New Handbook CASO - 2013 Rev2 PDF

Products, Applications, Safety, Handling and Storage, Characteristics, Methods
HANDBOOK
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
®
SOLVAY CASO
Table of contents
1 SOLVAY, THE COMPANY ............................................................................................... 4
1.1 History ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Solvay Mission and Vision .................................................................................... 4
1.3 Solvay Values ......................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Solvay Code of Conduct........................................................................................ 5
1.5 Customers............................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Suppliers ................................................................................................................. 5
1.7 Competitors ............................................................................................................ 5
1.8 Shareholders .......................................................................................................... 5
1.9 Public authorities ................................................................................................... 5
1.10 General public ........................................................................................................ 5
2 CASO® CALCIUM CHLORIDE ......................................................................................... 6
2.1 Production Process ............................................................................................... 6
2.2 The benefits ............................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Three commercial grades...................................................................................... 7
2.4 Production Plant..................................................................................................... 8
3 MAIN USES OF CASO® CALCIUM CHLORIDE ............................................................. 9
3.1 Food & Agro-Food industry .................................................................................. 9
3.2 Animal nutrition.................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Serving the chemical industry ............................................................................ 12
3.4 Oil & Gas Industry ................................................................................................ 12
3.5 From earth to concrete ........................................................................................ 13
3.6 Helping the environment ..................................................................................... 14
3.7 Metallurgy ............................................................................................................. 15
3.8 Domestic dehumidification ................................................................................. 15
3.9 Winter road treatment .......................................................................................... 15
3.10 Anti-Dust treatment.............................................................................................. 19
4 SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................... 21
5 LOGISTICS ..................................................................................................................... 22
5.1 Packaging ............................................................................................................. 22
6 Handling and Storage ..................................................................................................... 22
6.1 Dry calcium chloride storage bins ..................................................................... 22
6.2 Dry calcium chloride conveyors and elevators ................................................ 23
6.3 Storage tanks for liquid calcium chloride ......................................................... 23
6.4 Dissolving CASO® ............................................................................................... 23
7 Chemical-physical properties of CASO® calcium chloride.............................................. 25
7.1 Properties of Anhydrous calcium chloride........................................................ 25
7.2 Properties of the hydrates of calcium chloride................................................. 25
7.3 Properties of calcium chloride solutions........................................................... 26
7.4 Solubility ............................................................................................................... 31
7.5 Apparent solidification vs. actual freezing temperatures ................................ 33
7.6 Boiling temperatures ........................................................................................... 34
7.7 Vapor pressure ..................................................................................................... 34
7.8 Atmospheric moisture absorption by commercial calcium chloride ............. 37
SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 2 of 59

7.9 pH of calcium chloride solutions........................................................................ 39
7.10 Surface tension .................................................................................................... 42
7.11 Viscosity................................................................................................................ 44
7.12 Dilution of calcium chloride solutions ............................................................... 45
7.13 Specific heats ....................................................................................................... 47
7.14 Heat of solution of calcium chloride .................................................................. 47
7.15 Heat of dilution and heat content of calcium chloride solutions .................... 48
7.16 Thermal conductibility......................................................................................... 50
7.17 Specific problems of technical calcium chloride solutions............................. 51
8 ANALYTICAL METHODS ............................................................................................... 56
8.1 Total Calcium (Ca) – EDTA potentiometry test ................................................. 56
8.2 Alkalinity as Ca(OH)2 – Phenolphthalein test .................................................... 56
8.3 Sulfates (CaSO4) – Ionic chromatography method........................................... 57
8.4 Iron (Fe) – Spectrophotometric test ................................................................... 57
8.5 Water insoluble matter – Gravimetric method .................................................. 58
8.6 Turbidity – spectrophotometer test.................................................................... 58
8.7 Granulometry – automatic sieve test ................................................................. 58

1 SOLVAY, THE COMPANY
1.1 History
The story of the Solvay group began in 1861, when Ernest Solvay discovered the key to the
«industrial manufacture of soda ash using sea salt, ammoniac and carbonic acid».
In 1863, Ernest Solvay patented a revolutionary ammonia-soda process for producing sodium
carbonate which is still widely used today in the glass, washing powder and flue gas cleaning industry.
The first soda factory started operating in Couillet, Belgium in 1865.
From 1870 to 1880, Solvay promoted the global expansion of the company. Factories were set up
in Belgium, France, England, Germany, Russia and the United States.
Today, Solvay is an international industrial Group active in chemistry, with three sectors of activity:
Chemicals and Plastics and Rhodia. The latter was acquired in September 2011.
Sustainability is at the heart of Solvay's strategy. It is based on a systematic approach taking into
ccount the expectations of our key stakeholders, and ibuilt on financial, environmental and societal
responsibility.
The Solvay Group’s philosophy is unaltered: realize sustained growth with leading positions and
maintain a conservative financial structure.
A Group Vision and Strategy to ensure profitable and sustainable growth through:
 a strong leadership in all of our activities

 an important presence in emerging markets
 the control of cyclicality of activities
 high value added
 alignment on megatrends which ensure the sustainability of performance and steer future
developments
1.2 Solvay Mission and Vision
Building on its scientific, technical and commercial expertise in Chemistry, and aware of its
societal responsibilities, Solvay provides innovative products and services to create sustainable and
ever- increasing value to our customers, shareholders and employees.
Solvay is an independent, ethical and responsible global industrial Group with a balanced portfolio of
sustainable, profitable and growing businesses, managed in accordance with societal and
environmental issues:
 Amongst the world leaders in selected markets and products either alone or with sound
complementary business partners
 Valued by its customers as a highly competent, reliable and competitive solution provider
 With a clear, motivating organization, through dialogue, developing and empowering people
and teams through rewarding and challenging jobs
 Acting as good corporate citizens, caring for the environment, health and safety of its
employees and of the community at large
 Open to the expectations of the outside world, and contributing to economic, societal and
environmental progress.
1.3 Solvay Values
Solvay firmly believes in ethical behaviour, respect for people, customer care, empowerment and
teamwork.

1.4 Solvay Code of Conduct
Solvay's Code of Conduct lists and defines the values that serve as the framework for the Group’s
decisions and operations and is inspired by international conventions such as the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the conventions of the International
Labour Office Organization.
Solvay expresses its commitment to sustainable and responsible practices by taking into account the
sustainable growth of its business, and its good reputation within the communities in which it operates.
1.5 Customers
Solvay is committed to meeting the needs of its customers by delivering products and services on
time, in the quantity, and at the quality level agreed upon.
1.6 Suppliers
Solvay's relationships with suppliers are based on trust and partnership. Suppliers are selected,
without discrimination, through open competition and on the basis of an objective and verifiable
evaluation of their performance as well as of their ethical performance in matters of safety, respect for
the environment and children’s and human rights.
1.7 Competitors
Solvay values and embraces fair and open competition as essential to maintaining the dynamism
of free enterprise and creating value for society at large.
1.8 Shareholders
Solvay fully and accurately informs its shareholders of all actions, events or decisions that could
reasonably have a significant effect on its decisions and performance. It is fully compliant with all
applicable corporate governance rules.
1.9 Public authorities
As a responsible producer, the Group works closely with public authorities to reduce any negative
environmental effects due to accident or discharge. In the case of an incident unrelated to Solvay, the
Group will still provide its resources and expertise to emergency responders and public authorities
requesting assistance.
1.10 General public
Solvay actively fosters open dialogue between its public and its constituents in order to achieve
mutual understanding and benefit.

2 CASO® CALCIUM CHLORIDE
CASO® Calcium Chloride is one of Solvay's oldest products, and it still remains important today.
Over the years, Solvay has adapted the applications of CASO® to meet the demands of users as diverse
as the agricultural and food & feed industries and civil engineering. It is also used extensively in the oil
industry, in water treatment processes, for treating roads in winter and summer, and for domestic and
industrial dehumidification
2.1 Production Process
CASO® SOLVAY is produced using two different lines. The oldest one is used for producing
Flakes, Powder and Solutions, while, since 2007, a new production line has been started up for
producing anhydrous product in granular form.
The oldest traditional production line is refining and concentrating calcium chloride brine at low
®
concentration coming from the nearby SOLVAY Soda Ash plant up to 78% CaCl2 in weight, using six
different sectors working in series and in parallel.
2NaCl+CaCO3 →Na2CO3+CaCl2
®
The qualities of CASO Solvay produced according to this process are as follows:
 Liquid CASO® 25÷29% and 35÷37% technical grade,

 Liquid CASO® 35÷37% Food grade,
 Solid CASO® min 75% in flakes, food, feed and technical grade, and
 Solid CASO® min 75% in powder, feed and technical grade
During the production process, the calcium chloride solution is depurated and cleared from the main
impurities (insoluble substances, hydrated lime, calcium sulphate, sodium chloride), so as to avoid any
possible alteration of the final product.
Once all the impurities have been eliminated, the calcium chloride solution circulates in evaporators and
tanks where, with the addition of vapours at different pressure and temperature, it undergoes a process
of evaporation and concentration to reach a content of 73% in weight.
At this step, the product is still liquid.
During the following step, a plunging wheel is immerged into the 73% calcium chloride solution: as a
consequence of the internal cooling a solid layer will cover the surface of the wheel and finally the liquid
product becomes solid.
At this stage, the solid product turns into flakes (73%) which after desiccation in a dryer, by adding warm
gases, will reach the typical concentration of 77%.
The desiccated calcium chloride, before being stocked in silos, packed and finally being sold, is
refrigerated by an air scrubber at first, then cleaned from dust and finally conditioned, in compliance with
the sales specification.
The product has now the shape of 'white flakes', measuring between 3x3 and 10x10 mm as dimension
and with an average thickness of 0,5 - 1,5 mm.
After the cleaning and dehumidification treatment, based on the introduction of hot air at the entrance of
the silos, the calcium chloride flakes are totally free from any dust particles.
Then they are collected and become a 'Final Product' which will be stocked, packed and sold as solid
®
CASO .
During the intermediate step of the production cycle, a part of the liquid calcium chloride at 50% in
®
weight is diluted with de-mineralized water, thus obtaining CASO 25÷29% and 35÷37% solutions,
which, after proper decantation and filtration, are stored in tanks and finally sold.

CASO® Granules are produced in the Rosignano Plant using a new production line, where the 35%
CaCl2 solution, generated by dissolving limestone with hydrochloric acid, is concentrated by evaporation
®
of water up to 95% in a fluidized bed granulator. The qualities of the obtained CASO product are as
follows:
 CASO® Granules, CaCl2 min 94% technical grade, and

 CASO® Standard Granules min 90% technical grade.
2.2 The benefits
CASO® SOLVAY is characterised by a certain number of remarkable properties which determine

its many applications.
 Low freezing point with water: in conjunction with water, CASO® forms a solution that will not
freeze until it reaches a temperature of -51.6°C;
 Exothermic dissolution: when it dissolves in water, CASO® gives off heat (dissolving 1 gram
of CASO® Granules in 100 g of water would increase the temperature of the water by 1.65
°C., 20% more than CASO® FLAKES);
 High hygroscopicity: CASO® absorbs humidity from the atmosphere even during very dry
weather;
 Deliquescence: CASO® dissolves in water absorbed
 High specific gravity: a solution of 40% CaCl2 produces a specific gravity of 1.4 kg/dm3 at
15°C.
2.3 Commercial grades
Each product grade is identified by a specific batch number which guarantees the traceability of its
production. Normally, for each delivered product, a Certificate of Conformity (CoC) is issued affirming
that the product respects sale specifications. A Certificate of Analysis (CoA) could be issued on demand
only if it has been agreed with our sales department in advance.
Technical Grade
CASO® TEC, calcium chloride technical grade, can be used in various applications in industrial,
public and private sectors. It is available in Flakes, Powder and Liquid forms (25 – 36% solutions)
Food Grades
CASO® FOOD Flakes is a dihydrate calcium chloride food grade of mineral origin, and CASO®
FCC SOLUTION is a 36% CaCl2 solution. In the context of the European Regulation N° 1333/2008 on
food additives, permitted for use in foodstuffs, and European Regulation 231/2012, laying down specific
purity criteria for food additives other than colours and sweeteners, both products are characterized by
the European Number E 509 referring to 'calcium chloride'.
CASO® FCC Flakes is a dihydrate calcium chloride food grade of mineral origin. According to the
International Numbering System (INS) for food additives, CASO® FCC Flakes is characterized by the
®
INS Number 509 referring to "calcium chloride". CASO FCC Flakes is compatible with the food uses for
which the Food Chemicals Codex (8th Edition) specifications are required, but does not constitute a
food additive pursuant to European Regulation N° 1333/2008 as amended.
A Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is implemented in our manufacturing plant
and it consists of applying the following principles:
 the conduction of a hazard analysis and the identification of preventive measures;

 the determination of Critical Control Points (CCPs),
 the establishment of critical limits, monitoring procedures, corrective actions, record keeping
and documentation procedures (ensuring traceability and claims treatment) and the
establishment of verification procedures.

Furthermore, our manufacturing plant is registered by the competent authority and a sanitary/hygiene
authorisation was issued for the manufacture, storage and marketing of the product (Autorizzazione
Igienico sanitaria N° 111 – Site Registration Number: IT 090 49017-0385).
Feed Grades
CASO® FEED, calcium chloride is a feed material of mineral origin for animal nutrition. It is
available in Flakes and Powder forms.
Putting in practice the rules of Regulation 183/2005/EC, SOLVAY has registered its production plant as
producer of industrial calcium chloride of mineral origin for animal feed, as indicated in the Italian
Ministerial Decree of 13 of November 1985, to the local Authority USL 6 of Livorno (Italy) in compliance
with Decree 6610/2005 issued by the Tuscany Region, adopting the rules of Articles 5 and 9 of the
Regulation 183/2005/EC itself.
To assure the safety of the product during its transportation, SOLVAY has defined some internal
procedures that determine the acceptance criteria of the trucks that will be used for the deliveries, using
the GMP+ rules established by the Dutch Product Board Animal Feed as reference, and has obliged all
transporters to register themselves as feed operators to the competent authorities.
2.4 Production Plant
Company name: Solvay Chimica Italia S.p.A.

Address: Via Piave 6
Zip Code: I-57013
City: Rosignano Solvay (LI)
Country: Italy
Phone: +39 586 72 11 11
Fax: +39 586 72 17 28

3 MAIN USES OF CASO® CALCIUM CHLORIDE
Some application of these products may be regulated or restricted by national or
international standards (e.g. for food additives, feedingstuff, water treatment, the cosmetic or
pharmaceutical industry, etc). The buyer and the eventual user, in his sole and entire liability,
shall respect those standards, orders of any relevant authority, and all existing patents and
intellectual properties rights; and shall comply with the laws and the regulations applicable to
our products and/or to his activity. The buyer and ethe eventual user must independently
determine the suitability of this product for any particular purpose and its manner of use.
3.1 Food & Agro-Food industry
CASO® calcium chloride is used in many applications, such as agriculture, foods, treatment of raw
water.
Agriculture
For many years, the agricultural industry has been employing various products to improve the
quality and productivity of arable land. Confronted with restrictive economic conditions, fertiliser
manufacturers are using an increasing quantity of industrial products available in powder, granular or
liquid form. These are mixed to provide the ideal chemical composition for a particular crop (nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, calcium, sulphur, sodium, magnesium and oligo-elements).
To make these products easy and safe to handle, they are produced in granular form. One of the
products generally used for granulation is calcium chloride.
Calcium chloride is a viscous, adhesive product. When it comes into contact with powders, it imparts a
degree of cohesion. In the granulator (a sort of heated rotating drum), the sticky powders agglomerate
into small granules. When the granules are dry, they are packaged.
The intensive cultivation practised by farmers alters the quality of agricultural products; new diseases
resulting from a poor mineral balance in the soil are appearing. Plants which grow rapidly are generally
most affected by these new phenomena.
Many studies have highlighted the primary role of calcium in the quality and storage characteristics of
agricultural products.
Calcium, which is present in large quantities in nature, migrates with difficulty in soil, plants and trees. It
contributes to the composition and solidity of plant cells and therefore constitutes an important nutritional
element for plants. A calcium deficiency induces weakness of the plant cell walls, which is manifested by
a loss of weight, lack of firmness and the rapid deterioration of fruit and vegetables. It has been
demonstrated that bitter pit in apples, browning in the hearts of endives and apical fever in tomatoes
result from a lack of calcium.
Treatment with calcium chloride strengthens the natural defences of plants against disease.
®
CASO calcium chloride plays a preventive role by first attacking the causes of the problem.
Dairy products and cheese
CASO® Food grade calcium chloride is used in the dairy sector to increase the calcium content of
dairy products. It is an interesting product because its use is legally authorised and because of its good
price, the great bio-availability of calcium, its very small alteration of the 'taste' profile of the foods it
supplements. Finally, it can be added as such.
It is recommended to check the pH of milk when adding calcium chloride. More specifically, at a pH
below 5.2, milk proteins coagulate. Beyond 7.5, the taste of milk is modified.

Cheese production is an enzymatic process in which casein or rennet (enzyme of the stomach of an un-
weaned calf) is made to react with milk. Coagulation usually takes place at a temperature of about 30°C.
Adding calcium chloride accelerates the phenomenon while economising on the rennet content (more
expensive than CaCl2).
Finally, when hard cheese production is finished, it may be soaked in a solution of CASO® Food
Grades calcium chloride in order to increase the hardness of the outside crust.
Storage
Before being canned, fruits and vegetables undergo a number of treatments to stabilise their
behaviour before and during their preservation period (cooking, sterilisation, lowering of pH to reduce
any bacterial activity, etc ...). This type of treatment usually entails an improvement of the treated foods.
To give them certain firmness, calcium chloride can be added to the blanching water or to the can.
CASO® Food Grade Calcium chloride is used in preserves as an agent for improving the appearance
and firmness of preserved products (carrots, celery, gherkins, onions, stuffed and unstuffed olives, peas,
peppers, canned potatoes, salsify, tomatoes, meat, apple purée and frozen products for rapid cooking).
CaCl2 strengthens the external surface of such products and improves their appearance and behaviour
when preserved. It is also increasingly used in other applications as a substitute for more costly calcium
salts used for the same purpose.
Calcium is an important plant nutrient as it contributes to cell strength. Increasing the calcium content
during preparation or preservation improves the firmness of products (e.g. soft or hard peeled tomatoes)
or their cooking characteristics in a microwave oven.
Refrigeration
Thanks to the low freezing point of its solutions, CASO® Calcium chloride is used in freezing
plants, as Food Processing Aid, as a refrigerant in ice cream and frozen dessert manufacturing
Beer and soft drinks: remineralisation of water
The use of calcium chloride for water remineralisation is intended as Food Processing Aids.
Soft drinks manufacturers and breweries are confronted with significant differences in the quality of
water supplied to them. This can result in variations in taste between factories or between production
periods.
The solution to this problem is to totally demineralise the water and then carry out a controlled
remineralisation.
For drinking water distribution companies, the chemical composition of drinking water depends on the
source’s geotechnical conditions. The same applies to its calcium bicarbonate content. The latter is
responsible for a great deal of the corrosion in drinking water pipes. Water with a low pH may have its
corrosive effect partially offset by the presence of a certain quantity of calcium carbonate which acts
rather like a protective film for pipework (increasing hardness).
The purpose of re-mineralising water is to increase its calcium chloride content. This has two precise
applications: calcium chloride or tartar can slightly alter the taste of water and also helps to protect pipes
from corrosion:
CaCl2 + 2 NaHCO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl + H2CO3

Recovery of tartaric acid
Tartaric acid and its salts are used in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, textile, colourings and
printing sectors.
CASO® Calcium Chloride enables all of the residuary substances, produced in making wine from grapes,
to be valorized. These residues are generally rich in tartrates which, after reacting with Calcium Chloride,
form calcium tartrate which is easy to transport and to use wherever it is required to produce synthetic
tartaric acid.
Alginates
Alginates are raw materials used in the following sectors:
 food and food processing (food additives, emulsion stabilisers in jellies, artificial creams for
pastries and dietary products),
 industrial (finishing yarns and fabrics, sizing yarns, soluble alginate yarns used in lace making,
thickening printing dyes),
 cosmetics (shampoo with oligo-elements, make-up removers, various creams),
 pharmaceuticals (dressings, powders, compresses).
They are manufactured from specially treated brown algae. Although there are hundreds of species of
brown algae, only a few are used for alginate extraction. The algae are attacked by caustic soda and
sodium carbonate (alkaline digestion of the algae). The product obtained (soluble sodium alginate) is
brought into contact with a 1 to 10% solution of CASO® calcium chloride to produce calcium alginate
(insoluble). This calcium alginate is placed in an acid environment (HCl); this produces solid alginic acid.
Finally, this acid is neutralised with sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate to create pure, solid
sodium alginate.
Consumption of anhydrous calcium chloride is estimated at 30 kg per ton of algae. Note that alginic acid,
calcium, ammonium, potassium and magnesium alginates, etc., are also known as “algins”.
3.2 Animal nutrition
Calcium chloride is classified as feed material for animal nutrition according to European
Regulation 575/2011.
®
SOLVAY is manufacturing and placing on the market CASO FEED dihydrate calcium chloride, feed
material of mineral origin in conformity with the European Directive 2002/32/EU and its amendments on
undesirable substances in animal feed, and certifying all the produced batches with Certificates of
Conformity.
With the aim to guarantee both traceability and safety of the entire food chain, SOLVAY, in the context
of the European Regulations 178/2002/EC and 183/2005/EC, has implemented an HACCP system for
its manufacturing plant.
Putting into practice the rules of Regulation 183/2005/EC, SOLVAY has registered its production plant in
Rosignano (Italy) as producer of industrial calcium chloride of mineral origin for animal feed, as indicated
in the Italian Ministerial Decree of 13th of November 1985, to the local Authority USL 6 of Livorno (Italy)
in compliance with Decree 6610/2005 issued by the Tuscany Region, adopting the rules of Articles 5
and 9 of Regulation 183/2005/EC itself.
®
CASO FEED is used in dairy cow nutrition. During the transition lactation period of cows and pigs,
calcium chloride aids to reduce the incidence of milk fever and hypocalcaemia disorders. Orally feeding
of calcium chloride in lambs, sheep and goats can precipitate oxalate, eventually metabolized by the
rumen, thus stimulating diuresis and avoiding renal diseases. It acts as calcium source in the cation-
anion balance (CAB)

3.3 Serving the chemical industry
CASO® calcium chloride is used in many chemical applications. The chemical industry often
needs calcium and chloride ions for its various applications. The industry also requires certain physico-
chemical properties such as solubility and viscosity, which CASO® can provide.
Plastics
CASO® Calcium Chloride is used in the manufacture of certain synthetics including MBS and ABS.
Raw plastics rarely offer the characteristics required of them: impact resistance, temperature, ultraviolet
rays... That is why in the case of PVC, for example, MBS is added to increase its impact resistance.
PVC made in this way is used principally in the manufacture of bottles.
ABS is a synthetic resin used among other things in the manufacture of car bumpers.
Calcium chloride is added in liquid form to an emulsion (an intimate mixture of two immiscible products).
After flocculation the required resin is obtained.
Added to PVC, MBS resin increases the product’s impact resistance and the PVC produced in this way
is largely used in the manufacture of bottles.
ABS is a resin used primarily for manufacturing car bumpers.
Fluorescent powders
Fluorescent powders are used to make lighting tubes.
They form a film inside these tubes which converts ultraviolet rays generated by electric sparks into
visible light.
CASO® Calcium Chloride is used in the composition of fluorescent powders.
3.4 Oil & Gas Industry
Oil drilling
Oil is generally found at very great depth in the ground. In order to reach it, it is necessary to drill
wells several thousand meters deep. When a hole is made in the ground, the sides tend to crumble.
When drilling to a great depth, this must be avoided. There are numerous ways of achieving this, the
main one being using high density solutions. The chemical composition of the used solution depends on
the geotechnical drilling conditions (type of strata to be drilled, temperature, risk of encountering pockets
of gas under pressure, size of the operation).
CASO® calcium chloride is one of the products employed for this technique, but its use is limited.
The drilling-mud specialist prepares the ideal mixture depending on the depth to be attained and the
type of ground to be drilled.
To prevent the sides of a drill hole from collapsing, the liquids used must display certain characteristics:
 high density: dense liquids provide better support;

 viscosity: they must not penetrate too easily into porous soils
 stability at high temperatures: they must not decompose at high temperatures;
 ability to raise excavated material;
 insensitivity to the chemical environment: a reaction with rock could modify one of the
characteristics mentioned above.

To get the highest productivity out of an oil or gas well the right completion fluid has to be chosen. Once
the drill has hit the production zone, the work isn’t over. To obtain maximum flow and protect the zone
itself, the proper completion fluid is all important. Virtually any liquid that is free of solids can function as
a completion fluid but matching the density, flow and pH content to the characteristics of the hole will
lengthen the life of the production zone. Finding a completion fluid that complements the characteristics
of a particular oil or gas well increases the capacity of the well. It also makes site preparation easier and
limits site erosion and/or possible damage to the site. The right completion fluid may also make it easier
to repair a well should that become necessary. When it’s time to clean up and close down the well,
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having chosen good completion fluids will make those jobs easier, too. CASO calcium chloride is used
extensively as drilling fluid and heavy oil drilling fluids. The innate properties of calcium chloride make it
optimal for snubbing because it’s safe, economical, reusable and enhances the likelihood of maintaining
well production after servicing.
Drying Hydrocarbons
Sometimes oil contains water which tends to corrode manufacturing and storage plants and
causes turbidity in oil products.
Oil refining companies employ various means for getting rid of the water, including absorbent resins, salt
and CaCl2
®
CASO Calcium chloride is hygroscopic (absorbs humidity) and deliquescent (liquefies in the absorbed
water). The absorbed water, together with the absorbed product, forms a solution much denser than oil
products and is therefore deposited at the bottom of the tank.
3.5 From earth to concrete
1885: first application in civil engineering! Since then, things have improved greatly. CASO®
calcium chloride is used as an additive for road foundations and the beds of railway tracks. It also
represents a simple solution to a complex problem linked to road constructions: it freezes the soil.
®
CASO calcium chloride solution acts as an accelerator and anti-freeze for concrete.
Cement
There are three major applications for calcium chloride in cement industry:
 lowering the melting point of minerals during clinkering;

 reducing the alkaline content of cement;
 accelerating the setting and hardening of cement after it has been laid
In cement making, selected raw materials are melted and then crushed after cooling (clinker) and mixed
with quicklime. Introducing 2 to 3% Cl- into the kiln reduces the clinkering temperature of materials,
which results in savings of 20 to 30% on the energy required for its manufacture.
Moreover, calcium chloride accelerates the setting and hardening of laid concrete (see concreting).
Finally, certain types of cement react with the aggregates with which they are mixed. The products of
such reactions cause dilation leading to disorders in the structure in which they are incorporated.
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CASO Calcium chloride is added to the clinker kiln in order to sublimate the reaction products that are
formed.
Concrete making
Fresh concrete easily takes on the desired shape and, when hardened, retains this shape and
fulfils the requirements for which it was designed. Over the years, the industry has produced additives
capable of meeting the growing need for workability, strength and economy. CaCl2 possesses several
useful properties which have been exploited in concreting since 1885.

Calcium chloride accelerates hardening in concrete within the first few hours after casting. Because of
this, the initial strength obtained over the first few days is considerably increased. The addition of
calcium chloride reduces the normal setting time for concrete by more than 50% and accelerates
hardening. This property of calcium chloride is even more useful when the ambient temperature is low.
Cold hinders, or even prevents, cement hardening, which can cause irreparable damage to green
concrete. A fall in temperature slows down setting and hardening. When the temperature falls to
between +5°C and +10°C, depending on the type of cement employed, calcium chloride should be used.
At around 0°C incorporating calcium chloride prevents concrete from freezing and enables concreting to
continue. Note that calcium chloride is practically the only really satisfactory product for combating the
effects of freezing on fresh concrete (max. -5°C).
European standards (ENV 206) concerning concrete additives have moved against the use of CaCl2. It
is totally banned in certain countries (NL - D - N - S). Note that in other countries, the use of calcium
chloride is becoming ever more restricted: 1% for non-reinforced concrete, 0.4% for reinforced concrete
and 0.2% for pre-stressed concrete.
Road construction
The following technique is used in the construction and repair of roads: ever harder layers (sub-
foundations or foundations) are laid on top of the raw earth and are covered by a flexible (black
hydrocarbon) or rigid (clear concrete) coating. The quarries which provide these materials are beginning
to be exhausted and are seeking ways of using lower quality materials.
®
CASO calcium chloride significantly improves the qualities of most materials to which it is added.
Selected grades of hard core mixed with 1.5% liquid CaCl2 display significant advantages for the
following types of application:
 very easy laying and profiling using a finisher (laying machine);

 not susceptible to frost or damage from winter cold; reduced energy requirements for
compacting and faster execution;
 holes in foundations caused by work on the highway can be sealed without joint or risk of
settlement;
 does not crack or shrink with no rising of cracks;
 better carrying capacity.
Refrigeration
CASO® calcium chloride is used in refrigeration plants for freezing soil. When geotechnical (poor
soil quality) or local (presence of a building on the surface) conditions are not suitable for some types of
excavation, freezing the soil is the technique that is used. In fact, frozen soil behaves like rock which
then requires drilling through. After the required work has been carried out, the soil is simply allowed to
thaw.
Soil consolidation
When constructing a basement, it can happen that the geotechnical conditions are not suitable. In
this way, when you dig a hole in the ground, the walls tend to fall in. This phenomenon can be avoided
by calling on solutions with well defined characteristics. CASO® calcium chloride is used in this area as
a flocculating agent for excavating mud.
3.6 Helping the environment
CASO® calcium chloride contributes to a better environment by treating effluent and desalinating
soil.
Treatment of effluents
Current industrial trends aim to work in an increasingly ecological way. Water containing excess
fluoride is harmful for human beings, animals and the environment. However, a limited level of fluoride in
drinking water has been demonstrated to help to combat dental decay and presents no danger to health.

By adding CASO® calcium chloride to fluoride effluent, fluorinated water can be purified. Fluorine is
precipitated in the form of calcium fluoride (CaF2), which is only slightly soluble in water. The low
-11
solubility of CaF2 (kps=3.4·10 ) at 18°C means that at this temperature, 16 mg of CaF2 can be
dissolved in a litre of distilled water, which represents a fluorine content of around 8 mg/l, below
environmental standards of 10 mg/l. A good pH level (7-9), obtained by adding lime and an additional
dose of CaCl2, makes it possible to reduce the dissolved CaF2 content even further. Residual water
contains other cations and anions which influence the solubility and structure of calcium fluoride crystals.
Furthermore, flocculation can improve fluorine elimination. The presence of flocculating ions (aluminium,
iron and silicates) makes it possible to purify to a level of less than 2mg/l.
Some industries produce dissolved sulphates that they do not require. It is desirable to eliminate these
®
materials by insolubilising them thoroughly. Finally, CASO calcium chloride is an attractive flocculating
agent for breaking down certain emulsions.
Soil desalination
After major flooding by sea water, the excess of sodium deposited by the water greatly reduces
the fertility of the soil. In fact, sodium is one of the elements which compete with the atoms absorbed by
plants when they grow. Moreover, sodium reacts with certain soil types and leaves them waterproofed,
®
thereby preventing the soil from breathing. The correct amount of CASO Calcium Chloride scattered on
the soil improves the ionic and osmotic balance, and hinders soil crusting, with the result that the soil is
able to breathe better.
3.7 Metallurgy
CASO® is regularly used in metallurgy, especially for:
 iron: reduces corrosion and any attack on refractory surfaces induced by the pH of the mineral
used in the blast furnaces. It also helps control the level of sulphur, alkalis (oxides, Na, K) in
finished products.
 Titanium: used as a chemical intermediary in the manufacture of titanium oxide (white colouring)
used in the production of paint.
 Zinc-tungsten: used as a chemical intermediary.
 Sodium: lowers the fusion point of sodium during the electrolysis of salt.
 Non-ferrous metals: mixed with salt, lowers the fusion point of minerals
3.8 Domestic dehumidification
Humidity is not always welcome in what you are doing, and can represent a big problem in many
®
cases, but it can be eliminated with CASO calcium chloride. The air is a vehicle for humidity, and
therefore it can bring or remove humidity.
®
Combined with a drying system, either industrial or domestic, CASO SIEVED FLAKES can dry out
walls or atmospheres: being both hygroscopic and deliquescent, it absorbs the water and can deposit in
the form of a thick liquid at the base of the dryer.
3.9 Winter road treatment
Winter temperatures often result in snow or ice, making live difficult for traffic on roads. Since the
1930s, calcium Chloride has been used to melt snow and ice or to prevent water from crystallising on
the road. CASO® Calcium Chloride is the fastest, most effective ice melt product available on the market.
It melts ice to -32°C. CASO® Calcium Chloride is a product characterised by a compounding point with
water (eutectic), which enables the mixture to be kept liquid well below freezing point. Thanks to its
hygroscopicity, CASO® Calcium Chloride absorbs any water present in the air and eventually dissolves
itself releasing heat (exothermic reaction), thus accelerating the thawing process. Liquid CASO®

Calcium Chloride has a viscosity that permits it to adhere better to the road surface. Vegetation,
corrosion and concrete performances compare favorably to competing ice-melt materials, including
magnesium and potassium chloride.CASO® Calcium Chloride is used in different forms and
concentrations:
 technical flakes or granules, sprayed on the roads directly

 technical liquid as wetting agent with rock salt or alone.
No other ice melting product works on snow and ice better than CASO® Granules (technical anhydrous
calcium chloride in granular form). Comparative performance tests and scientific research prove that it is
the premier choice for ice melt. With its fast melting action and cold-temperature performance, CASO® is
easily distinguished from other ice melters because it:
 contains more than 90% calcium chloride, the most effective material for melting ice and snow
 melts ice 2 to 13 times faster than other ice melt materials
 absorbs moisture and generates heat to speed melting
 penetrates through ice 2 to 14 times faster than competing materials
 performs in a wider range of winter temperatures, even extreme cold
CASO® Granules calcium chloride outperforms other ice formulations in all winter conditions (see graphs
below)
CASO Granular - Ice penetration comparison (at -6°C)
14 14
12
10
ratio of speed
8
(referred to
6
CaCl2)
4 3 3
2 2 2
1
0
CaCl2 NaCl MgCl2 Urea KCl CMA
CASO Granular - Melting speed comparison (at -6°C)
14 13
12
10
ratio of speed
8 7
(referred to
6
CaCl2)
4 3 3
2 2
1
0
CaCl2 NaCl MgCl2 Urea KCl CMA
While competing products stop working at -18°C, CASO® Granules keep working even when the
temperature plummets to -32°C, the lowest effective temperature of any ice melt product.

CASO® Flakes, dihydrate technical calcium chloride contains more than 75% calcium chloride. It is used
by itself or mixed with rock salt and abrasives to give them extra power. Calcium chloride’s high-
performance properties make it superior to plain salt and other ice melting materials.
CASO® Flakes,
 works across a wider range of temperatures than other ice melting materials
 works much faster than rock salt alone
 melts ice faster and at lower temperatures than urea and potassium chloride
 melts ice faster than magnesium chloride, which means that more magnesium chloride, at
added cost, is needed to match its performance
Hereinafter a graph which represents the performance comparison between CASO® Flakes and other
ice melt materials
CASO Flakes - Ice melt volume comparison (at -6°C)
10 9
8
ratio of speed 6
(referred to 5
CaCl2) 4
2 2
1 1,24 1,3
0
CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl Urea KCl CMA
CASO® Flakes, dihydrate technical calcium chloride provides additional benefits when it is mixed with
other materials. It helps:
 make rock salt act faster and at lower temperatures

 keep abrasives like sand and cinders manageable and free flowing at cold temperatures
 imbed abrasive in ice to prevent them from being bounced off the surface by traffic
 whether used by itself, with rock salt, or with abrasive, CASO® Flakes calcium chloride not only
melts quicker, it also make it easier for you to mechanically remove snow and ice by
penetrating and loosening it.
How to apply CASO® calcium chloride
Precautionary treatment of the roads (anti-icing)
In wet situations (rain, fog, …) only rock salt is used (15-20 g/m2).
On the contrary, in dry situation, rock salt has to be pre-wetted at 20-25% using a 27% CASO® TEC
Solution, keeping the same total quantity of “salts” on the surface (15-20 g/m2). The decision of not to
use calcium chloride alone in the conditions described above, is for minimising the risk to generate
hexahydrated crystals of CaCl2 (increasing the slippery of the surface), which could occur due to sudden
and unpredictable climatic variations.
In presence of permeable paving (porous), the total amount of salts to use has to be double
(30-40 g/m2).
De-icing treatment
In presence of snow or ice, quantities of “salts” to be used are inclusive between 5 (min) and 25
(max) g/m2. CASO® TEC LIQUID 27% is normally used both as a wetting agent of rock salt (NaCl) or
directly spread on the road, it depends on by weather and temperature

In presence of porous asphalt, a real risk that the liquid (water) trapped in the pores freezes,
increasing its volume and forming a lot of points of compacted hard ice on the whole surface of the road
increasing the risk of slipperiness (decreasing CAT Index, Transversal Adherence Coefficient) exists.
In this case, only using calcium chloride, preferably in solid form to exploit its heat of dissolution, is
possible to melt ice quickly, otherwise ice has to be removed mechanically using snow plough trucks
(with blades).
Risk of slippery
As already described, the main risk on roads during winter season is their slipperiness in presence
of rain, snow or ice.
The use of melting agents permits to assure the circulation of vehicles even in case of snowfall or
stormy weather, but in any case the adherence of the surfaces will decrease anyway with respect to the
standard dry conditions.
The following table contains values of CAT (transversal Adherence Coefficient) of roads in different
conditions and in presence of different ice melters.
Road condition CAT value

Dry 95-100%
Soaked by rain (water) 60%
Soaked by rock salt solution 56%
Soaked by CaCl2 solution 54%
Soaked by CaCl2 solution in presence of crystals
38%
of CaCl2.6H2O
Damage of concrete
The freeze/thaw cycle poses the highest risk by far of damage for concrete during the winter
months. To put this in sample terms, it is the build up of water [melted ice] being absorbed into the
porous concrete, which then freezes and expands. This expansion within the concrete causes pressure
to build up and eventually this build up will exceed the limit that the concrete was built to withstand.
When the pressure becomes too much for the concrete to withstand, scaling generally occurs. The
concrete absorbing the melted ice [water] is a fact of nature and cannot be blamed on the ice melter
used. It can be likened to a sponge absorbing water. However, it should be noted that when an ice
melter is used, more melted ice [water] will be produced, and therefore the potential of more water
seeping into the concrete than if ice was left in its frozen state. As mentioned before, the freeze/thaw
cycle is a natural process and there is no way of eliminating it. However to reduce the damage caused
by this cycle, we strongly recommend that after applying the ice melter and when the ice turns into slush,
that the slush be removed from the concrete pavement, sidewalk or driveway to reduce the amount of
water that may penetrate the concrete thus reducing the pressure build up.
Thanks to its lower freezing point, calcium chloride tends to re-freeze less quickly compared to
other “chlorides” reducing the effective numbers of freeze/thaw cycles.
Nevertheless, we recommend for not using ice melters on new concrete surfaces (less than one
year old) or on poor quality concrete.
Finally, damage to concrete is rarely caused by the ice melter used, but rather by the effects of the
freeze/thaw cycle. The risk of damage can be reduced substantially by remembering these few points:
 Remove slush and broken ice.

 Use good ice melting products - prevent chemical damage - extend freeze/thaw cycle
 Try to prevent water build up on surface to reduce absorption.
 Ensure that concrete is of high quality construction to withstand your cold weather climate.
 Do not use ice melters on new, damaged, or unsealed concrete.

3.10 Anti-Dust treatment
During dry weather a breath of wind is all it needs to whip up thick clouds of dust on all non-
metalled surfaces used for traffic or for industrial or sporting activities. This dust is dirty, it gets in
everywhere, and it irritates people and can even cause accidents as a result of poor visibility. When
spread on the surface requiring treatment, CASO® Calcium Chloride captures the ambient humidity in
the air and turns into a solution that impregnates the ground and maintains sufficient humidity to keep
the dust down as well as stopping the ground from drying out. Finally, the safety and healthiness of coal
mines can be maintained as long as coal dust can be kept under control. Under certain conditions (high
levels of coal dust on the ground or in the air), the risk of explosion is high. What's more, dust present in
the air causes silicosis, a disease typical in coal miners.
Using CASO® Calcium Chloride can significantly improve safety and working conditions.
Unpaved surfaces treatment
®
CASO calcium chloride scattered on the surface to be treated, picks up moisture from the air
(hygroscopicity), and turns into a solution (deliquescence) going to soak the soil. This solution maintains
the soil lightly humidified, enough to fix the dust, avoiding soil drying and also inhibiting the formation of
new dust. The use of CaCl2 has also the effect to improve the consolidation and stabilization of the
treated surfaces, giving them both a better uniformity and elasticity (this will decrease the effort of the
users of playgrounds) thanks to its ability to increase the surface tension of water that covers as a film
each small parts of the soil itself, and to enhance its resistance to frost (especially the freeze-thaw
alternations) characteristic of the winter period due to its property of lowering the freezing point of water.
The absorption of air humidity by a CaCl2 solution will continue, at specified temperature, until the
concentration of salt in the solution reaches a specified value (equilibrium) where the absorption of
atmospheric humidity is offset by the evaporation of moisture of soil, depending on whether the relative
humidity is above or below the corresponding equilibrium value.
®
The tables below show CASO characteristics of its behaviour towards hot (relative humidity balance)
and cold temperatures (freezing point)
External Temperature, Relative Humidity

°C balance, %
10 40.3
20 34.6
30 21.6
40 19.0
50 16.8
60 17.2
Starting of CaCl2 concentration,

crystallization of %
solution, °C
-6 10
-12 15
-20 20
-33 25
-50 30

®
CASO calcium chloride in solid or liquid form, can be used as dust suppressant agent for
 unpaved roads,
 mine haul, logging and other type of industrial roads,
 truck terminals and parking lots,
 shoulders, railroad yards, construction sites and other unpaved surfaces,
 campsites, tennis courts, riding schools, …
How to apply CASO® calcium chloride
®
CASO calcium chloride has to be applied at least in two steps:
 first application has to be done in late spring, but additional treatment should be done after 4-5
weeks in case of very dry weather conditions;
 a second application has to be done in late summer and it will help protect the road from frost
during winter. Normally, this operation requires 1/2 or 1/3 of initial dosage.
It is recommended not to apply the product during or just before a heavy rainfall. If applied just before,
®
the material may wash away. CASO works better if it is applied to a wet road. Application to a dry
surface makes a relevant difference in how much less effective the solution works for dust control. If
®
possible, apply CASO after a light rain so materials are moister and more workable. In case of dry
weather conditions, and in presence of minimal moisture of surface, it is recommended to apply the
product at the end of the day or early in the morning, when the humidity is higher, and to soak the soil in
advance in case the application should necessarily be made during the daylight hours. Be careful about
®
applying CASO when the outside temperature is below 4°C. In this case a proper concentration of
CaCl2 has to be chosen to avoid that a high concentration of applied solution makes the road surface
®
extremely slippery. Regular CASO TEC liquid 36% has to be used in this condition.
®
Restrict the use of CASO calcium chloride, as well as other chloride-based dust suppressant, within 8
meters of a body of water. In areas of swallow groundwater, determine if significant migration of the
chloride would reach the groundwater table. Restrict the use of chlorides if low salt tolerant vegetation is
within 8 meter of the treated area. Typical low-tolerant vegetation includes various varieties of alder,
hemlock, larch, maple, ornamentals and pine.
®
Use of solid CASO calcium chloride for small surfaces is preferable. The bags are easy to store and
®
the product requires less specialized equipment to apply. CASO Liquid, being easier to handle and to
apply, is best for larger applications.
Quantities to apply
Product Dosage Pros Cons

®
CASO 2  Attracts moisture on the Slightly corrosive to
0.9 kg/m
FLAKES air and retains it on metal, highly to
®
CASO 2 surface. aluminium and its
0.7 kg/m
GRANULS  Lowers freezing point of alloys.
water minimizing frost Rainwater tends to
heave and reducing leach out product
freeze-thaw cycles. easily (as a
 Increases compacted consequence it has to
®
CASO 2 density of road material. be re-applied – costs
1.7 l/m
LIQUID 36%  Effectiveness retained increasing)
after reblading. If high fines content in
treated material, the
surface may become
slippery when wet.

4 SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT
Safety & Environment have to be taken seriously. They are as important for you as they are for us.
We make it a point of honour to keep you well informed.
EU Regulation 1272/2008 as amended, repealing EU Directive 67/548/EEC, sets out classification and
labelling criteria for hazardous substances and mixtures. It also established a list of substances with
their harmonized classifications and labelling elements at Community level. In that context, calcium
chloride fulfils the criteria for classification as substance irritant to eyes. Calcium chloride is assigned the
hazard statement H318 for anhydrous product and H319 for other hydrated forms or for solutions.
Code H319 - Warning Code H318 - Danger
Products concerned: dihydrate and liquid CaCl2 Products concerned: anhydrous CaCl2
®
CASO calcium chloride has been registered according to the REACH Regulation (EC) N° 1907/2006
by Solvay Chimica Italia SpA under the tonnage band above 1000 t/y with the Registration Number
01-2119494219-28.
Since calcium chloride is classed as an 'irritant', it is necessary to observe certain elementary

precautions. These include:
 never place the skin in prolonged contact with CASO® or any of its solutions,
 use water, preferably lukewarm, to thoroughly rinse any part of the body affected by this
product,
 wear gloves made from rubber or plastic,
 avoid any inhalation of CASO® dust,
 wear protective glasses when handling CASO®,
 avoid working with equipment made from leather.
With regard to the effects of CASO® on the environment, we offer you the following thoughts:
 Calcium and chlorine ions are everywhere in the atmosphere and are used physiologically for
living organisms. They occur naturally in the soil, rocks and sediment, as well as in surface or
deep water.
 Calcium is an essential element in the cycle of life. It plays a part in the mineral balance of
plants and is an important element in the composition of the water in our rivers and in our
mains supplies. The effects on the environment of calcium in the form of calcium chloride are
not to be feared.
 Chlorine ions, the other component of CASO®, should be looked at from two points of view.
On the whole, the chlorine found in river water rarely exceeds the levels allowed by official bodies
responsible for public health and the environment. Certain periods of the winter have revealed very short
peaks in concentration. Recent studies have shown that these occurrences do not have an important
influence on the aquatic environment.
As far as fluoride is concerned, even in those areas where CASO® is used intensively do we not find
anything like the destruction of plants put forward by certain alarmists. The occasional accelerated fall of
leaves or plant thorns (biological regulators of the latter) have been observed, as has the appearance of
plants which are particularly resistant to chloride or the mutation of certain species of plant.

In 45 years of spreading CASO® on our roads, no serious incident concerning an animal ingesting this
product has been brought to our attention.
For more detailed information, please to look at CASO® Safety Data Sheets
5 LOGISTICS
5.1 Packaging
Each grade of the product is identified by different coloured marking on the bags:
 CASO® Technical grade (TEC, black)

 CASO® FCC grade (FCC, blue), Food Additive INS509 (for extra-EU countries ONLY)
 CASO® Feed grade (FEED, green)
 CASO® FOOD grade (FOOD, red), Food Additive E509 (for EU countries ONLY)
According to the product grade and the production unit, CASO® calcium chloride can be supplied:
 In bulk, full load of 25-30 tons with pneumatic unloading systems

 In 875 or 1.000 kg bulk bags
 In 25 kg polypropylene single bag on 875, 1.000 or 1.250 kg pallets
Packaging specifications are available for each type of packaging.
For more detailed information, please contact Solvay’s sales department
6 Handling and Storage
Although CASO® calcium chloride is not subject to expiry, the experience about the decay of its
main chemical-physical properties, mainly because of its hygroscopicity, advises a preferable use in a
twenty-four months period. In order to check the good conservation state, it is advised to control, at least
every six months, the product’s calcium chloride content, as well as to verify any possible presence of
agglomerates (it would mean that a humidity absorption from the environment occurred).
CASO®, dihydrate flakes and powder or anhydrous granules of calcium chloride, may be stored, in bulk,
in steel equipment, provided that entry of moisture is minimized. Corrosion problems may become
severe on steel equipment where calcium chloride deliquesces due to moisture pick-up and air is
present. For extended service in such circumstances, resistant materials in lieu of iron or steel are
recommended.
CASO® is also shipped in watertight bags or bulk-bags on wood pallets wrapped with plastic film (only
for bags); it can be stored outside, although preferably under a tarpaulin or shelter.
Calcium chloride solutions may be stored in steel equipment with or without corrosion inhibitors.
6.1 Dry calcium chloride storage bins
Most common construction-grade steel materials are suitable for calcium chloride bins as well as
auxiliary equipment including valves, chutes, vents, piping, and so on. Care should be taken to make all
such equipment moisture-tight. Venting should be limited to the duration only of filling and discharging
calcium chloride from the equipment. This minimizes accumulation of atmospheric moisture, which will
otherwise increase the corrosion rate of the steel, reduce the assay of the product, and lead to product
caking. Lining of steel equipment with resistant paints or synthetic coatings (polymerized epoxies or
vinyl ester resins) is recommended if special corrosion problems or product quality requirements exist.
Bin foundations must meet local soil bearing conditions and codes.

The hopper should be designed with relatively steep sides, at least a 45° slope for flakes and
granules and 75° slope for powder calcium chloride, to assure flow to the feeding device without sticking
or clogging.
Hoppers may be constructed of steel and should have tight fitting covers. Powder calcium chloride
absorbs moisture very rapidly and usually requires some form of agitation or mechanical appliance to
induce a regular and steady flow. This may be accomplished by a mechanical agitator, a flexing hopper,
or a vibrator system attached to the hopper.
6.2 Dry calcium chloride conveyors and elevators
Belt, screw and drag conveyors plus elevators are in common service for unloading bulk hopper
cars into storage bins. Additionally, pneumatic conveying methods are used to transfer flakes calcium
chloride to storage either from bulk hopper cars or from bulk pneumatic transports. Some plastic and
rubber components are used in such equipment, but the major components are usually steel or
sometimes aluminium. These metals must be washed with water and dried thoroughly immediately after
use to reduce corrosion rates.
Remark: because the product crashes during the manipulation, before choosing the adequate
unloading and/or movement system to be used, well evaluate which limit value of degradation of the
product is admitted.
6.3 Storage tanks for liquid calcium chloride
For many customers, storage tanks holding 50 or 80 cubic meters are of suitable capacity. This
depends, of course, on the rate of consumption and the reverse supply required for use until more
calcium chloride is received. The normal rule of thumb in determining storage capacity is 1.5 times the
anticipated delivery volume.
Either horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks are satisfactory for storage of calcium chloride
solutions.
Steel storage tanks should be constructed of mild steel (preferably lined) with all-welded
construction. Polyester fibreglass storage tanks offer excellent corrosion resistance and can be used in
place of mild steel except where temperatures of calcium chloride exceed 90 °C.
The storage tank should be provided with required pipe connections to receive the tank car
contents through the top of the tank and to draw off the liquid at a point a few centimetres above the
bottom. Also, a drain connection should be located at the lowest point of the tank to permit flushing
when necessary. A 24-inches diameter access manhole should be provided in the top of the tank along
with a vent to the atmosphere. The tank foundations must meet local soil bearing conditions and codes,
and a secondary containment basin should be provided.
6.4 Dissolving CASO®

Solid calcium chloride can be transferred by storage silo or directly by hopper car or truck to a
dissolving and storage tank.
IMPORTANT: an extreme rise in temperature accompanies dissolving of calcium chloride in water. Hot
solutions may cause thermal burns; care should be exercised to avoid contact. For complete information,
see the Material Safety Data Sheet.

How to prepare a calcium chloride solution from solid product
Supposing to want to prepare a
 30% calcium chloride solution,
having a storage tank from
 10.000 l of capacity,
starting to solid product CASO® Flakes at
 78% of calcium chloride,
it will be possible to calculate the quantity of the water needed to dissolve a calculated quantity of
CASO® Flakes.
So:
3
 Density of 30% calcium chloride solution (at 20 °C): 1,283 kg/dm
 Filling coefficient of storage tank: 90%
 The quantity of solution we can prepare will be:
1,283 x 10.000 x 90% = 11.457 kg
 The quantity of CASO® Flakes to be dissolved to obtain the 30% solution will be:
30% x 11.547 : 78% = 4.441 kg

®
 The quantity of water to dissolve 4.441 kg of CASO Flakes 78% will be:
11.457 – 4.441 = 7.106 kg
After the calculation, fill the container with two-thirds of total quantity of water necessary to obtain the
final solution; then add the solid product gradually stirring carefully with a mechanical agitator or with air
as appropriate. When the solid product has completely dissolved, the balance of the water is added to
fill the container with the rest of water necessary (one-third) and then agitated slowly until a uniform
concentration is obtained. In making up calcium chloride solutions, the calcium chloride should be added
to the water. Do not add calcium chloride into the container and then add water since the calcium
chloride may form a solidified mass which is difficult to dissolve completely. When a solid CASO® is
used to prepare a solution, two tanks are usually required, the solution being prepared in one tank while
the other is discharging through the feeding appliance. If a clear solution is required, a decantation or
filtration system is necessary.

7 Chemical-physical properties of CASO® calcium chloride
Much of the data concerning the properties of calcium chloride have been assembled from
published literature which often pertains to pure product. As the commercial product contains sodium
chloride and minor quantities of certain other ingredients, some of the data may not apply strictly to the
commercial product. However, in general, the data of pure calcium chloride may be used for most
commercial applications. Data relating specifically to the commercial product will be so indicated.
7.1 Properties of Anhydrous calcium chloride

Molecular weight (CaCl2): 110.99
Specific gravity
This ratio of the weight of a volume of pure anhydrous calcium chloride to an equal volume of
water @ 4°C, which is interest principally in the laboratory, should not be confused with bulk density
which is the actual weight of a unit volume of any product and is of practical value in bulk handling and
storage.
Specific gravity: @ 20°/4°C: 2.26

@ 15°/4°C: 2.152
Melting point: 772°C

Specific heat @ 61°C: 0.164 cal/g/°C
Latent heat of fusion @ 772°C: 54.2 cal/g
Heat of formation @ 18°C: -7.190 kJ/kg
Heat of solution @ 18°C in 400 moles of water: -680 kJ/kg
Coefficient of expansion: 0.00062
Boiling point: above 1600°C
7.2 Properties of the hydrates of calcium chloride
The four known hydrates of calcium chloride with available pertinent data are:
Calcium chloride monohydrate (CaCl2.H2O)
Composition 86.0% CaCl2

14.0% H2O
Molecular weight 129.01
Melting point 260°C
Calcium chloride dihydrate (CaCl2.2H2O)

24.5% H2O
Melting point 175.5°C
Calcium chloride tetrahydrate (CaCl2.4H2O)

39.4% H2O
Melting point 45.3°C

Calcium chloride hexahydrate (CaCl2.6H2O)

49.3% H2O
Melting point 29.92C
Specific heat @ 0°C 0.320 cal/g/°C
Latent heat of fusion @ 29.92°C 40.7 cal/g
Heat of solution @ 18°C in 400 moles of water: 80 kJ/kg
7.3 Properties of calcium chloride solutions
Densities, concentrations and crystallizing temperatures
Table 1 contains data obtained in the laboratory with solutions prepared by dissolving flakes 78% CaCl2
and 1.5% of NaCl. Data applies to concentrations up to 45% CaCl2 but specific gravities are limited to
1.410, above which crystals appear at the standard temperature. Temperature at which crystals appear
are shown in column 3.
Table 2 gives the corrections which must be applied to convert densimeter readings to specific gravity
@ 15.6°C, when observations are taken at temperatures other than 15.6°C, using a standard specific
gravity densimeter calibrated @ 15.6°C.
Table 3 shows the relation between percent calcium chloride and densimeter readings at various
temperature obtained with a standard specific gravity densimeter calibrated @ 15.6°C.
Highly concentrated calcium chloride solutions
Data for concentrations above 40% CaCl2 are not included in Table 1 for the reason that solutions
containing above 40.8% CaCl2 have suspended crystals or are solidified at or above 15.6°C; therefore
densimeter readings at 15.6°C are either unreliable or unobtainable.
Densimeter readings at various temperatures for concentrations to 45% CaCl2 are shown in Table 3.
Table 4 gives densities at various temperatures and crystallization temperatures for concentrations
between 50% and 72% CaCl2.
Although solutions from 29.8% to 50% CaCl2 do not actually freeze solid until a temperature of -55°C is
reached, they appear solid at considerably higher temperatures, due to the great volume of CaCl2.6H2O
crystals.

Table 1 - Densities, Concentrations and crystallizing temperatures of calcium chloride solutions
(4)kg of Flakes
(1)specific (2)% CaCl2 (3)Crystallization (5)kg of Granuls
78% per l of
gravity @15,6°C actual w/w starts °C 94% per l of water
water
1,000 - - - -
1,009 1,0 - 0,5 0,012 0,012
1,018 2,0 - 0,9 0,026 0,023
1,026 3,0 - 1,4 0,040 0,034
1,034 4,0 - 1,9 0,054 0,044
1,043 5,0 - 2,4 0,068 0,056
1,052 6,0 - 2,9 0,084 0,069
1,060 7,0 - 3,4 0,098 0,080
1,069 8,0 - 4,1 0,114 0,093
1,078 9,0 - 4,7 0,131 0,106
1,087 10,0 - 5,4 0,146 0,118
1,096 11,0 - 6,2 0,164 0,132
1,105 12,0 - 7,1 0,181 0,145
1,115 13,0 - 8,0 0,200 0,159
1,125 14,0 - 9,2 0,219 0,175
1,135 15,0 - 10,3 0,238 0,190
1,145 16,0 - 11,6 0,259 0,207
1,155 17,0 - 13,0 0,279 0,223
1,165 18,0 - 14,5 0,300 0,240
1,175 19,0 - 16,2 0,321 0,255
1,186 20,0 - 18,0 0,344 0,273
1,195 21,0 - 19,9 0,369 0,288
1,206 22,0 - 22,1 0,393 0,305
1,218 23,0 - 24,4 0,419 0,326
1,228 24,0 - 26,8 0,445 0,342
1,239 25,0 - 29,4 0,471 0,361
1,250 26,0 - 32,1 0,501 0,382
1,260 27,0 - 35,1 0,530 0,403
1,272 28,0 - 38,8 0,561 0,423
1,283 29,0 - 45,2 0,592 0,444
1,290 29,6 - 51,0 0,611 0,459
1,295 30,0 - 46,0 0,627 0,469
1,306 31,0 - 36,2 0,660 0,491
1,317 32,0 - 28,6 0,694 0,514
1,328 33,0 - 21,6 0,732 0,540
1,340 34,0 - 15,4 0,773 0,566
1,351 35,0 - 9,8 0,812 0,593
1,363 36,0 - 4,4 0,856 0,626
1,374 37,0 0,8 0,904 0,647
1,386 38,0 5,6 0,950 0,677
1,398 39,0 9,8 1,001 0,710
1,410 40,0 13,3 1,053 0,740
41,0 16,4
42,0 18,8 At concentration above 40,8% CaCl2
43,0 21,0 solutions contain suspended crystals
44,0 22,8 @ 15,6°C.
45,0 24,2

Table 2 - Temperature correction for density of calcium chloride solution
specific Corrections to be applied to density of calcium chloride solutions at various temperatures, using a
gravity densimeter calibrated @ 15.6°C.
reading
-17,8°C -12,2°C -6,7°C -1,1°C +4,4°C +10°C +15,6°C +21,1°C +26,7°C +32,2°C +37,8°C
1,000 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,004 0,005
1,010 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,004 0,005
1,020 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,004 0,006
1,030 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,004 0,006
1,040 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,001 0,002 0,004 0,006
1,050 0,004 0,003 0,001 0,001 0,003 0,004 0,006
1,060 0,004 0,003 0,001 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,070 0,004 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,080 0,004 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,090 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,100 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,110 0,006 0,005 0,004 0,002 0,001 0,003 0,005 0,007
1,120 0,006 0,005 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,003 0,006 0,008
1,130 0,006 0,005 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008
1,140 0,007 0,006 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008
1,150 0,007 0,006 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008
1,160 0,009 0,007 0,006 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,009
1,170 0,009 0,008 0,006 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,009
1,180 0,010 0,008 0,006 0,004 0,002 0,002 0,004
No corrections 0,007 0,009
1,190 0,010 0,008 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,004 0,007 0,009
1,200 0,011 0,010 0,009 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,004 0,007 0,009
1,210 0,012 0,011 0,009 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,005 0,007 0,010
1,220 0,012 0,011 0,009 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,005 0,007 0,010
1,230 0,013 0,011 0,009 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,002 0,005 0,007 0,010
1,240 0,013 0,011 0,009 0,007 0,005 0,003 0,003 0,005 0,008 0,010
1,250 0,013 0,012 0,010 0,008 0,005 0,003 0,003 0,005 0,008 0,010
1,260 0,014 0,012 0,010 0,008 0,005 0,003 0,003 0,005 0,008 0,011
1,270 0,014 0,012 0,010 0,008 0,005 0,003 0,003 0,005 0,008 0,011
1,280 0,015 0,013 0,010 0,008 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,005 0,008 0,011
1,290 0,015 0,013 0,011 0,008 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,008 0,011
1,300 0,015 0,013 0,011 0,008 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,011
1,310 0,016 0,014 0,011 0,009 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,012
1,320 0,016 0,014 0,011 0,009 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,012
1,330 0,017 0,014 0,012 0,009 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,012
1,340 0,017 0,015 0,012 0,009 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,012
1,350 0,018 0,015 0,012 0,009 0,006 0,003 0,003 0,006 0,009 0,012
1,360 0,013 0,009 0,006 0,004 0,003 0,006 0,010 0,013
1,370 0,010 0,007 0,004 0,003 0,006 0,010 0,013
1,380 0,007 0,004 0,003 0,007 0,010 0,013
1,390 0,004 0,004 0,007 0,010 0,013
1,400 0,004 0,004 0,007 0,010 0,013
1,410 0,004 0,007
Temperatures below 15.6°C: observed densimeter reading minus Temperature correction = Specific Gravity @ 15.6°C.
Temperatures above 15.6°C: observed densimeter reading plus Temperature correction = Specific Gravity @ 15.6°C.

Table 3 - Solution concentrations at other than 15.6°C
Densimeter readings of calcium chloride solutions at various temperatures, using a densimeter
calibrated @ 15.6°C
% CaCl2 -17,8°C -12,2°C -6,7°C -1,1°C +4,4°C +10°C +15,6°C +21,1°C +26,7°C +32,2°C +37,8°C
- 1,002 1,001 1,000 0,999 0,998 0,996 0,995
2 1,020 1,019 1,018 1,017 1,016 1,014 1,012
4 1,037 1,036 1,035 1,034 1,033 1,032 1,030 1,028
6 1,056 1,055 1,053 1,052 1,051 1,049 1,048 1,046
8 1,073 1,072 1,071 1,069 1,068 1,066 1,064 1,062
10 1,092 1,090 1,089 1,087 1,086 1,084 1,082 1,080
11 1,101 1,099 1,098 1,096 1,095 1,093 1,091 1,089
12 1,111 1,110 1,109 1,107 1,105 1,103 1,102 1,100 1,097
13 1,121 1,120 1,119 1,117 1,115 1,113 1,112 1,110 1,107
14 1,131 1,130 1,129 1,127 1,125 1,123 1,122 1,119 1,117
15 1,142 1,141 1,139 1,137 1,135 1,133 1,131 1,129 1,127
16 1,152 1,151 1,149 1,147 1,145 1,143 1,141 1,139 1,137
17 1,164 1,162 1,161 1,159 1,157 1,155 1,153 1,151 1,149 1,147
18 1,174 1,173 1,171 1,169 1,167 1,165 1,163 1,161 1,159 1,156
19 1,185 1,183 1,181 1,179 1,177 1,175 1,173 1,171 1,169 1,166
20 1,197 1,196 1,194 1,193 1,191 1,189 1,186 1,184 1,182 1,179 1,177
21 1,207 1,206 1,204 1,202 1,200 1,198 1,195 1,193 1,191 1,188 1,186
22 1,218 1,217 1,215 1,213 1,211 1,209 1,206 1,204 1,202 1,199 1,197
23 1,231 1,229 1,227 1,225 1,223 1,221 1,218 1,216 1,213 1,211 1,208
24 1,241 1,239 1,237 1,235 1,233 1,231 1,228 1,226 1,223 1,221 1,218
25 1,252 1,251 1,249 1,247 1,244 1,242 1,239 1,236 1,234 1,232 1,229
26 1,264 1,262 1,260 1,258 1,255 1,253 1,250 1,247 1,245 1,242 1,240
27 1,274 1,272 1,270 1,268 1,265 1,263 1,260 1,257 1,255 1,252 1,250
28 1,287 1,285 1,282 1,280 1,278 1,275 1,272 1,269 1,267 1,264 1,261
29 1,298 1,296 1,294 1,291 1,289 1,286 1,283 1,280 1,278 1,275 1,272
30 1,311 1,309 1,306 1,303 1,301 1,298 1,295 1,292 1,289 1,287 1,284
31 1,322 1,320 1,317 1,315 1,312 1,309 1,306 1,303 1,300 1,297 1,295
32 1,334 1,331 1,329 1,326 1,323 1,320 1,317 1,314 1,311 1,308 1,305
33 1,346 1,343 1,340 1,337 1,334 1,331 1,328 1,325 1,322 1,319 1,316
34 1,355 1,352 1,349 1,346 1,343 1,340 1,337 1,334 1,331 1,328
35 1,364 1,360 1,357 1,354 1,351 1,348 1,345 1,342 1,339
36 1,373 1,370 1,367 1,363 1,360 1,357 1,354 1,351
37 1,381 1,378 1,374 1,371 1,368 1,364 1,361
38 1,390 1,386 1,383 1,379 1,376 1,373
39 1,402 1,398 1,394 1,391 1,388 1,385
40 1,410 1,406 1,403 1,400 1,397
41 1,420 1,416 1,412 1,408
42 1,433 1,429 1,424 1,420
43 1,446 1,441 1,436 1,431
44 1,453 1,448 1,444
45 1,465 1,459 1,454

Table 4 - Crystallization and densities at various temperatures for concentrations between 50% and 72% CaCl2
CaCl2 Approximate weight in kgs of a liter of solution at various temperatures

hydrate Freezed
%CaCl2
crystals solid at 37,8°C 48,9°C 65,6°C 100°C 115,6°C 137,8°C 160°C 176,7°C
appear at
50 29,700 - 55,0 1,51 1,50 1,49 1,46
52 36,000 29,8 1,53 1,52 1,51 1,49
54 41,000 29,8 1,55 1,53 1,51
56 44,600 29,8 1,57 1,56 1,53 1,51 1,50
58 63,500 29,8 1,58 1,55 1,53 1,51 1,50
60 85,500 29,8 1,57 1,57 1,56 1,55
62 108,000 45,3 1,59 1,58 1,57 1,56
64 125,500 45,3 1,61 1,61 1,59
66 143,500 45,3 1,63 1,62
68 155,500 45,3 1,67 1,65
70 164,500 45,3 1,69
72 170,000 45,3 1,71

7.4 Solubility
Although calcium chloride dissolves readily in water to form solutions of high concentrations, due
account must be taken of the temperature at which solid hydrates separate out of these solutions. A
detailed diagram of the solid and liquid phases showing the temperature and concentration reactions of
pure calcium chloride (CaCl2) and water is given in Figure 1.
The irregular line in this diagram is the solubility or saturation curve of calcium chloride in water. The
area above the curve is the region of unsaturated solution within which calcium chloride is completely
soluble. Below the line, the saturated solution contains suspended particles of ice, or of hydrates of
calcium chloride, or is a completely solidified mass of hydrates. The lettered areas, as explained in the
table below, denote temperatures and concentrations within which the various hydrates of their mixtures
with saturated solutions can exist.
Liquid phase contains % Solid phase

% CaCl2 Temperature °C Solid phases
CaCl2 transition at
Area Saturation curve for
at end
from to from to from to % CaCl2 °C
below
A ICE 0 29,8 0 -55 0 29,8 ICE
ICE
B 0 50,7 -55 NONE 29,8 -55
CaCl2.6H2O
C CaCl2.6H2O 29,8 50,7 -55 29,8 29,8 50,3 CaCl2.6H2O
CaCl2.6H2O
D 50,7 60,6 29,8 NONE 50,3 29,8
CaCl2.4H2O
E CaCl2.4H2O 50,3 60,6 29,8 45,3 50,3 56,6 CaCl2.4H2O
CaCl2.4H2O
F 60,6 75,5 45,3 NONE 56,6 45,3
CaCl2.2H2O
G CaCl2.2H2O 56,6 75,5 45,3 175,5 56,6 74,9 CaCl2.2H2O
CaCl2.2H2O
H 75,5 86 175,5 NONE 74,9 175,5
CaCl2.H2O
I CaCl2.H2O 74,9 86 175,5 260 74,9 86
J Area above saturation curve. Unsaturated solutions NONE
Referring to the solubility diagram, when a solution containing 21.5% CaCl2 is cooled to about -21.1°C,
crystals of ice begin to form, and the concentration of the remaining solution increases. As the
temperature is lowered further, these ice crystals continue to form and the mixture of crystals, and
solution forms a gradually thickening slush. With continued cooling to about -55°C, the concentration of
the remaining solution finally reaches the lowest point of the curve (29.8% CaCl2), and the mixture
becomes completely solid, consisting of calcium chloride hexahydrate (CaCl2.6H2O) and ice.
The same is true for solutions containing 29.8% to 50.7% CaCl2 except that crystals of calcium chloride
hexahydrate are formed on cooling instead of ice crystals.
Upon warming, the changes occur in the reverse order until the clear, unsaturated solution is restored.
As another example of the application of this solubility diagram, when a calcium chloride solution
containing 55% CaCl2 is cooled from a higher temperature, it becomes saturated at +42.8°C. Further
lowering of the temperature, following the 55% line downward into the area E, causes the tetrahydrate
(CaCl2.4H2O) to separate.
The suspension becomes gradually thicker until at +29.8°C, the liquid portion, then being a 50.3%
CaCl2 solution, solidifies completely in area D to produce a mixture of CaCl2.4H2O and CaCl2.6H2O, and
no further change occurs with continued decrease in temperature.

As indicated on the diagram, these data were obtained with pure calcium chloride. The saturation curve
and freezing points with solutions up to a concentration of 29.8% CaCl2, are practically the same as for
pure solutions; above 29,8% the curve follows the same general pattern (and direction) but falls slightly
to the left of the curve for pure calcium chloride. The difference is slight between 29,8% and 50% CaCl2
but increases somewhat at higher concentrations.
The effect of a small percentage of sodium chloride and other minor soluble impurities is to raise the
saturation temperature slightly for any given concentration of CaCl2. Thus, a 40% CaCl2 solution
becomes saturated when cooled down to approximately 13°C from a higher temperature, whereas a
pure 40% solution is saturated at approximately 12°C.
Figure 1 - Solubility of pure calcium chloride in water- Freezing point diagram

7.5 Apparent solidification vs. actual freezing temperatures
Figure 2, is an enlarged portion of the saturation curve of Figure 1 below 45% concentration. The
data for the solid line were obtained in our laboratory with solutions of commercial calcium chloride. This
line represent the temperatures at which crystals first appear upon cooling and not that at which freezing
to a solid mass occurs.
The freezing point of water may be reduced by the addition of calcium chloride. At a concentration of
29,8% CaCl2, no ice crystals will form until a temperature of approximately -55°C is reached.
When a solution containing less than 29,8% CaCl2 is gradually cooled, crystals of ice appear as the
saturation curve of ice is intersected. Upon further lowering of temperature, more ice will form, and the
liquid portion will increase in CaCl2 content. Eventually the mass will be a thick slush and may even
appear solid, although complete solidification will not occur until the freezing point temperature of -55°C
is reached. The dotted line curve, Figure 2, traces the apparent solidification temperatures.
Figure 2 - Ice saturation and apparent solidification of commercial calcium chloride solutions

7.6 Boiling temperatures
Figure 3 below gives the boiling points of pure calcium chloride solutions between 0 and 60%
CaCl2 according to Baker and Waite (Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering, 25, (1921) 1174). The
boiling points of solutions of the commercial product follow the same curve to approximately 25%, then
gradually increase to one degree Celsius higher at 40%, approximately two degrees higher at 55%, and
approximately three degrees higher above 65% CaCl2 due to impurities.
Figure 3 - Boiling temperatures of calcium chloride solutions
145
140
135
130
temperature °C
125
120
115
110
105
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
% w/w calcium chloride
7.7 Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure in mmHg (millimeters of mercury) existing over the hydrates and water solutions
of calcium chloride are shown in Figure 4, at temperature from 0° to 80°C.
Table 5 shows the vapor pressure of saturated calcium chloride solutions compared to pure water
and the related values of Relative Humidity of the air below at which calcium chloride becomes
deliquescent.
Table 6 shows the vapor pressure for cold CaCl2 diluted solutions.
Vapor pressure data are useful for explaining the moisture absorption properties of calcium
chloride and for determining its effectiveness in the dehumidification of air or other gases.

Figure 4 - Vapor pressure over CaCl2 solutions
vapour pressure @ 0°C in mbar vapour pressure @ 20°C in mbar

vapour pressure @ 40°C in mbar vapour pressure @ 80°C in mbar
100 500
90 450
80 400
vapour pressure @ 0°, 20 and 40°C - mbar
vapour pressure @ 80°C - mbar

70 350
60 300
50 250
40 200
30 150
20 100
10 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
% w/w CaCl2
Table 5 - Vapor pressures compared of pure water

and saturated CaCl2 solutions.
Vapor
Vapor pressure Air
pressure saturated Relative
°C
pure water CaCl2 Humidity
in mmHg solutions %
in mmHg
- 4,6 2,1 45,6
5,0 6,5 2,8 41,8
10,0 9,2 3,7 40,3
15,0 12,8 4,8 37,2
20,0 17,5 6,1 34,8
25,0 23,8 7,0 30,2
29,9 31,7 6,9 21,6
35,0 42,2 8,6 20,8
40,0 55,3 10,5 19,0
45,3 74,5 12,1 16,8
50,0 92,5 15,5 17,2
60,0 149,5 25,7 17,4
Among 25 and 29,9°C vapor pressure value reaches a maximum of 7,36 mmHg at 28,5°C.
Example: at 15°C and Air Relative Humidity equal or above 37.2%, calcium chloride is deliquescent: it
absorbs humidity.

Table 6 - Vapor pressure for cold CaCl2 solutions (diluted)
CaCl2 Vapor pressure at different temperatures (mmHg)
Specific
Freezing
Gravity @ g/100 g of g/ 100 g of
point °C +6°C +4°C +2°C 0°C -2°C -4°C -6°C -8°C -10°C -12°C -14°C -16°C -18°C -20°C
15°C (kg/l) solution water
1,00 - - - 7,01 6,10 5,29 4,58 3,88 3,28 2,76 2,32 1,95 1,63 1,36 1,13 0,94 0,77
1,01 1,3 1,3 - 0,6 6,97 6,07 5,26 4,56
1,02 2,5 2,6 - 1,2 6,93 6,03 5,23 4,53
1,03 3,6 3,7 - 1,8 6,90 6,00 5,20 4,50
1,04 4,8 5,0 - 2,4 6,86 5,96 5,17 4,48 3,86
1,05 5,9 6,3 - 3,0 6,81 5,92 5,13 4,45 3,83
1,06 7,1 7,6 - 3,7 6,76 5,88 5,10 4,42 3,81
1,07 8,3 9,0 - 4,4 6,71 5,84 5,06 4,38 3,78 3,26
1,08 9,4 10,4 - 5,2 6,66 5,79 5,02 4,35 3,75 3,23
1,09 10,5 11,7 - 6,1 6,60 5,74 4,98 4,31 3,72 3,21 2,76
1,10 11,5 13,0 - 7,1 6,55 5,70 4,95 4,28 3,69 3,18 2,74
1,11 12,6 14,4 - 8,1 6,49 5,65 4,90 4,24 3,66 3,15 2,71 2,32
1,12 13,7 15,9 - 9,1 6,41 5,58 4,84 4,19 3,61 3,11 2,68 2,29
1,13 14,7 17,3 - 10,2 6,36 5,53 4,80 4,15 3,58 3,09 2,65 2,27 1,94
1,14 15,8 18,8 - 11,4 6,28 5,46 4,74 4,10 3,54 3,05 2,62 2,25 1,92
1,15 16,8 20,2 - 12,7 6,20 5,40 4,68 4,05 3,49 3,01 2,59 2,22 1,90 1,62
1,16 17,8 21,7 - 14,2 6,13 5,33 4,62 4,00 3,45 2,97 2,56 2,19 1,87 1,60 1,35
1,17 18,9 23,3 - 15,7 6,03 5,25 4,55 3,94 3,40 2,93 2,52 2,16 1,84 1,57 1,33
1,18 19,9 24,9 - 17,4 5,93 5,16 4,47 3,87 3,34 2,88 2,48 2,12 1,81 1,54 1,31 1,11
1,19 20,9 26,5 - 19,2 5,83 5,07 4,40 3,81 3,29 2,83 2,44 2,09 1,78 1,52 1,29 1,09 0,92
1,20 21,9 28,0 - 21,2 5,71 4,97 4,31 3,73 3,22 2,77 2,39 2,04 1,75 1,49 1,26 1,07 0,91 0,76
1,21 22,8 29,6 - 23,3 5,59 4,87 4,22 3,65 3,15 2,72 2,34 2,00 1,71 1,46 1,24 1,05 0,89 0,75
1,22 23,8 31,2 - 25,7 5,47 4,76 4,12 3,57 3,08 2,65 2,28 1,95 1,67 1,42 1,21 1,03 0,87 0,73
1,23 24,7 32,9 - 28,3 5,30 4,61 4,00 3,46 2,99 2,57 2,21 1,90 1,62 1,38 1,17 1,00 0,85 0,71
1,24 25,7 34,6 - 31,2 5,15 4,48 3,88 3,36 2,90 2,50 2,15 1,84 1,57 1,34 1,14 0,97 0,82 0,69
1,25 26,6 36,2 - 34,6 4,98 4,33 3,75 3,25 2,80 2,42 2,08 1,78 1,52 1,29 1,10 0,93 0,79 0,66
1,26 27,5 37,9 - 38,6 4,77 4,14 3,59 3,11 2,68 2,31 1,99 1,70 1,46 1,24 1,05 0,89 0,75 0,63
Among +6 and 0°C is intented under the liquid. Among 0 and -20°C is intended under the ice.

7.8 Atmospheric moisture absorption by commercial calcium chloride
Commercial flake dihydrate calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O) has vapor pressure as shown below:
vapor pressure of commercial flake dihydrate CaCl2
60
50
temperature °C
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
vapor pressure mmHg
Dihydrate flakes CaCl2 are hygroscopic and accordingly will absorb moisture readily from air of higher
vapor pressure at the prevailing temperature. They are deliquescent since they will dissolve completely
in its absorbed moisture, if the vapor pressure of the air equals or exceeds that of the saturated solution
at the prevailing temperature. If the vapor pressure of the air is lower than shown for the saturated
solution value in Table 5, anhydrous calcium chloride may be converted to the dihydrate, and the
dihydrate may be converted to the tetrahydrate or to the hexahydrate; but no solution is produced in
these cases.
When calcium chloride deliquesces, or dissolves in moisture absorbed from the air, the solution
produced is also hygroscopic and will continue to absorb moisture until an equilibrium condition is
reached between the vapor pressure of the solution and that of the air. The solution will then try to
maintain this equilibrium; it will give off moisture to the air if the humidity decreases and will absorb
moisture when the humidity increases.
The rate at which a given quantity of calcium chloride or calcium chloride solution absorbs atmospheric
moisture is influenced by each of the following factors:
 Surface area exposed to the air,

 Rate of air circulation over the calcium chloride, and
 Difference between the vapor pressure of the air and that of the calcium chloride.
The moisture absorption rate per unit weight of calcium chloride will increase whenever one or more of
these factors are increased.
The concentrations of the calcium chloride solutions in equilibrium with any given relative humidity of the
air are shown in the following table:

Atmospheric humidities in equilibrium with calcium chloride
solutions at 25°C
weight of water (approximate)
Relative Humidity Final solution
absorbed per weight of CaCl2
%RH %w/w CaCl2
Flakes Dihydrate Anhydrous
100 0,0 0,0
95 8,5 8,2 10,2
90 14,2 4,5 5,7
85 18,3 3,3 4,2
80 22,0 2,5 3,3
75 25,0 2,1 2,8
70 27,5 1,8 2,5
65 29,8 1,6 2,2
60 32,0 1,4 2,0
55 34,0 1,3 1,8
50 36,0 1,2 1,6
45 37,9 1,1 1,5
40 39,9 1,0 1,4
35 42,1 0,9 1,3
30 44,5 0,8 1,1
The equilibrium conditions vary slightly for different temperatures, but for general purposes the values
obtained at 25°C are representative of average summer conditions. These are shown in the previous
table, together with the indication of the weight unit of water absorbed per weight unit of calcium chloride
consumed in producing the final solution. These values have been calculated considering 77.3% the
CaCl2 content of dihydrate Flakes, and 94.9% that of CaCl2 anhydrous, using, at the end the following
equation:
B C
A
C
Where: A = unit weight of water absorbed per unit weight of calcium chloride
B = % actual CaCl2 in dihydrate flakes or anhydrous product
C = % CaCl2 in final solution
Dehumidification with calcium chloride
It is evident from the previous paragraph that either calcium chloride or its water solutions can be
used to remove moisture from the air, if the vapor pressure of the air is higher than that of calcium
chloride solution or hydrate used.
Calcium chloride solution is generally used in a tower system in which the air is either passed through
spray or bubbled through a solution of the calcium chloride. The solution can be maintained at its
original concentration by passing a portion through a heat interchanger to evaporate and remove the
absorbed moisture.
Calcium chloride solid may be used in a tower system with the air passing up through the product, or in
a basket type unit with the air passing over the surface of the exposed flakes. In either case provision
must be made for a receiver to hold the calcium chloride solution produced and for disposal of this
solution when the receiver is filled.
In a tower system with air passing up through the calcium chloride, it is possible to produce exit air of
about 7 to 10% RH by maintaining sufficient depth of fresh calcium chloride.

In any arrangement the solution which drips from the calcium chloride is approximately a saturated
solution containing 45-50% CaCl2. Since the concentration of the discarded solution determines the
efficiency of the unit in terms of weight of water absorbed per weight of product consumed, it is desirable
to provide some means for effective contact of the entering air with this solution prior to contact with the
calcium chloride.
In the ordinary basket type unit exposed flakes are soon coated with approximately a saturated solution
and the exit air is in contact with this solution. The temperature and concentration of this calcium
chloride solution then determines the minimum relative humidity to which the air can be reduced.
In any air drying problem, the heat of condensation must be taken into account when water is removed
from the atmosphere. This heat can be calculated from the latent heat of evaporation of water and the
weight of condensed water. When drying air with calcium chloride, there is also the heat of hydration
and heat of solution of the calcium chloride to be considered. Unless provision is made for removal of
the heat produced during the absorption process some will be carried off in the exit air.
7.9 pH of calcium chloride solutions
The pH of water solutions freshly prepared from 78% flakes (Ca(OH)2 level of impurity = 2 g/kg)
and pure (Ca(OH)2 absent) calcium chloride using demineralized water are tabulated below and shown
graphically in Figure 5.
pH of solution from pH of solution from

CaCl2 % w/w
pure CaCl2 78% flakes CaCl2
1 7,90 9,85
5 7,45 10,05
10 6,90 10,10
15 6,45 10,00
20 5,90 9,80
25 5,40 9,70
30 4,85 9,20
35 4,30 8,75
40 3,85 8,10

Figure 5 - pH of CaCl2 solutions
pH of solution from pure CaCl2 pH of solution from 78% flakes CaCl2
12,00
11,00
10,00
9,00
8,00
pH
7,00
6,00
5,00
4,00
3,00
2,00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
CaCl2 %w/w
Figure 6 shows the neutralization curve of a technical CaCl2 35% solution prepared using CaCl2 78%
flakes.
Figure 6 - Neutralization curve CaCl2 35% solution
10
6
pH
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
liter HCl 33% per m3 CaCl2 35%
Freshly prepared calcium chloride solutions are somewhat alkaline due to the presence, in the
commercial calcium chloride flakes, of a small percentage of free lime. The degree of ionization of this
calcium hydroxide increases with increased water dilution as indicated by the higher pH of the weaker

solutions. Although the solutions may show a relatively high pH they have little actual acid neutralizing
value due to the small percentage of lime that is present.
Calcium chloride solutions exposed to air will gradually absorb carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate
from the calcium hydroxide, thus reducing the alkalinity of freshly made solutions. Actually, this may in
time progress beyond the neutral point, as pH values of 5 and 6 have been observed in unadjusted old
calcium chloride solutions.
Evolution of pH CaCl2 solutions prepared using fresh water (hardness

>30°F) for dissolving flakes
pH Alkalinity as Ca(OH)2 g/kg
10,0 0,10
9,0 0,09
Alkalinity as Ca(OH)2 g/kg

8,0 0,08
7,0 0,07
6,0 0,06
5,0 0,05
pH
4,0 0,04
3,0 0,03
2,0 0,02
1,0 0,01
0,0 0,00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
% w/w CaCl2
Ionization and the Meaning of pH
The degree of alkalinity or acidity of any water solution of acids, bases and salts may be
expressed in terms of pH values and determined by either electrometric or colorimetric methods. The
former is the more accurate, but requires special apparatus and considerable experience for reliable
results.
Colorimetric procedures, employing a series of color standards, or paper indicators, designed especially
for the determination of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, are useful for routine checking purposes.
The symbol pH is used to designate hydrogen ion concentrations numerically, thus expressing the
degree of acidity or alkalinity on a definition scale, analogous to the thermometric scale whereon
temperature is expressed in degrees. On the pH scale, the value 7 represents the hydrogen ion
concentration of a neutral solution; values numerically lower than 7 indicate increasing acidity, and
higher values indicate progressive alkalinity.
When acids, bases and salts are dissolved in water, more or less of their molecules are broken up
(dissociated) into their constituent radicals or ions. The strength of an acid or a base increases with the
extent of such dissociation or ionization.
An alkaline solution is one in which the number of hydroxyl ions (OH-) exceeds the hydrogen ions (H+).
In an acid solution the hydrogen ions predominate, but both ions are present, as water itself ionizes to a
small extent, that is
H 2 O  H   OH 

The pH value is the logarithmic of the reciprocal, or the negative logarithmic of the number of hydrogen
gram-ions per liter of solution. For example, pH 4 means that number of hydrogen gram-ions per liter of
which -4.0 is the logarithm, that is, 0.0001 hydrogen gram-ions.
The relationship between hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion concentration, as tabulated on the next page, is
based on the equation:
Concentration of H ions x concentration of OH ions = a constant
In concentrations that are dilute, or only moderately concentrated, @ 25°C the constant is 10-14, and the
equation becomes:
H gram-ions per liter x OH gram-ions per liter = 10-14
Since temperature affects the extent of ionization of dissolved acids, salts and bases, as well as water, it
follows that it influences the hydrogen ion concentration and the determination of pH. The effect of
temperature upon the exponent in the constant 10-14 and the resulting pH of the neutral point will be
evident from the values of the ionization-exponent of water at various temperatures, derived from
International Critical Tables:
Temperature °C Ionization EXP Ph

5°C 14.72 7.36
15°C 14.34 7.17
25°C 13.99 7.00
35°C 13.67 6.89
45°C 13.39 6.69
60°C 13.03 6.51
100°C 12.29 6.15
For pure water and neutral solutions @ 25°C, the expression is:
10-7 hydrogen concentration x 10-7 hydroxyl concentration = 10-14
pH 7 pOH 7
It will be evident that both acidity and alkalinity may be expressed in terms of pH and that it is
unnecessary to refer to hydroxyl ion concentrations even in highly alkaline solutions.
Alkalinity expressed by pH must not be confused with total alkalinity which is commonly determined by
titration with a standard acid solution.
pH is a measure of the hydroxyl ion concentration of an alkaline solution, whereas titration is a measure
of its acid neutralizing capacity.
7.10 Surface tension
The surface tensions of solutions of pure calcium chloride in contact with air are given in Table 7
and Figure 7.
Intermolecular attraction in a liquid gives rise to different effects at the surface than in the interior where
molecules are attracted equally in all directions; those at the surface are attracted inwards, thus resulting
in surface tension.
Surface tension is a factor in the property of forming emulsions and of wetting and spreading over solids.
The relatively greater surface tension of strong calcium solutions is related to the difficulty of wetting
clean dry surfaces by such solutions. This can, however, be influenced greatly by a small addition of
certain surface active (wetting) agents which reduce the surface tension.

Table 7 - surface tensions of pure calcium chloride solutions
Surface tensions of pure calcium chloride solutions

Surface tension in dyne per centimeter
% w/w CaCl2
@ 10°C @ 25°C
0 74,22 71,97
1,1 72,32
2,7 72,75
5,26 75,74 73,49
9,99 77,42 75,17
18,17 81,12 78,87
24,98 85,22 82,97
30,75 89,17 86,92
35,69 90,37
43,75 97,07
55,42 106,97
Figure 7- surface tensions of pure calcium chloride solutions
110
105 @ 10°C @ 25°C
100
dynes per cm
95
90
85
80
75
70
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

7.11 Viscosity
The viscosities of calcium chloride solutions (Figure 8) vary greatly according to concentration and
temperature: they increase with an increase in concentration at constant temperature, and decrease
with an increase in temperature at constant concentration.
Figure 8 - viscosities of calcium chloride solutions
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11 @ -25°C
@ -20°C
viscosities -cP
10 @ -15°C
@ -10°C
9 @ 0°C
@ +10°C
8 @ +18°C
@ +25°C
@ +40°C
7
0
- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

7.12 Dilution of calcium chloride solutions
When diluting strong solutions to specified weaker ones, the first requirement is to know the exact
CaCl2 content of the stronger solution. For this purpose, a densimeter may be used, and the
corresponding percent CaCl2 found in Table 1. All values for concentrations as high as 40% CaCl2 are
found in this table. Concentrations above 40.8% CaCl2 contain suspended crystals @ 15.6°C, and
therefore, densimeter readings at 15.6°C are of little value. Concentrations between 40 and 45% can be
determined fairly accurately, however, with the densimeter at a temperature above 15.6°C by means of
Table 3 and 4.
For concentrations higher than 45% the CaCl2 content should be determined by chemical analysis
or it may be arrived at indirectly by trial dilution as follows:
Dilute a known weight of the strong solution with an equal weight of water, cool to 15.6°C and determine
the specific gravity. The concentration of the diluted solution, as determined from Table 1, multiplied by
two, gives the CaCl2 content of the original strong calcium chloride solution.
For example, if a known weight of strong calcium chloride solution is diluted with an exactly equal weight
of water, cooled to 15.6°C, and, by densimeter, is found to have a specific gravity of 1.351 kg/l, the
corresponding concentration is, according to Table 1, 35% CaCl2. Multiplying by two gives the CaCl2
content of the original strong solution as 35.0 x 2 = 70.0% CaCl2.
This method applies regardless of whether the original sample is in a completely liquid or solid condition.
If it contains both solid and liquid, it is desirable to heat until the solid material is dissolved and a uniform
sample can be obtained.
Dilution calculations are made in accordance with the formula:
100  H   A  B 
V  (Equation 1)
B
Where: V = parts (volumes) of water required per 100 parts (volumes) of original strong
solution.
A = percent of calcium chloride in original strong solution.
B = percent of calcium chloride desired in diluted solution.
H = specific gravity of original strong solution.
For example, assume that it is desired to prepare a 23% CaCl2 solution from a stronger solution of 1410
kg/l specific gravity at 15.6°C. From Table 1, it is found that a calcium chloride solution of 1410 kg/l
corresponds to 40.0% CaCl2.
Substituting in the equation 1:
100  1,410  40  23

V   104.2 parts of water to add each 100 parts by volume of original
23
strong solution.

If it is desired to use weight instead of volume units, and this is necessary when the original strong
solution is above about 40%, the formula is simplified to:
100   A  B 
W  (Equation 2)
B
Where: W = parts (weight) of water required per 100 parts (weight) of original strong
solution.
If it is desired to use a weak calcium chloride solution, instead of water, for dilution of a stronger solution,
equation 1 is modified to:
100  H   A  B 
V  (Equation 3)
R  B  C 
Where: V = parts (volumes) of weak solution required per 100 parts (volumes) of original
strong solution.
A = percent of calcium chloride in original strong solution.
B = percent of calcium chloride desired in diluted solution.
C = percent of calcium chloride in the diluting solution.
H = specific gravity of original strong solution.
R = specific gravity of the diluting solution.
To obtain results by weight instead of by volume, the specific gravity expressions are deleted and the
formula becomes:
100   A  B 
V  (Equation 4)
B  C 

7.13 Specific heats
The specific heat of a liquid is in the ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of a unit weight of the substance one degree to that required to raise the temperature of an equal weight
of water one degree at any specified temperature.
Table 8 shows the specific heats of pure calcium chloride solutions.
Table 8 - specific heats of pure calcium chloride solutions

Specific heat in calories per gram
% w/w
@ -40°C @ -30°C @ -20°C @ -10°C @ 0°C @ +10°C @ +20°C @ +30°C @ +40°C @ +60°C @ +80°C @ +100°C
CaCl2
8 0,882 0,887 0,892 0,897 0,900 0,910 0,920 0,930
9 0,867 0,872 0,877 0,882
10 0,853 0,858 0,863 0,868 0,870 0,881 0,891 0,901
11 0,839 0,844 0,849 0,855
12 0,825 0,831 0,836 0,842 0,844 0,857 0,869 0,879
13 0,812 0,818 0,823 0,829
14 0,799 0,805 0,811 0,817 0,821 0,834 0,845 0,858
15 0,787 0,793 0,799 0,805
16 0,768 0,775 0,781 0,787 0,792 0,796 0,808 0,820 0,832
17 0,756 0,763 0,770 0,775 0,780
18 0,745 0,752 0,759 0,764 0,769 0,773 0,787 0,799 0,810
19 0,734 0,741 0,748 0,754 0,759
20 0,723 0,731 0,738 0,744 0,749 0,755 0,768 0,780 0,791
21 0,713 0,721 0,728 0,733 0,739
22 0,695 0,704 0,711 0,718 0,724 0,729 0,735 0,749 0,761 0,772
23 0,686 0,694 0,702 0,709 0,715 0,721
24 0,678 0,686 0,693 0,700 0,706 0,712 0,720 0,731 0,745 0,758
25 0,670 0,678 0,685 0,692 0,698 0,704
26 0,656 0,663 0,670 0,677 0,683 0,690 0,696 0,703 0,717 0,730 0,741
27 0,649 0,656 0,663 0,669 0,676 0,682 0,689
28 0,636 0,642 0,649 0,656 0,662 0,669 0,675 0,682 0,688 0,701 0,715 0,729
29 0,634 0,639 0,644 0,649 0,655 0,662 0,668 0,675
30 0,631 0,635 0,638 0,643 0,649 0,655 0,661 0,668 0,675 0,688 0,700 0,712
7.14 Heat of solution of calcium chloride
Considerable caution must be exercised when dissolving large quantity of calcium chloride in
water due to the high heat of solution. Depending upon the water temperature and the ambient
temperature a temperature increase to above 90°C may be experienced.
Table 9 contains results of observations when dissolving 78% flake calcium chloride in water using an
insulated flask.
Table 9 - T increase in dissolving flake in water @ 15.6°C
Final solution Temperature rise

Density @ 15.6/15.6°C % w/w CaCl2 °C
1,073 8,4 10
1,135 15,1 18
1,190 20,6 26
1,242 25,3 33
1,286 29,2 38
1,324 32,7 41
1,334 35,6 43

The heat evolved when dissolving pure anhydrous calcium chloride in water is shown in Table 10.
The temperature increases shown in the last column of the table are calculated under the assumption
that no heat is lost to the surroundings and, therefore, may be considered to be a possible, but not
probable, maximum.
Table 10 - Heat evolved in dissolving anhydrous CaCl2 in water
Approximate
Heat evolved
grams of water temperature rise
% w/w CaCl2
per mole CaCl2 Gram calories per mole
°C
CaCl2
7200 1,5 17921 0,25
3600 3,0 17921 0,50
1800 5,8 17754 1,00
900 11,0 17635 20,50
360 23,6 17037 51,00
180 38,1 15412 89,00
108 50,7 13381 111,00
The quantity of heat evolved in dissolving the hydrates of calcium chloride is somewhat less than that for
the anhydrous product, which decreases as the number of molecules of water increases.
It is a positive heat of solution in each case except when dissolving the hexahydrate, CaCl2.6H2O, which
has a negative heat of solution and actually lowers the temperature of the water during dissolving.
7.15 Heat of dilution and heat content of calcium chloride solutions
The heat evolved when a strong calcium chloride solution is diluted with water or with a weaker
calcium chloride solution, and other problems involving heat and temperature changes, may be
calculated from the data on specific heats and total heat contents (enthalpy) of calcium chloride
solutions. The enthalpy-concentration data for pure calcium chloride solutions are shown in Table 11.
The reference state for these data, as in steam tables, is liquid water at 0°C and 1 atmosphere, at which
the heat content of liquid water is considered to be zero, and that of the calcium chloride solution is
equal to its heat of solution. The values shown are used in the same manner as are those from a steam
table.
The red bold values in Table 11 represent the heat contents of the liquid only, while those in black are
the heat contents of mixtures of ice and liquid or the hexahydrate form and liquid in the case of the 32%
CaCl2 solution. The composition of the solution containing 29.8% is that of the eutectic mixture which
remains liquid down to -55°C.
The data were calculated using specific heats, heats of solution and ice-saturation data for pure calcium
chloride solutions as reported in this bulletin. The heat of fusion and specific heats of ice were obtained
from Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

Table 11
Table 11 - Enthalpy of pure calcium chloride solutions-cal/g

% w/w CaCl2
T °C 0,0 5,0 10,0 12,5 15,0 17,5 20,0 22,5 25,0 27,5 29,8 32,0
30 30,1 36,0 41,9 44,8 47,6 50,5 53,4 56,4 59,3 61,8 64,1 66,1
25 25,1 31,3 37,5 40,6 43,6 46,5 49,6 52,8 55,7 58,4 60,7 62,8
20 20,1 26,6 33,2 36,4 39,6 42,8 45,9 49,2 52,2 55,0 57,4 59,5
15 15,1 22,0 28,9 32,2 35,6 38,9 42,2 45,5 48,7 51,5 54,0 56,4
10 10,1 17,4 24,6 28,1 31,6 35,0 38,5 41,9 45,1 48,1 50,8 53,2
5 5,1 12,8 20,3 24,0 27,7 31,2 34,8 38,3 41,7 44,8 47,5 50,0
0 0,0 8,2 16,0 19,8 23,7 27,4 31,1 34,8 38,2 41,4 44,3 46,8
-5 -81,2 -32,8 11,7 15,7 19,8 23,6 27,5 31,2 34,8 38,1 41,0 43,7
-10 -82,6 -50,8 -16,8 0,1 15,9 19,8 23,9 27,6 31,3 34,8 37,8 40,5
-15 -83,9 -58,6 -30,0 -15,7 -1,4 12,8 20,2 24,1 27,9 31,4 34,6 37,4
-20 -85,2 -63,9 -38,3 -25,4 -12,6 0,2 13,1 20,6 24,5 28,1 31,4 34,3
-25 -86,5 -68,2 -44,5 -32,7 -20,9 -9,0 2,8 15,1 21,1 24,8 28,1 31,2
-30 -87,7 -71,9 -49,7 -38,6 -27,5 -16,3 -5,2 5,9 17,0 21,5 25,0 28,1
-35 -89,0 -75,1 -53,9 -43,3 -32,1 -22,0 -11,5 -0,7 10,5 18,2 21,8 25,0
-40 -90,2 -78,0 -57,4 -48,4 -36,9 -26,6 -16,3 -6,1 4,2 14,2 18,6 19,0
-45 -91,4 -80,7 -60,7 -50,7 -40,6 -30,7 -20,6 -10,6 -0,7 9,4 15,5 13,9
-50 -92,6 -83,2 -63,7 -53,9 -44,1 -34,4 -24,6 -14,8 -5,1 4,7 12,3 8,8
-55 -93,7 -85,7 -66,6 -57,0 -47,4 -37,9 -28,3 -18,7 -12,0 0,4 9,2 3,6
Below -55°C, solid mixture of ice and hexahydrate calcium chloride
To obtain BTU/pound, to multiply cal/g by 1.7986
The following will illustrate some of the uses for Table 11.
Illustration 1
32% calcium chloride at 30°C is diluted with water at 5°C to give a solution containing 20% CaCl2.
(a) how much heat must be removed in order to maintain a final temperature of 5°C?
(b) what will be the final temperature if no heat escapes during the mixing?
Answer to question (a)

Taking 100 g of the original 32% solution as a basis for the calculation, the weight of water to be added
to give the desired 20% CaCl2 is obtained by use of the dilution equation 2,
100   A  B  100  32  20

W    60 g of water required
B 20
From Table 11:
1. Heat content of 32% CaCl2 solution at 30°C = 66.1 cal per g

2. Heat content of 20% CaCl2 solution at 5°C = 34.8 cal per g
3. Heat content of water at 5°C = 5.1 cal per g
Let Q = heat to be removed per 100 g of 32% CaCl2 solution in order to maintain a final temperature of
5°C. The heat balance is
(100 x 66.1)+(60x5.1)=(160x34.8)+Q, from which Q=1348 cal/g

Answer to question (b)
If no heat is removed Q=0.
The heat content (H) of the final solution will be:
(100x66.1)+(60x5.1) = 160H, from which H=43.2 cal/g.
Reference to Table 11 shows that 1 g of 20% CaCl2 solution must be at approximately 17°C to have a
heat content of 43.2 cal; therefore, the temperature of the final mixtures is 17°C if no heat escapes.
7.16 Thermal conductibility

Table 12 - thermal conductivity of calcium chloride solutions
Thermal conductivity λ - kcal/m °C h

Specific % w/w
@ 0°C @ -10°C @ -20°C @ -30°C @ -40°C @ -50°C
gravity CaCl2
1 0,1 0,487
1,01 1,3 0,486
1,02 2,5 0,484
1,03 3,6 0,483
1,04 4,8 0,482
1,05 5,9 0,481
1,06 7,1 0,480
1,07 8,3 0,479
1,08 9,4 0,478
1,09 10,5 0,477
1,1 11,5 0,475
1,11 12,6 0,474
1,12 13,7 0,473
1,13 14,7 0,472 0,459
1,14 15,8 0,471 0,458
1,15 16,8 0,470 0,457
1,16 17,8 0,469 0,456
1,17 18,9 0,468 0,455
1,18 19,9 0,467 0,454
1,19 20,9 0,466 0,453
1,2 21,9 0,465 0,452 0,441
1,21 22,8 0,464 0,451 0,440
1,22 23,8 0,463 0,450 0,439
1,23 24,7 0,462 0,449 0,438
1,24 25,7 0,460 0,448 0,437 0,425
1,25 26,6 0,459 0,447 0,436 0,424
1,26 27,5 0,457 0,446 0,435 0,423
1,27 28,4 0,455 0,445 0,434 0,422 0,411
1,28 29,4 0,454 0,444 0,433 0,421 0,410 0,399
1,286 29,9 0,454 0,443 0,432 0,420 0,409 0,398
1,29 30,3 0,453 0,443 0,432 0,419 0,409 0,398
1,3 31,2 0,452 0,442 0,431 0,418 0,408
1,31 32,1 0,452 0,440 0,428 0,417
1,32 33 0,451 0,439 0,428
1,33 33,9 0,451 0,438 0,426
1,34 34,7 0,450 0,437
1,35 35,6 0,449 0,436
1,36 36,4 0,448
1,37 37,3 0,447

7.17 Specific problems of technical calcium chloride solutions
Cloudy liquid – Brown liquid
There are two reasons for a cloudy liquid:
- the liquid is delivered in this state straight from the factory,

- the liquid is made by dissolution of solid products
Origin of the problem
Turbidity of solutions may be caused by:
- Calcium sulphate [CaSO4]: this insoluble salt, which is generally present in the calcium
chloride produced by the Solvay process, is non-toxic and stable. Its presence may be
detected by acidifying the liquid with hydrochloric acid (pH <1). When the solution is
acidified, at room temperature, the insoluble salt remains visible, while at 80-90°C the
insoluble salt disappears.
- Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]: generally used by factories to maintain the pH level of
solutions during evaporation (7 < pH < 9.5), lime gives better protection of installations
against corrosion. It may be found in the end products where it causes cloudiness. When
the pH is high, the cloudiness is impossible to be removed by filtration. Only a slight
acidification (with HCl) can resolve the problem (pH 3.5 approx).
- Calcium carbonate [CaCO3]: this substance often results from a reaction between
bicarbonates (HCO3-) present in the water used for dissolution/dilution (hard water) and
natural lime in calcium chloride. It can be a nuisance for certain applications but may be
eliminated by slight acidification.
-
- Iron hydroxide [Fe(OH)3]: this substance often results from a reaction between the (OH)
in the lime and the iron in the solution. In an acid environment the precipitate disappears
and the color of the solution then ranges between yellow and brown depending on the
iron content.
- Sodium chloride [NaCl]: salt is a raw material of the Solvay manufacturing process and
can be found as a contaminant of the calcium chloride. It causes no problems in
applications where it is not crystallized (high dilution, high temperature of solutions). It is
generally inevitable. It is easily identifiable by slightly diluting the NaCl-saturated solution
in water, which dissolves the precipitated NaCl.
Origin of coloration
Coloration is generally caused by the presence of iron in solution or solid products. Different colors may
occur depending on the concentration of iron and its state of oxidation (black, grey, brown, red, orange
or yellow).
Problems associated with the presence of (OH)- and CO3=
Hydroxides (OH)- and carbonates (CO3)= may favor the presence of calcium carbonate which may
crystallize installations in the form of scaling (blocking pipe work – poor quality of finished products).
Chemical identification of these substances in the calcium chloride may help .
The chemical reactions that we use are the following:
Ca(OH)2 + HCl  CaCl2 + H2O

CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2↑
CaCl2 + 2KOH  Ca(OH)2 + 2KCl
With time: Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
2+ -
With water: CaCl2 + CO(OH) + H2O  CaCl2 + Ca + OH + CO2↑

Rise in pH
1 pH unit = 58 mV (potentiometric analysis).
The method used is titred alkalimetry (TA) and complete titre alkalimetry (CTA).
Note that in practice the amount of carbonate in our products is very low and that the majority of
problems encountered are due to the use of hard water.
In this case, there will inevitably be a parasitic reaction:
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2  2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Case 1: presence of OH

Case 2: presence of OH and CO3
Case 3: presence of CO3 and HCO3

Case 4: presence of CO3=
Corrosion of metals
Calcium chloride solutions are not inherently corrosive to iron and steel in the sense that acids are
corrosive. Repeated experiments by several investigators have demonstrated that such solutions usually
are no more corrosive than plain water. Steel specimens submerged in calcium chloride solutions not
exposed to air remain practically unattacked for long periods. However, if the solution is exposed to air
or strongly aerated, there is rusting just as is the case if plain water is aerated.
Iron or steel specimens wet with calcium chloride solutions and left exposed to the air undergo
rusting, but to no greater extent than similar specimens kept wet with a film of plain water. However,
there is this difference, under normal atmospheric conditions, the water evaporates and the rusting stops,
whereas the calcium chloride solution does not dry readily, and the rusting therefore continues over a
long period.
As a matter of practical experience, ordinary steel tanks and pipe lines give very satisfactory
service. A common example is the refrigeration plant where calcium chloride brine is used extensively.
There are also large numbers of steel tank cars and storage thanks which have been in service for many
years.
Calcium chloride solutions are slightly alkaline due to a fractional percentage of calcium hydroxide
(lime) that is present. Such solutions attack aluminum, zinc or tin, and alloys of these metals, due to the
alkaline condition of the freshly prepared solutions. It is well to avoid these metals in calcium chloride
brine systems, although galvanized (zinc coated) ice cans are commonly used in such systems without
appreciable damage when the pH of the solution is maintained near the neutral point.
Any solution of calcium chloride is an electrolyte (conductor of electricity), as are all water
solutions of other inorganic salts. A possibility of galvanic type corrosion can occur in electrolytes
whenever two or more dissimilar metals are in electrical contact. It is desirable, therefore, to avoid the
use of adjacent dissimilar metals in contact with calcium chloride solutions.
A second type of electrolytic corrosion may be caused by leakage of an electric current from a
system not properly insulated or grounded. Testing around the corroded parts with a voltmeter or
ammeter will locate the source of this trouble, which may then be corrected.

The addition of certain materials known as inhibitors has been found to help materially in
preventing or minimizing the corrosion of steel and other common metals by salt solutions. The use of
chrome compounds, such as sodium chromate or sodium bichromate is quite common in the
refrigeration brines. The usual recommendation is 2 kgs per cubic meter of calcium chloride brine.
Preventing corrosion
In answer to questions from customers concerning the protection of installations against corrosion,
you may reply as follows:
Corrosion of installations may be prevented by following the instructions below:
- eliminate electrochemical couples: give preference to ferrous metals which are neither coated
nor galvanized, and avoid the simultaneous presence of two different types of metal. For
example, avoid the simultaneous use of zinc galvanized ion with copper (in particular, avoid
installing a copper coil in a galvanized vat).
- Separate elements made of different types of metal using electrically insulating joints
(rubber, …).
- Maximize the use of pipe work made of ABS or compatible plastic materials.
- Prescribe the use of tin-based solder, especially in presence of copper. If pipe work has to be
welded, arc or oxy-acetylene welding should be used.
- Prevent air from entering the brine, in other words:
. prevent the brine from coming into contact with air and fit covers to all vats and tanks,
. avoid letting the solutions fall through the air and avoid turbulence; brine should always be
introduced into vats, tanks and other apparatus from below,
. use primed pumps to prevent air entering via seals,
. any stirring should be carried out slowly and as deep as possible inside the vats,
. keep the installations under a nitrogen atmosphere.
- Avoid direct contact between the installation and metallic elements of the surrounding building:
e.g. metal pillars, concrete reinforcing; it should therefore be electrically insulated from these
elements and from the ground.
- Certain coatings: (tar-based or bituminous paints, epoxy paints, …) protect metallic installations
against corrosion. You must however ensure that they are completely hermetic; otherwise they
may lead to dangerous local corrosion due to differential aeration.
- Maintain the pH of the brine: it is recommended to keep the pH of the solution either alkaline
(from 9 to 10), or neutral (from 7.5 to 8), depending on the construction of the circuit and
according to the instruction below.

Since the pH has a natural tendency to fall whatever precautions are taken, it must be regularly
monitored using the following methods:
- pHmeter,
- indicator papers,
- pH indicators which change color (phenolphthalein or methyl orange).
pH correction may be achieved using one of the following reagents:
- raising pH: quicklime or slacked lime (beware of slacking) or caustic soda.

- lowering pH: hydrochloric acid.
Use corrosion inhibitors: a growing number of corrosion inhibitors are available on the market. They may
generally be used without any serious risk. Nevertheless, their suitability for use in food processing
should be verified for this type of application.
8 ANALYTICAL METHODS
The analytical methods described as follows are just an indication, and are based on the principles we
are using to verify the purity of CASO® calcium chloride. All the official documents are managed by the
Quality Responsible Manager of the Production Unit within the ISO Quality System. For more details on
tests we made, please take a look at our commercial document ANA-CC 40 00 00.
8.1 Total Calcium (Ca) – EDTA potentiometry test

Reagents
 EDTA solution 1 N
 Demineralised water (electric conductivity lower than 1 microS/cm)
 Nitric acid, approximately 2 N
 pH 10 buffer solution
Weigh accurately 25/50 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride and transfer to a 500-ml volumetric
flask, adding 200 ml of demineralized water to dissolve the product. Add 25 ml of Nitric acid,, mix well
and dilute to the mark using demineralized water.
Transfer by pipette,
 10-ml of prepared solution of flakes

 5-ml of prepared solution of granules
into a 250-ml beaker and add 100-ml of demineralised water. Add 10-ml of pH 10 buffer solution.
Titrate the solutions using 1 N EDTA solution (A-ml) to the equivalent point measured by amalgamate
silver electrode.
8.2 Alkalinity as Ca(OH)2 – Phenolphthalein test

Reagents
 Hydrochloric acid 0.1 N

 Phenolphthalein indicator 4 g/l
Weigh 25 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride in a 500-ml beaker and dissolve in approximately
150-ml of demineralized water. Titrate the solution with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid solution (A-ml) using 3-4
drops of phenolphthalein indicator 4 g/l to the colorless end point.

8.3 Sulfates (CaSO4) – Ionic chromatography method
Reagents

 Demineralized water MillQ
 Mother solution for anions elution at 8.0 mM Na2CO3/1.0 mM NaHCO3 (in a 250-ml flask, weigh
2.095 g of NaHCO3 + 21.778 g of Na2CO3; dissolve using MilliQ water and dilute to the mark)
 Nitric acid 2 N
Weigh 25/50 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride in a 500-ml volumetric flask and dissolve in 200-
ml of demineralized water. Add 25-ml of Nitric acid and diluted them to the marks using demineralized
water.
Transfer by pipette
 5-ml of prepared solution of flakes

 2-ml of prepared solution of granules
into a 200-ml volumetric flask and diluted them to the mark using demineralized water.
Use the ionic chromatograph for measuring SO4 content (A mg/l).
8.4 Iron (Fe) – Spectrophotometric test

Reagents

 Hydrochloric acid 33% or 37%
 Hydrochloric acid 1 N
 Caustic soda 1 N
 ά-ά dipyridyle solution 1 g/l
Weigh accurately, 0.5 grams of ά-ά dipyridyle, transfer them to a 500-ml volumetric flask, and
dissolve in demineralised water; add 10-ml of Hydrochloric acid 1 N, diluted to the mark and
mix well.
 hydroxylamine chlorohydrate solution 100 g/l
Weigh accurately, 50 grams of hydroxylamine chlorhydrate (HONH3Cl), transfer them to a 500-
ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark with demineralised water.
 Ammonium acetate buffer solution 200 g/l approx
Weigh 40/20 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride in a 600-ml beaker and dissolve in 150-ml of
demineralized water. Add 6-ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Boil the solution for 10 minutes and then let it cool.
Transfer the solutions in two 250-ml volumetric flasks and diluted them to the marks using demineralised
water.
For each sample (blank solution inclusive):

Introduce 10-ml of solution in a 50-ml emery plug graduated-cylinder and adding 30-ml of demineralised
water.
Than, in sequence (mixing the solution after each addition) add:
 . 1-ml of hydroxylamine chlorohydrate solution and wait for a minute,

 . 5-ml of Ammonium acetate buffer solution and,
 . 1-ml of ά-ά dipyridyle solution.
Dilute to the mark with water demineralization, and mix well.
Using a wavelength setting of 520 nm, adjust the spectrophotometer to zero absorbance against blank
solution in a 40-mm absorption cell. Then obtain the absorbance of the sample(s) in the same cell(s) - (A,
µg of Iron).

8.5 Water insoluble matter – Gravimetric method
Reagents

 Silver nitrate 0.1 N solution
Weigh 200 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride in a 1.000-ml beaker and dissolve in 400-ml of
demineralised water previously heated up to 50 °C. Let the solution in stand-by for 5 minutes.
Prepare a 5 µ Millipore filter and conditioner it at 100 °C for 30 minutes and, after, place it into a dryer for
15 minutes. Weigh the filter (P1-g).
Filter the solution through the prepared filter, washing the precipitate free of chlorides with hot water (70-
80 °C. Normally, 8-10 washing operations, using 15 ml of water approx, needs. This step is not used for
granules).
Dryer the filter for 1 hour and, after, place it into a dryer for 15 minutes. Weigh the filter (P2-g).
Water insoluble matter g/kg = (P2 – P1) * 5
8.6 Turbidity – spectrophotometer test

Reagents
 Demineralised water (electric conductivity lower than 1 microS/cm).
Weigh 10/30 grams of flakes/granules calcium chloride in a 250-ml beaker and dissolve in 90/50-g of
demineralized water up to complete dissolution.
Using a wavelength setting of 585 nm, measure the absorbance of the solution in a 40-mm absorption
cell (E, absorbance).
Turbidity will be expressed as E*1000/cm
8.7 Granulometry – automatic sieve test

Sieve tests, to be comparative, should be made under the same conditions using the same
amount of material. Tests made with a mechanical sifter are the most reliable.
This test should be made in a dry atmosphere and as rapidly as possible with minimum exposure to the
air. Following the test, the sieves should be washed thoroughly and dried.
Materials
 Technical balance.
 Series of DIN sieves (diameter 200 mm) 8, 5, 4, 2.8, 2, 1.25, 1, and 0.5 mm, with cap and
bottom pan.
 Automatic sifter.
Weigh the sieves (bottom pan inclusive) and stack them in order of size, with the largest opening on top
and the smallest on the bottom.
Weigh 50/100-g of calcium chloride (P) and place it in the top sieve after making certain the bottom pan
is in place. Cover, place in the sifter, and operate the machine for 3 minutes (2 minutes for CaCl2
Powder).
Brush each separated portion onto a piece of paper and weigh on a balance to the first decimal place.
Results should be reported as % through a certain sieve, on a certain sieve, for each portion.
Results: % through sieves (example for Flakes)
A1 to A6, grams, weight of 8, 4, 2, 1, 0.5 sieves and bottom pan, totally empty.

B1 to B6, grams, weight of 8, 4, 2, 1, 0.5 sieves and bottom pan, with product sieved.
For each sieve, we should calculate the weight (Px, grams) of product refused by each one.
P1 = B1 – A1 (8 mm sieve)
P5 = B5 – A5 (0.5 mm sieve)
P6 = B6 – A6 (bottom pan)
< 0.5 mm [%] = P6 * 100/P

< 1.0 mm [%] = (P6 + P5) * 100/P
< 2.0 mm [%] = (P6 + P5 + P4) * 100/P
< 4.0 mm [%] = (P6 + P5 + P4+ P3) * 100/P
< 8.0 mm [%] = (P6 + P5 + P4+ P3 + P2) * 100/P
Sieved (mm) Flakes Powder Granules

0.500 Yes Yes
1.000 Yes Yes
1.250 Yes Yes
2.000 Yes Yes
2.800 Yes
4.000 Yes Yes
5.000 Yes
8.000 Yes
The above information are provided for our customers only (and we accept no liability to any third parties) and
reflects our current knowledge and experience of the product. All products are supplied in accordance with the
relevant conditions of sale of the SOLVAY invoicing company. Solvay can accept no liability for the effects of any
chemical combinations or mixtures of the product which are carried out by our customers or third parties. In
using the product our customers are reminded to comply with all relevant legal, administrative and regulatory
requirements and procedures relating to its use and the protection of the environment.
Rev.2, February 2013

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Products, Applications, Safety, Handling and Storage, Characteristics, Methods

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 2 of 59

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 3 of 59

The first soda factory started operating in Couillet, Belgium in 1865.

 a strong leadership in all of our activities

1.2 Solvay Mission and Vision

1.3 Solvay Values

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 4 of 59

1.9 Public authorities

1.10 General public

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 5 of 59

2.1 Production Process

 Liquid CASO® 25÷29% and 35÷37% technical grade,

At this step, the product is still liquid.

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 6 of 59

 CASO® Granules, CaCl2 min 94% technical grade, and

2.2 The benefits

CASO® SOLVAY is characterised by a certain number of remarkable properties which determine

2.3 Commercial grades

 the conduction of a hazard analysis and the identification of preventive measures;

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 7 of 59

2.4 Production Plant

Company name: Solvay Chimica Italia S.p.A.

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 8 of 59

3.1 Food & Agro-Food industry

Dairy products and cheese

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 9 of 59

Beer and soft drinks: remineralisation of water

CaCl2 + 2 NaHCO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl + H2CO3

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 10 of 59

Alginates are raw materials used in the following sectors:

3.2 Animal nutrition

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 11 of 59

PVC made in this way is used principally in the manufacture of bottles.

ABS is a resin used primarily for manufacturing car bumpers.

Fluorescent powders are used to make lighting tubes.

CASO® Calcium Chloride is used in the composition of fluorescent powders.

3.4 Oil & Gas Industry

 high density: dense liquids provide better support;

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 12 of 59

3.5 From earth to concrete

 lowering the melting point of minerals during clinkering;

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 13 of 59

 very easy laying and profiling using a finisher (laying machine);

3.6 Helping the environment

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 14 of 59

CASO® is regularly used in metallurgy, especially for:

3.8 Domestic dehumidification

3.9 Winter road treatment

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 15 of 59

 technical flakes or granules, sprayed on the roads directly

CASO Granular - Ice penetration comparison (at -6°C)

CASO Granular - Melting speed comparison (at -6°C)

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 16 of 59

CASO Flakes - Ice melt volume comparison (at -6°C)

 make rock salt act faster and at lower temperatures

How to apply CASO® calcium chloride

Precautionary treatment of the roads (anti-icing)

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 17 of 59

Road condition CAT value

 Remove slush and broken ice.

SOLVAY CASO® calcium chloride HANDBOOK page 18 of 59

Unpaved surfaces treatment