SOUNDINGS'

C. E. M O L A N O ' , M . S A L A M A N C A 2
and R . A. V A N O V E R M E E R E N 3

ABSTRACT
MOLANO, C.E., SALAMANCA, M. and OVERMEEREN, R.A. VAN 1990. Numerical modelling of
standard and continuous vertical electrical soundings. Geophysical Prospecting 38, 705-71 8.
Analytical solutions of vertical electrical soundings (VES) have mostly been applied to
groundwater exploration and monitoring groundwater quality on terrains of fairly simple
geology and geomorphology on which the electrode arrays are symmetrical (e.g. Schlumber-
ger or Wenner configurations). The sounding interpretation assumes flat topography and
horizontally stratified layers. Any deviations from these simple situations may be impossible
to interpret analytically. The recently developed GEA-58 geoelectrical instrument can make
continuous soundings along a profile with any colinear electrode configuration.
This paper describes the use of finite-difference and finite-element methods to model
complex earth resistivity distributions in 2D, in order to calculate apparent resistivity
responses to any colinear current electrode distribution in terrains in which the earth
resistivities do not vary along the strike. The numerical model results for simple situations are
compared with the analytical solutions. In addition, a pseudo-depth section of apparent
resistivities measured in the field with the GEA-58 is compared with the numerical solution of
a real complex resistivity distribution along a cross-section. The model results show excellent
agreement with the corresponding analytical and experimental data.

INTRODUCTION
Analytical methods for 1D structures have been widely used for the interpretation of
data on apparent resistivity obtained by geoelectrical sounding. Numerical model-
ling techniques have also been applied to 3D structures, using finite differences (Dey
and Morrison 1979) and finite elements. Since 3D modelling requires many data

Paper read at the 51st EAEG meeting, Berlin, May-June 1989; last material received
December 1989, revision accepted January 1990.
Department of Civil Engineering, Universidad de Los Andes, Apartado Aéreo 4976,
Bogota, Colombia.
TNO-DGV, Institute of Applied Geoscience, P.O. Box 285, 2600 AG Delft, The Nether-
lands.

705
706 C. E. M O L A N O , M . S A L A M A N C A A N D R. A. V A N O V E R M E E R E N

and much computer storage and processing time, 2D modelling is more practical.
Also, standard or continuous vertical electrical soundings almost always run along a
profile, obtaining data in two dimensions. 2D numerical modelling has been applied
using finite-element (Coggon 1971) and finite-diference methods (Mufti 1976; Dey
and Morrison 1979). These methods, and the one presented here, assume that all
electrodes are colinear and oriented perpendicular to the direction of strike. In the
past, 2D numerical modelling used a Fourier cosine transformation to obtain the
potentials, since a point source over 2D structures gives a 3D potential field. The
apparent pseudo-depth resistivity section thus obtained can be compared with the
pseudo-depth section actually measured. However, in this paper we use the appar-
ent resistivity calculated for line sink/sources (Parasnis 1965) to calculate 2D
models.
To obtain accurate results, very fine finite-difference or finite-element grids must
be used. These require very large matrices. An implicit iterative method (Peacemann
and Rachford 1955) is used to solve the systems of linear equations resulting from
finite-difference methods. This method can easily be implemented on personal com-
puters (PCs). A Cholesky decomposition (Golub and Van Loan 1983) with band
matrix storage is used to solve the finite-element equations. Recently, we solved the
linear equations by the incomplete Cholesky conjugate gradient method, where a
more compact matrix storage was used. This method can also be implemented on
PCS.

EQUATIONS
GOVERNING
Using Ohm's law and continuity for stationary electric fields, the following 2D dif-
ferential equation is obtained (Molano and Salamanca 1988):

-
ax
6',y) ;(;E)
a __ + = 16(x - x,, z - z,),

where I/ is the electrical potential, Z is the line current sink term specified in the
x - z space by Dirac-delta function 6, at the point x,, z, . The boundary conditions
are discussed later.
For a symmetrical line source/sink dipole, the apparent resistivity can be
obtained using the following relation deduced from Parasnis (1965):

where A V is the potential difference across the potential electrodes, L is the separa-
tion between the current electrodes, and a is the separation between potential elec-
trodes.

FINITEDIFFERENCES
A block centred finite-difference gid in which variable grid-spacing is permitted
(Fig. 1) is used to discretize the current-flow domain. Using the notation of Fig. 1,
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 707

i-1 I i+l

j -1 a a a

j
t
AZj

i
j+l a a

-1 AXi-I
FIG.1. Index scheme for the block centred finite-difference grid.

Using the weighted average of the resistivity equations (4a, b) ensures continuity
across cell boundaries.
Equation (3) is solved by the alternating direction implicit iterative method
(ADI, see Peacemann and Rachford 1955) which is an unconditionally stable
method.
708 C. E. MOLANO, M . SALAMANCA AND R . A. V A N OVERMEEREN

A simple cycle of iteration consists of solving two systems of linear equations,

one with respect to the horizontal direction and one with respect to the vertical
direction in the grid. These equations are solved explicitly for potentials.

F I N I T EELEMENTS
Using the finite-element method (1) is solved by the Galerkin procedure with linear
triangular elements. This method is well known (Zienkiewicz 1977), and only the
relevant details are presented here. In this approach, trial solutions I/ are assumed
in the form

where q ( x , z) are the linearly dependent basis functions which satisfy the boundary
conditions of (1); are the unknown values of the potential in the nodes; n is the
number of nodes.
Let the linear operator L(V) be defined as

+-a i--
a v
L(V)=-
ax
--
6,
a i a v
a,) aZ (p. az) = 1 6 ( x - x , , z-z,).

The functions L(V) must be orthogonal to the basis oi(x, z). This requirement is
(7)

I I
1-
I
N )I
I
I I
I I I l
t-Wy It-W-I
__ __
i

I
N
J

FIG.2. Banded symmetric matrix manipulation: (a) original matrix; (b) half bandwidth matrix
modified to minimize storage. (Adapted from Weaver and Gere (1980); Uribe (1985))
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 709

de resistivity(nm)
O

25

50

O 80 160 240 m
FIG.3. Finite-element grid-discretization to test numerical results over a stratified earth.

expressed as

L(V)mi(x,z)dxdz = O , for i = 1, 2, . . ., n.
R

The set of algebraic equations is obtained by substituting (7) in (8). Applying the
homogeneous Neumann boundary condition to the boundaries, the following equa-
tion is obtained:

for i = 1, 2, ..., n. (9)

710 C. E. M O L A N O , M . SALAMANCA A N D R. A. V A N O V E R M E E R E N

1 O00

100

10
1 10 100 1000
1

1 O00

100

10
1 10 100 1000
L /2(m)
FIG.4. Comparison of numerical and analytical results for Schlumberger soundings over a
stratified earth, such as shown in Fig. 3: (a) two layers, (b) three layers, (c) four layers.
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 71 1

The n linear equations given by (9) can be written in matrix form as

where G is an n x n-dimensional matrix, and v, q are n-dimensional vectors. G is the

coefficient matrix involving the resistivity terms p and the grid geometry, v is the
unknown potential vector and q is the known current vector.

BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
The space domain is restricted to the lower half-space at the ground surface, where
the homogeneous Neumann condition can be applied :

where ( n x , n,) is the outward normal to the ground surface boundary. This condi-
tion, in fact, has already been taken into account to obtain (9).
To simulate the lower half-space at x = fCO,and z = + CO, the grid is expanded
far enough away from the source, such that the simulated boundaries have negligi-
ble effect in the area of interest. Then either the homogeneous Neumann condition

-
-2
8

dipole separation (n)

p = loilm
FIG.5. Comparison of numerical and analytical results for a dipole-dipole sounding over a
stratified earth of two layers.
 -stretch covered
by model of f i g 7
-
O 1 ' " ' 1 '40
' 3 20 " I " ' ' ~100
I " ~ ' 80
60 ' " ' (120im)
' ' ' ' '
I '

a: Soil section

m
Loam sandy infilled f r o s t crack

b: Continuous Vertical Electrical Sounding

0-

1- _I 42 37 50 52 50 50 62

2-
-E
-
f
E? 3 -
U

85 100 1 3 5 1 5 0 1 5 0 1 7 170 1 7 0
Ir-

l 1 1 l l I l l I l I l I I

-I--
-
17
--I__. __----
170 170 1 7 0 1 7 0 1 7 0 1 7 5
'..- 180 175 170

1Loam sandy
FIG.6. Case study: (a) soil profile; (b) true resistivity section (Qm), interpreted from contin-
uous sounding using 1D analytical solutions. (After Van Overmeeren and Ritsema (1988).)
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 713

( i l ) or a zero potential value (Dirichlet condition, involving a variant of (9)),can be

used on the boundaries.
In the work presented here, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to detect the
influence of a Dirichlet or a Neumann boundary condition. However, the effect is
negligible for the grids used in this work.
A Robin-boundary condition can also be used, as described by Dey and Morri-
son (1979).
SOLUTION
OF THE L I N E A REQUATIONS
The matrix G in (10) is usually a sparse band matrix, and so large that computer
time and storage is prohibitive. Therefore, this matrix is arranged as shown in Fig. 2
and only the upper band is stored. To solve the linear equations in the compact
storage form, the Cholesky decomposition is used (Weaver and Gere 1980; Uribe
1985).
Recently, we began using the incomplete Cholesky conjugate gradient (ICCG)
method, and a more compact matrix storage (Kaasschieter 1985). The results are
not yet ready but the method appears very promising.
AND ANALYTICAL
NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS
To compare the numerical solutions with the corresponding analytical solutions
using O'Neill's filter, four cases were tested. The first three cases were tested by
calculating the apparent resistivity curves for Schlumberger configurations, con-
sidering a stratified earth with two, three and four layers. The fourth case tested was
the simulation of a dipole-dipole sounding over a two-layer model. Figures 4a, b, c
and 5 show the analytical and numerical results for the finite-element mesh given in
Fig. 3. The results show that the numerical results deviated from the analytical
solutions by less than 5%.
714 C . E . M O L A N O , M . S A L A M A N C A A N D R. A . V A N O V E R M E E R E N

NUMERICA
SIMULATION
L O F CONTINUOUS
SOUNDINGS
The method in which the finite differences and finite elements were developed in the
present work is very suitable for use in continuous vertical electrical soundings. The
details of the practice of continuous sounding are described by Van Overmeeren
and Ritsema (1988). They use a multielectrode measuring system (the GEA-58) to
obtain subsurface images which are built upon a very fine grid of observed points.

8
1
16 24 32 40 48m
1

-1 -
1
a

-
1
E -
c\I 5-
\
- - I -

(a) observed data

8 16 I
24 32 40 48m
1

1-

h - 100 -
U
E
(v 5-
\
A -

10-
(bl simulated data
FIG.8. Observed data (a) and finite-difference results (b) for modelling continuous soundings.
Contour values in a m .
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 715

Equally-spaced multi-electrode cables are roiled along to measure continuous sec-

tions. The numerical methods can model any profile with the same electrode scan as
in the field.
A finite-difference model was used to simulate part of the section measured with
the GEA-58 equipment (Fig. 6). The vertical profile between the 8 and 48 m abscis-
sae was modelled. In this section, there are complex resistivity heterogeneities
because of the infilled frost cracks formed in the clay layer. The grid consisted of 55
columns and 19 rows, totalling 1045 finite-difference cells. ‘This grid was very con-
densed and equally spaced in the central 45 columns (Fig. 7), but was considerably
coarser towards the edges to simulate the ‘infinite ’ boundaries. In total, 36 electrode
arrays were simulated and a solution was obtained for each. The observed data and
the simulated results are given in Figs 8a, b. It can be seen that the simulated
apparent resistivities have the same trends as the observed ones. In general, the
simulated apparent resistivity contour lines are smoother than the measured ones. A

depth (m)

O 80
FIG.9. Finite-element grid-discretization to simulate the section given in Fig. 6.
716 C. E . M O L A N O , M . S A L A M A N C A A N D R . A . V A N O V E R M E E R E N

O 20 40 60 80 100 120 (rnl

'
- r
0-
I

2-

4-
--
E -

5 6-
8-

10 -

12 -
(al observed data (subsurface imaging)
0-

2-

4-
-
-
E -

\" 6-
-J

8-

10 -

(bl simulated data (finite elements)

FIG.10. Observed data (a) and finite-element results (b) for modelling continuous soundings.
Contour values in Qm.
 N U M E R I C A L VES M O D E L L I N G 717

possible explanation is that finer grids are required to model large contrasts in earth
resistivity.
Finite elements are more suitable than finite differences for modelling irregular
resistivity heterogeneities. This method was also used to model a part of the profile
measured with the GEA-58 equipment for the -8 to 120 m abscissae, covering a
greater distance than the profile simulated using finite differences. The grid consists of
4229 triangular elements with 2286 nodes. The central refined part of the grid is
shown in Fig. 9. As in finite differences, the grid was coarsened and expanded
towards the edges to simulate ‘infinite ’ boundaries. To obtain the pseudo-depth
section of Fig. 10, 330 electrode arrays were simulated. The calculated results and
the observed data are shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen that the simulated results
approach the observed ones very well.

CONCLUSION
Finite differences and finite elements are useful numerical methods for modelling
complex distributions of earth resistivity. Generally, finite elements are more suit-
able for modelling irregular boundaries. The Cholesky decomposition method with
compact matrix storage can solve large linear equations obtained from the finite-
element discretization.
To date, only the finite-difference method has been implemented on PCs. But as
larger and faster PCs become readily available, it will soon be possible to use the
finite-element method on PCs to solve large matrix systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to O. Soto of the Department of Civil Engineering of
the Universidad de los Andes for his help in the implementation of computer codes
and to E. F. Kaasschieter (TNO) for criticism of the manuscript.

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718 C. E. M O L A N O , M. SALAMANCA A N D R. A. VAN O V E R M E E R E N

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