GENERAL CHEMISTRY Notes

Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry 11ed | 2 nd Year, 2nd Semester
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 1: MATTER, ENERGY, AND MEASUREMENTS

Chemistry
Chemistry: The study of matter.
 Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Matter can change from one form
to another.
 In a chemical change (chemical reaction), substances are used up and others formed
in their places
Example: When propane (bottled or LP gas) burns in air, propane and oxygen are converted to
carbon dioxide and water.
 In a physical change, matter does not lose its identity.
 A common physical change is a change of state.
Example: Ice (solid water) melts to become liquid water; liquid water boils to become steam
(gaseous water).
Scientific Method
Fact: A statement based on direct experience.
Hypothesis: A statement that is proposed, without actual proof, to explain a set of facts or their
relationship.
Theory: The formulation of an apparent relationship among certain observed phenomena,
which has been verified to some extent.
 In a sense, a theory is the same as a hypothesis except that we have a stronger belief in
it because more evidence supports it.
 If, however, we find new evidence that conflicts with the theory, it must be altered or
rejected.
Exponential Notation
 Used by scientists to represent very large or very small numbers as powers of 10.
Examples:
 100 = 1 X 10 X 10 = 1 X 102
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 1000 = 1 X 10 X 10 X 10 = 1 X 103
 0.00002 is written as 2 x 10-5
 2,000,000 is written as 2 x 106
Metric System
Metric & English System
Significant Figures
1. Nonzero digits are always significant.
• For example 233.1 has four significant figures; 2.3g has two.
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant. For example 0.0055 L has two
significant figures.
3. Zeros at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always significant. For
example 3.00L has three significant figures. 0.0450 mm also has three.
4. Zeros at the end of number that contains no decimal point may or may not be significant. For
example $36,000 contains two significant figures and $36,000.00 contains seven significant
figures. 5,000 mL contains one significant Figure and 5,000. mL contains four significant figures.
Volume
 Volume is space.
 The volume of a liquid, solid, or gas is the space occupied by that substance
 The base unit of volume in the metric system is the _Liters__
 The more common metric unit for volume is the _mL___ which is equal to 10-3 L.
 1 mL is equal to 1 cubic centimeter (1cc or 1 cm3)
 There are 1000 cc in 1 L. How many mL are there in 1L? 1000 ml
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Mass & Weight

Mass: The quantity of matter in an object.
 Mass is independent of location.
Weight: The result of mass acted upon by gravity.
 Weight depends on location; depends on the force of gravity at the particular location.
 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 g

 1 milligram (mg)= 0.001 g
 The gram is a small unit. There are 453.6 g = 1 lb
 We use a balance to measure mass
Time
It is the one quantity for which the units are the same in all systems: English, metric, and SI. The
base unit is the second (s):
60 s = 1 min
60 min = 1 hour
Temperature
Fahrenheit (F): Defined by setting the normal freezing point of
water at 32 °F and the normal boiling point of water at 212 °F.
Celsius (C): Defined by setting the normal freezing point of

water at 0 °C and the normal boiling point of water at 100 °C.
Kelvin (K): Zero is the lowest possible temperature; also called

the absolute scale.
A Kelvin degree is the same size as a Celsius degree
K = °C + 273
Factor-Label Method
Factor-Label Method: A procedure in which equations are set up so that all the unwanted units
cancel and only the desired units remain
Conversion factor: A ratio of two different units, used as a multiplier to change from one
system or unit to another.
For example, 1 lb = 453.6 g
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Example: Convert 381 grams to pounds.
Example: Convert 1.844 gallons to milliliters. Here we use two conversion factors: from
gallons to liters and then from liters to milliliters
The Three States of Matter

Gas
 Has no definite shape or volume.
 Expands to fill whatever container it is put into.
 Is highly compressible.
Liquid
 Has no definite shape but a definite volume.
 Is only slightly compressible.
Solid
 Has a definite shape and volume.
 Is essentially incompressible.
 Whether something is a gas, liquid, or solid depends on pressure and temperature
Density
Density: the ratio of mass to volume.
 The most commonly used units are g/mL for liquids and solids, and g/L for gases.
 Example: If 73.2 mL of a liquid has a mass of 61.5 g, what is its density in g/mL?
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity: The density of a substance compared to water as a standard.
 Because specific gravity is the ratio of two densities, it has no units (it is dimensionless).
 Measured by a hydrometer
 Example: The density of copper at 20°C is 8.92 g/mL. The density of water at this
temperature is 1.00 g/mL. What is the specific gravity of copper?
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Energy
Energy: The capacity to do work.
 May be either kinetic energy or potential energy.
 The calorie (cal) is the base metric unit of energy.
Kinetic energy (KE): The energy of motion
 KE increases as the object’s velocity increases.

 At the same velocity, a heavier object has greater KE.
Potential energy: The energy an object has because of its position; stored energy. It is also a
measure of an object’s capability to do work.
Important Principle: Things have a tendency to seek their lowest possible potential energy. (i.e.
water flows downhill, not uphill)
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a form of energy. This form of energy most frequently accompanies chemical reactions.
 Heat is not the same as temperature
Heating refers to the energy transfer process when two objects of different temperature are
brought into contact.
 Heat energy always flows from the hotter object to the cooler one until the two have the
same temperature.
 Heat is commonly measured in calories (cal), which is the heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 g of liquid water by 1 °C.
 Calorie is not part of the SI. The official SI unit of heat is the joule (J), which is about ¼
of a calorie.
Specific Heat
Specific heat (SH): The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1.00 g of a
substance by 1.00 °C.
 It takes 1 cal to raise the temperature of 1 g of liquid water by 1 *C
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The following equation gives the relationship between specific heat, amount of heat, the mass of
an object, and the change in temperature. The units of specific heat are calories per gram per
degree C (cal/g x °C)
Example: How many calories are required to heat 352 g of water from 23°C to 95°C? The
specific heat of water is 1.00 cal/g x °C.
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CHAPTER 2: ATOMS
What is Matter Made Of?
 The most basic unit of matter; the most fundamental unit of matter is Atom (Greek
“atomos”, meaning “not cut”). Democritus believed this.
 An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a
chemical element.
 Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms.
 Atoms are extremely small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten-billionth of a
meter, in the short scale).
Classification of Matter
Diverse forms of matter. It can be divided into 2 classes.
Element
Element: A substance (for example, carbon, hydrogen, and iron) that consists of identical
atoms.
 There are 118 known elements.
 Of these, 98 occur in nature; the others have been made by chemists and physicists.
 Their symbols consist of one or two letters.
 Names are derived from a variety of sources: the English name of the element, people
important in atomic science, geographic locations, planets, mythological sources, etc.
Compound: A pure substance that is made up of TWO or MORE elements in a fixed ratio by
mass.
Formula of a compound: tells us the ratios of its constituent elements and identifies each
element by its atomic symbol.
 NaCl: the ratio of sodium atoms to chlorine atoms in sodium chloride is 1:1
 H2O: the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in water is 2:1
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A Water Molecule
Figure 2-2 Four representations of a water molecule
Mixture
Mixture: A combination of two or more pure substances.
 The substances may be present in any mass ratio.
o Ex: blood, butter, gasoline, soap, metal in a ring, air we breathe, and Earth we
walk on
 Each substance has a different set of physical properties.
 Mixtures may be homogeneous (uniform) or heterogeneous (nonuniform).
 If we know the physical properties of the individual components of the mixture, we can
use appropriate. physical means to separate the mixture into its component parts.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton (1766-1844)
1. All matter is composed of very tiny particles, which Dalton called atoms.
2. All atoms of the same element have the same chemical properties. Atoms of different
elements have different chemical properties.
3. In ordinary chemical reactions, no atom of any element disappears or is changed into an
atom of another element.
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more of the same or
different kinds of atoms.
5. Molecules are a tightly bound combination of two or more atoms that acts as a single
unit.
Evidence for Dalton’s Theory
Law of Conservation of Mass
 According to French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, matter can be neither created
nor destroyed (no detectable change in mass in an ordinary chemical reaction).
 As Dalton explained, if matter is made up of indestructible atoms, then any chemical
reaction just changes the attachments among atoms, but does not destroy the atoms
themselves.
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 Law of Constant Composition: any compound is always made up of elements in the

same proportion by mass. Ex: H20 and H202.
 Thus, If atomic ratio of elements in a compound is fixed, then their proportions by mass
must also be fixed
 Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
Law of Conservation of Mass
1. Monatomic elements consist of single atoms; for example, helium (He) and neon (Ne).
2. Diatomic elements: There are seven elements that occur as diatomic molecules:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2
3. Polyatomic elements: Some elements have three or more atoms per molecule:
O3, P4, S8
 Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded together to form one gigantic
cluster.
Three Subatomic Particles
 Proton has a positive charge +1 and a mass of approximately

 The unit of mass is given in atomic mass units (amu).
 One amu is defined as the mass of an atom of carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its
nucleus.
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g
 Electron has a charge of -1 and a mass of approximately 0.0005 amu. Takes 1837
electrons to equal the mass of 1 proton.
 Neutron: mass of 1 amu but zero charge.

 Nucleus: center of atom (protons and electrons)
A Typical Atom Mass and Atomic Number
Mass number (A): The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
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Introduction to sizes
Figure 2-6 Relative General,
of Organic, and Biochemistry 11ed | 2 nd Year, 2nd Semester
the atomic nucleus and an
atom.
 The mass of the electrons in an atom is so small compared to

that of its protons and neutrons that electrons are not counted
in determining mass number.
Atomic number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
 A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as carbon-12.
Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
 Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons
Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes.
• Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and 24.23% chlorine-37 (20
neutrons).
Atomic Weight
Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in amu) of the naturally occurring
isotopes of an element.
Example: Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 and 24.23% chlorine-37
Mass and Size of an Atom

Consider an atom of lead-208.
 A lead-208 atom has 82 protons, 82 electrons, and 208 - 82 = 126 neutrons.
 The mass of a lead-208 atom is 3.5 x 10-22 g.
 It requires 1.3 x 1024 atoms of lead-208 to make 1 lb.
 The diameter of a lead-208 atom is 3.1 x 10-10 m.
 Virtually all of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus, because the nucleus
contains its protons and neutrons.
 The diameter of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 10-14 m.
 The density of a lead-208 nucleus is 1.6 x 1014 g/cm3.
Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)
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 Arranged the known elements in order of increasing atomic weight beginning with
hydrogen.
 He observed that when elements are arranged in this manner, certain sets of properties
recur periodically.
 He then arranged elements with recurring sets of properties in the same column
(vertical row); Li, Na, and K, for example, fall in the same column and start new periods
(horizontal rows).
Four Halogens (7A)
 Gases – Flourine and Chlorine
 Liquid – Bromine
 Solid – Iodine
 Families: the elements in the vertical columns of the Periodic Table

 Main-Group Elements: The chemical in the A groups (Group 1A, 2A, and 3A-8A) of the
periodic table.
 Transition Elements (3B-2B or Group 3-12)
 Inner Transition Elements (Elements 58-71 & 90-103): The bottom part of the periodic
table.
Classification of the Elements
Metals
 Are solids at room temperature (except for Hg, which is a liquid), shiny, conduct
electricity, and are ductile and malleable.
 Form alloys (solutions of one metal dissolved in another); brass, for example, is an alloy
of copper and zinc.
 Only 24 are not metal (94 metals)
 In chemical reactions, they tend to give up electrons.
Nonmetals
 Except for hydrogen (H), they lie on the right side of the Periodic Table (18 nonmetals)
 Except for graphite, do not conduct electricity.
 In chemical reactions, they tend to accept electrons
 Group 8A (Noble Gases)
Metalloids
 They have some of the properties of metals and some of nonmetals; for example, they
are shiny like metals but, unlike metals, do not conduct electricity.
 Six elements are classified as metalloids:
Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), and
Tellurium (Te).
 One of the metalloids, silicon, is a semiconductor; it does not conduct electricity under
certain applied voltages, but becomes a conductor at higher applied voltages.
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Electron Configuration
Electron configuration: The arrangement of electrons in the extranuclear space.
 The energy of electrons in an atom is quantized, which means that an electron in an
atom can have only certain allowed energies.
Ground-state electron configuration: The electron configuration of the lowest energy state of
an atom.
Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from lowest

to highest. For elements in the first three periods; the order is
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1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d (Figure 2-13) Energy levels for orbitals through the third shell.
Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with spins paired.
 With four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and
are written 1s2 2s2.
 With an additional six electrons, the three 2p orbitals are
filled and are written either 2px2 2py2 2pz2, or they may be
written 2p6.
 Orbitals have definite shapes and orientations in space.
Figure 2-14 The pairing of electron spins
Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy, each

orbital becomes half filled before any of them becomes
completely filled.
 Example: After the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled, a 5th electron is put into the 2px, a 6th
into the 2py, and a 7th into the 2pz. Only after each 2p orbital has one electron is a
second added to any 2p orbital.
Al13 =
Cl 17 =
Orbital box diagrams

 A box represents an orbital.
 An arrow represents an electron.
 A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions represents a pair of electrons with
paired spins.
Example: carbon (atomic number 6)
Electron configuration
Expanded: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Condensed:1s2 2s2 2p2
s = 1 box
p = 3 boxes
d = 5 boxes
f = 7 boxes
Noble gas notation
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 The symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the particular atom indicates the
electron configuration of all filled
shells Electron
Configuration Noble Gas
Example: carbon (atomic number 6) Orbital box diagram (condensed) Notation
2 2 2 2 2
1s 2s 2p [He]2s 2p
Valence shell: The outermost incomplete
shell.
Valence electron: An electron in the valence shell.
Lewis dot structure:
 The symbol of the element represents the nucleus and filled shells.
Figure 2-15 Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.
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Periodic Property
 As we have seen, the Periodic Table was constructed on the basis of trends (periodicity)
in chemical properties.
 With an understanding of electron configuration, chemists realized that the periodicity of
chemical properties could be understood in terms of periodicity in electron configuration.
 The Periodic Table worked because elements in the same column (group) have the
same configuration in their outer shells.
 We look at two periodic properties: Atomic size and ionization energy.
Atomic Size
The size (radius) of an atom is determined by the radius of its
outermost occupied orbitals.
• Example: The radius of a chlorine atom (99 pm) is
determined by the size of its three 3p orbitals, the radius
of a carbon atom (77 pm) is determined by the size of its
three 2p orbitals.
Figure 2-16 Atomic radii of the main-group elements (in picometers).
Ionization Energy
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Ionization energy: The energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from an atom
in the gaseous state.
Example: When lithium loses one electron, it becomes a lithium ion; it still has three
protons in its nucleus, but now only two electrons outside the nucleus, and therefore has a
positive charge.
Ionization energy is a periodic property:
 In general, it increases across a row; valence electrons are in the same shell and
subject to increasing attraction as the number of protons in the nucleus increases.
 It increases going up a column; the valence electrons are in lower principle energy
levels, which are closer to the nucleus and feel the nuclear charge more strongly.
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CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL BONDS

What you need to know:
 Atoms in compounds are held together by powerful forces of attraction called chemical
bonds
 There are two main types of bonds: IONIC BONDS and COVALENT Bonds
Lewis Model of Bonding
In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis pointed out that the lack of chemical reactivity of the noble gases
indicates a high degree of stability of their electron configurations. All valence shells are filled.
The Octet Rule

Octet rule: The tendency of group 1A-7A elements to react in ways that achieve an electron
configuration of EIGHT valence electrons.
 An atom that loses one or more electrons becomes a positively charged ion called an
cation. They would lose electrons so that they can have an electron configuration like
the noble gas nearest it.
 An atom that gains one or more electrons becomes a negatively charged ion called a
anion. These are for atoms with almost eight valence electrons, they just need to gain a
few more electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.
Example: In losing one electron, a sodium atom forms a sodium ion, which has the same
electron configuration as neon.
Example: In gaining one electron, a chlorine atom

forms a chloride ion, which has the same electron configuration as argon.
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The octet rule gives us a good way to understand why Group 1A-7A elements form the ions
they do; but it is not perfect. Here are some exceptions to the rule:
• Ions of Period 1A and 2A elements with charges greater than +2 are unstable.
For example, boron does not lose its three valence electrons to become B3+, nor
does carbon lose its four valence electrons to become C4+ .
• Ions of Period 1B and 2B elements with charges greater than -2 are also
unstable. For example, carbon does not gain four valence electrons to become
C4- .
• The octet rule does not apply to Group 1B-7B (transition elements), most of
which form ions with two or more different positive charges.
A. Naming Monatomic Cations
 Monatomic (containing only 1 atom)

 Elements of Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A form only one type of cation.
 The name of the cation is the name of the metal followed by the word “ion”.
For naming cations derived from transition and inner transition elements, most of which form
more than one type of cation, there are two options:
 Use a Roman numeral enclosed in parentheses following the name of the element to
show the charge. or
 Use the suffix -ous to show the lower positive charge and
 the suffix -ic to show the higher positive charge.
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B. Naming Monatomic Anions

For monatomic (containing only one atom) anions, add ide to the stem name.
 Here are the monatomic anions we deal with most often:
C. Naming Polyatomic Ions
Forming Chemical Bonds (Two Major Types of Chemical Bond)

According to the Lewis model:
 An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire a filled valence shell and
become an ion. An ionic bond is the result of the force of attraction between a cation and
an anion.
 An atom may share electrons with one or more other atoms to acquire a filled
valence shell. A covalent bond is the result of the force of attraction between two atoms
that share one or more pairs of electrons.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity: A measure an atom’s attraction for the electrons it shares in a chemical
bond with another atom.
 On the Pauling scale, fluorine, the most electronegative element is

assigned a value of 4.0, and all other elements are assigned values
relative to fluorine.
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 Electronegativity is a periodic property and depends on nuclear charge and the distance
of the valence electrons from the nucleus.
Ionic Compounds
According to the Lewis model, an ionic bond is formed by the transfer of one or more valence
electrons from an atom of lower electronegativity to an atom of higher electronegativity.
 The more electronegative atom gains one or more valence electrons and becomes an
anion.
 The less electronegative atom loses one or more valence electrons and becomes a
cation.
 The compound formed by the combination of an anion and a cation is called an
ionic compound.
Forming an Ionic Compound
In forming sodium chloride, NaCl, one electron is transferred from a sodium atom to a chlorine
atom.
We use a single-headed curved arrow to show this transfer of one electron.
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Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds

The total number of positive charges must equal the total number of negative charges.
 Lithium ion, Li+, and bromide ion, Br-, form LiBr.

 Barium ion, Ba2+, and iodide ion, I-, form BaI2.
 Aluminum ion, Al3+, and sulfide ion, S2-, form Al2S3.
 Sodium ion, Na+, and bicarbonate ion, HCO3-, form NaHCO3.
 Potassium ion, K+, and phosphate ion, PO43-, form K3PO4.
Naming Ionic Compounds
To name a binary ionic compound:
 The name of the metal from which the positive ion is formed followed by the name of the
negative ion; subscripts are not directly specified in the name.
 AlCl3 is aluminum chloride
 LiBr is lithium bromide
 Ag2S is silver sulfide
 MgO is magnesium oxide
 KCl is potassium chloride
 LiH is lithium hydride
To name binary ionic compounds of metals that form two or more different cations:
 For systematic names, use a Roman numeral enclosed in parentheses following the
name to show the charge on the metal ion; for common names, use the appropriate
-ous, -ic suffix.
 CuO is copper(II) oxide; cupric oxide
 Cu2O is copper(I) oxide; cuprous oxide
 FeO is iron(II) oxide; ferrous oxide
 Fe2O3 is iron(III) oxide; ferric oxide
To name ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions:
Name the positive ion first (using the appropriate rules) followed by the name of the negative
ion.
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 NaNO3 is sodium nitrate

 CaCO3 is calcium carbonate
 NaH2PO4 is sodium dihydrogen phosphate
 NH4OH is ammonium hydroxide
 FeCO3 is iron(II) carbonate; ferrous carbonate
 Fe2(CO3)3 is iron(III) carbonate; ferric carbonate
 CuSO4 is copper(II) sulfate; cupric sulfate
 BaH2 is barium hydride
Forming a Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed by sharing one or more pairs of electrons.
 The pair of electrons is shared by both atoms and, at the same time, fills the valence
shell of each atom.
 Example: in forming H2
Polarity of Covalent Bonds
Although all covalent bonds involve sharing of electron pairs, they differ in the equality of the
sharing:
 Nonpolar covalent bond: Electrons are shared equally.

 Polar covalent bond: Electron sharing is not equal.
The equality of the sharing depends on the RELATIVE ELECTRONEGATIVITIES of the bonded
atoms
In a polar covalent bond:

 the more electronegative atom attracts the shared
electrons more strongly and acquires a partial
negative charge; indicated by - or the head of a
crossed arrow.
 the less electronegative atom attracts the shared
electrons less strongly and acquires a partial positive
charge; indicated by + or the tail of a crossed arrow
 This partial separation of charge produces a DIPOLE
Drawing a Lewis Structure
1. Determine the number of valence electrons in the molecule. For a cation, subtract one
electron for each positive charge on it. For an anion, add one electron for each negative
charge on it.
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2. Determine the connectivity of atoms.

3. Connect the atoms by single bonds.
4. Show bonding electrons as a single line; show nonbonding electrons as a pair of Lewis
dots.
5. In a single bond, atoms share one pair of electrons; in a double bond, they share two
pairs, and in a triple bond they share three pairs.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Atoms of Period 2 elements use 2s and 2p orbitals for bonding:
 These four orbitals can contain a maximum of 8 electrons; hence the octet rule.
Atoms of Period 3 elements have one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, and five 3d orbitals:
 These nine orbitals can accommodate more than eight electrons, by using 3d orbitals;
period 3 atoms can have more than eight electrons in their valence shells.
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compound: A compound in which all bonds are covalent.
Naming binary molecular compounds:
 The less electronegative element is

named first (it is generally written
first in the formula).
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 Prefixes “di-”, tri-”, etc. are used to show the number of atoms of each element; the
prefix “mono-” is omitted when it refers to the first atom, and is rarely used with the
second atom. Exception: carbon monoxide
 NO is nitrogen oxide (common name: nitric oxide)
 SF2 is sulfur difluoride
 N2O is dinitrogen oxide (common name: laughing gas)
Resonance
For many molecules and ions, no single Lewis structure provides a truly accurate
representation.
Figure 3-3 Three Lewis strictures for the carbonate ion
Linus Pauling - 1930s
 Many molecules and ions are best described by writing two or more Lewis structures.
These molecules or ions are said to exhibit resonance.
 Individual Lewis structures are called contributing structures.
 Double-headed (resonance) arrows are placed between individual contributing
structures.
 The molecule or ion is a hybrid of the various contributing structures.
Figure 3-4 The carbonate ion represented as a hybrid of three equivalent contributing structures.
All contributing structures must:

1. Have the same number of valence electrons.
2. Obey the rules of covalent bonding.
 No more than 2 electrons in the valence shell of H.
 No more than 8 electrons in the valence shell of a 2nd period element.
 3rd period elements, such as P and S, may have up to 12 electrons in their
valence shells.
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3. Differ only in distribution of valence electrons; the position of all nuclei must be the
same.
4. Have the same number of paired and unpaired electrons
Curved Arrow
Curved arrow: A symbol used to show the redistribution of valence electrons:
 the tail of the arrow identifies a pair of electrons whose location is changing.
 the head of the arrow identifies the new location of the involved pair of electrons.
In using curved arrows, there are only two allowed types of electron redistribution:
 from a bond to an adjacent atom.
 from an atom to an adjacent bond.
VSEPR Model
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
 Valence electrons of an atom may be involved in forming single, double, or triple bonds
or they may be unshared.
 Each arrangement of electrons creates a negatively charged region of electron density
around a nucleus.
 Because like charges repel each other, the various regions of electron density around an
atom spread so that each is as far away as possible from the others.
Predict the shape of a methane molecule, CH4.
 The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by four regions of

electron density.
 According to VSEPR, the four regions radiate from carbon at
angles of 109.5°. The electron pair geometry is tetrahedral, and
the shape of the molecule is tetrahedral.
 Figure 3-6 The shape of methane molecule.
Figure 3-8 The shape of a water molecule, H2O.
• The Lewis structure shows oxygen surrounded by four regions of

electron density.
• The electron pair geometry is tetrahedral, and the shape of the
molecule is bent.
• The measured H-O-H bond angle is 104.5°.
Figure 3-9 The shape of a formaldehyde CH2O.

 The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by three regions of electron density.
 According to the VSEPR, the three regions radiate from carbon at angles of 120°. The
electron pair geometry is trigonal, and the molecule is trigonal planar.
25
Figure 3-9 The shape of an ethylene molecule, C2H4.

 The Lewis structure shows carbon
surrounded by three regions of electron
density.
 According to VSEPR, the three regions
radiate from carbon at angles of 120°.
Each carbon is trigonal planar, and the
shape of the molecule is planar.
Figure 3-10 The shape of an acetylene molecule, C2H2.
 The Lewis structure shows carbon
surrounded by two regions of electron
density.
 According to VSEPR, the two regions
radiate from each carbon atom at an
angle of 180° and the shape of the
molecule is linear.
 The measured H-C-C bond angle is 180°.
Molecular Polarity
A molecule will be polar if:
 it has polar bonds and
26
 its centers of partial positive and partial negative charges do not coincide with the result
that one region of the molecule attains a net partial positive charge and another attains a
partial negative charge.
Carbon dioxide, CO2, has two polar C=O bonds but, because of its geometry, CO2 is a
nonpolar molecule.
Ammonia, NH3, has three polar bonds and, because of its geometry, is a polar molecule.
Water, H2O, has two polar bonds and, because of its geometry, is a polar molecule.
Both dichloromethane, CH2Cl2, and formaldehyde, CH2O, have polar bonds and are polar
molecules. Acetylene, C2H2, is a nonpolar molecule.
27
CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL REACTIONS

In a chemical reaction, one or more reactants is converted to one or more products.
Reactant(s) Product(s)
In this chapter we discuss three aspects of chemical reactions:
a) mass relationships (stoichiometry).
b) types of reactions.
c) heat gain and loss accompanying reactions.
Chemical Equations
Combustion: Burning in air
The following chemical equation tells us that combustion of propane gas gives carbon dioxide
gas and water vapor.
But while it tells us what the reactants and products are and the physical state of each, it is
incomplete because it is not balanced, because the number of atoms on the left is not the same
as the number on the right
Balancing Equation
How to balance a chemical equation.
 Begin with atoms that appear only in one compound on the left and one on the right; in
this case, begin with carbon (C) which occurs in C3H8 and CO2.
 Now balance hydrogen atoms, which occur in C3H8 and H2O:
 If an atom occurs as a free element, as for example O2, balance it last:
Balance These Equations
28
It is common practice to use only whole numbers. Therefore,

multiply all coefficients by 2, which gives:
Final Answer:
*Hint: Remember that polyatomic ions such as SO32- and PO43- remain intact on both sides of
the equation.
Reaction Between Ions
Ionic compounds, also called salts, consist of both positive and negative ions.
When a soluble ionic compound dissolves in water, it dissociates to solvated ions.
What happens when we mix aqueous solutions of two different ionic compounds?
 If two of the ions combine to form a water-insoluble compound, a precipitate forms.

 If all ion combinations are soluble, no change will be observed.
Example:
 Suppose we prepare these two aqueous solutions.
29
 If we mix the two solutions, we have four ions present; of these, Ag+ and Cl- react to form
AgCl(s) which precipitates as a white solid:
Net Ionic Equation
 We can simplify the equation for the formation of AgCl by omitting all ions that do not
participate in the reaction:
 The simplified equation is called a net ionic equation; it shows only the ions that react.
 Ions that do not participate in a reaction are called spectator ions.
Reaction Between Ions
In general, ions in solution react with each other when one of the following can happen:
 Two ions form a compound that is insoluble in water.

 Two ions react to form a gas that escapes from the reaction mixture as bubbles. For
example when we mix aqueous solutions of sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric
acid, the gas carbon dioxide forms (Chapter 9)
 An acid neutralizes a base (Chapter 9).

 One of the ions can oxidize another (Section 5.7).
Solubility Rules: Reaction Between Ions
Following are some generalizations, called solubility rules, about which ionic solids are soluble
in water and which are insoluble.
 All compounds containing Li+,

Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, and NH4+
are soluble.
 All nitrates (NO3-) and
acetates (CH3COO-) are
soluble.
 All common chlorides (Cl-),
bromides (Br-) iodides (l-) and
sulfates (SO42-) are soluble;
exceptions are AgCl, PbCl2,
BaSO4, and PbSO4.
 Most carbonates (CO32-),
phosphates (PO43-), sulfides
30
(S2-), and hydroxides (OH-) are insoluble; exceptions are LiOH, NaOH, KOH, and NH4OH,
which are soluble in.
Oxidation-Reduction
 Oxidation: The loss of electrons.

 Reduction: The gain of electrons.
 Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction: Any reaction in which electrons are transferred
from one species to another.
Example: If we put a piece of zinc metal in a beaker containing a solution of copper(II) sulfate:
 Some of the zinc metal dissolves.

 Some of the copper ions deposit on the zinc metal.
 The blue color of Cu2+ ions gradually disappears.
In this oxidation-reduction reaction
 Zinc metal loses electrons to copper ions.
 Copper ions gain electrons from the zinc.
The electron flow over the wire from Zn to Cu2+ is an electric current that causes the light bulb to
glow
We summarize these oxidation-reduction relationships in this way:
31
Although the definitions of oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons) are
easy to apply to many redox reactions, they are not so easy to apply to others.
 For example, the combustion of methane:
An alternative definition of oxidation-reduction is:
 Oxidation: The gain of oxygen and/or loss of hydrogen.

 Reduction: The loss of oxygen and/or gain of hydrogen.
Using these alternative definitions for the combustion of methane:
In the following example, we are comparing the number of hydrogen atoms in the
carbon-containing reactant and product and oxygen as a reactant and water as a product.
Redox Reactions
Five important types of redox reactions
 Combustion: Burning in air. The products of complete combustion of carbon compounds

are CO2 and H2O.
 Respiration: The process by which living organisms use O 2 to oxidize carbon-containing
compounds to produce CO2 and H2O. The importance of these reactions is not the CO2
produced, but the energy released.
 Rusting: The oxidation of iron to a mixture of iron oxides.
 Bleaching: The oxidation of colored compounds to products which are colorless.

 Batteries: In all cases, the reaction taking place in a battery is a redox-reaction.
Formula Weight
Formula weight (FW): The sum of the atomic weights in atomic mass units (amu) of all atoms
in a compound’s formula.
32
Ionic Compounds
Sodium chloride (NaCl) 23.0 amu Na +35.5 amu Cl =58.5 amu
Nickel(II) chloride hydrate 58.7 amu Ni +2(35.5 amu Cl) +
(NiCl2•6H2O) 12(1.0) amu H) +6(12.0 amu O) =237.7 amu
Molecular Compounds
Water (H2O) 2(1.0 amu H) +16.0 amu O =18.0 amu
Aspirin (C 9H8O4) 9(12.0 amu C) +8(1.0 amu H) +
4(16.0 amu O) =180.0 amu
Formula weight (FW): can be used for both ionic and molecular compounds; it tells nothing
about whether a compound is ionic or molecular.
Molecular weight (MW): should be used only for molecular compounds.
In this text, we use formula weight for both ionic and covalent compounds and molecular
weight for molecular compounds.
The Mole
Mole (mol)
 Mole: The amount of substance that contains as many atoms, molecules, or ions as are
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
 A mole, whether it is a mole of iron atoms, a mole of methane molecules, or a mole of
sodium ions, always contains the same number of formula units.
 The number of formula units in a mole is known as Avogadro’s number. Avogadro’s
number has been measured experimentally.
o Its value is 6.02214199 x 1023 formula units per mole.
Molar Mass
Molar mass: The formula weight of a substance expressed in grams.
Glucose, C6H12O6
 molecular weight: 180 amu

 molar mass: 180 g/mol
 one mole of glucose has a mass of 180 g
Urea, (NH2)2CO
 molecular weight: 60.0 amu

 molar mass: 60.0 g/mol
 one mole of urea has a mass of 60.0 g
We can use molar mass to convert from grams to moles, and
from moles to grams.
Calculate the number of mol of water in 36.0 g of water.
33
1.00 mol H2O

36.0 g H 2O x =2.00 mol H 2O
18.0 g H2O
Grams to Mole
Calculate the number of moles of sodium ions, Na+, in 5.63 g of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4.
 First, find the how many moles of sodium sulfate.

 The formula weight of Na2SO4 is:
2(23.0) + 32.1 + 4(16.0) = 142.1 amu
 Therefore, 1 mol of Na2SO4 = 142.1 g Na2SO4.

1.00 mol Na2SO4
5.63 g Na2SO4 x = 0.0396 mol Na2SO4
142.1 g Na2SO4
 The formula Na2SO4 tells us there are two moles of Na+ ions and one mole of SO42-
ions per mole of Na2SO4.
+
0.0396 mol Na2SO4 x 2 mol Na = 0.0792 mol Na+
1 mol Na2SO4
Grams to Molecules
A tablet of aspirin, C9H8O4, contains 0.360 g of aspirin. How many molecules of aspirin are
present?
 First, find how many mol of aspirin are in 0.360 g.

1 mol aspirin
0.360 g aspirin x = 0.00200 mol aspirin
180.0 g aspirin
 Each mol of aspirin contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules.

 The number of molecules of aspirin in the tablet is
0.00200 mol x 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 1.20 x 1021 molecules

mol
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry: The study of mass
relationships in chemical reactions.
Following is an overview of the types of
calculations we study for the conversion
of a reactant (A) to a product (B).
Problem: How many grams of nitrogen,
N2, are required to produce 7.50 g of
ammonia, NH3, given the following
balanced equation.
34
 First find how many mol of NH3 are in 7.50 g of NH3.

1 mol NH3
7.50 g NH3 x = mol NH3
17.0 gNH3
 Next find how many mol of N2 are required to produce this many mol of NH3.
1 mol NH3 1 mol N2

7.50 g NH3 x x =mol N2
17.0 gNH3 2 mol NH3
 Finally, put the two conversions together and do the math.

1 mol NH3 1 mol N2 28.0 g N 2
7.50 g NH3 x x x =6.18 g N2
17.0 g NH3 2 mol NH3 1 mol N2
Limiting Reagents
Limiting reagent: the reagent that is used up first in a chemical reaction.
 Consider this reaction of N2 and O2:
 In this experiment, there is only enough O2 to react with 1.0 mole of N2.
 O2 is used up first. It is the limiting reagent.
 moles of N2 remain unreacted. It is the reagent in excess.
Percent Yield
Actual yield: The mass of product formed in a chemical reaction and recovered in the
laboratory.
Theoretical yield: The mass of product that should form according to the stoichiometry of the
balanced chemical equation.
Percent yield: Actual yield divided by theoretical Percent yield = Actual yield
x 100
yield times 100. Theoretical yield
Practice problem: Suppose we react 32.0 g of
methanol with excess carbon monoxide and obtain 58.7 g of acetic acid. Complete this table:
35
57.8 acetic acid

Percent Yield = x 100% = 96.3%
60.0 g acetic acid
Heat of Reaction
In almost all chemical reactions, heat is either given off or absorbed.
 Example: The combustion (oxidation) of carbon liberates 94.0 kcal per mol of carbon
oxidized
Heat of reaction: The heat given off or absorbed in a chemical reaction.
 Exothermic reaction: One that gives off heat.

 Endothermic reaction: One that absorbs heat.
 Heat of combustion: The heat given off in a combustion reaction; all combustion
reactions are exothermic.
36
CHAPTER 5: GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS
Gas Pressure
Gas pressure: Pressure is force per unit area exerted against a surface.
 Most commonly measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), atmospheres (atm), and
torr.
 Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer (next screen).

 The pressure of a confined gas is measured using a manometer.
Gas Laws
Boyle’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature, the volume is inversely
proportional to the pressure.
Charles’s Law: For a fixed volume of gas at a constant pressure, the volume is directly
proportional to the temperature in kelvins (K).
Gay-Lussac’s Law: For a fixed mass of gas at

constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to
the temperature in kelvins (K).
37
Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Gay-Lussac’s law can be combined into one law called the
combined gas law.
Problem: A gas occupies 3.00 L at 2.00 atm. Calculate its volume when the pressure is 10.15
atm at the same temperature.
Begin with the combined gas law and solve for V2. Because the temperature is constant T1 = T2
Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law: Equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same numbers of molecules.
 The actual temperature and pressure at which we compare two or more gases does
not matter.
 For convenience in making comparisons, chemists have selected one pressure as a
standard pressure, and one temperature as a standard temperature.
 The standard temperature and pressure (STP) selected are 0°C (273 K) and 1
atm pressure.
 All gases at STP or any other combination of pressure and temperature contain the
same number of molecules in a given volume. But how many molecules is that?
 One mole contains 6.022 x 10 23 formula units; what volume of gas at STP contains
this many molecules?
 This quantity has been measured and is 22.4 L.
 Thus, one mole of any gas at STP occupies 22.4 L
Ideal Gas Laws
Avogadro’s law allows us to write a gas law that is valid not only for any P, V, and T but also for
any mass of gas.
Ideal gas law:
PV = nRT
P = pressure of the gas in atmospheres (atm)
V = volume of the gas in liters (L)
n = moles of the gas (mol)
38
T = temperature in kelvins (K)

R = ideal gas constant (a constant for all gases)
We find the value of R by using the fact that 1.00 mol of any gas at STP occupies 22.4 L.
 Problem: 1.00 mol of CH4 gas occupies 20.0 L at 1.00 atm. What is the temperature of the
gas in kelvins?
 Solution: Solve the ideal gas law for T, plug in the given values, and do the math:
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Dalton’s law of partial pressures: The total pressure, PT, of a mixture of gases is the sum of
the partial pressures, P, of each individual gas:
Problem: To a tank containing N2 at 2.0 atm and O2 at 1.0 atm we add an unknown quantity of
CO2 until the total pressure in the tank is 4.6 atm. What is the partial pressure of CO 2? Answer
1.6 atm CO2.
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

Assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory:
1. Gases consist of particles constantly moving through space in random directions and with
various speeds.
2. Gas particles have no volume.
3. There are no attractive forces between gas particles.
4. The average kinetic energy (KE) of gas particles is proportional to the temperature in
kelvins.
5. Molecular collisions are elastic; when molecules collide, they may exchange KE but the
total KE remains constant.
6. Molecules collide with the walls of their container; these collisions constitute the pressure of
the gas.
Ideal gas: The six assumptions of the KMT give us an idealized picture of the particles of a gas
and their interactions with one another.
Real gases:
 Their atoms or molecules do occupy some volume.
 There are forces of attraction between their atoms or molecules.
39
In reality, no gas is ideal.

 At STP, however, most real gases behave in much the same way as predicted by the
KMT.
Intermolecular Forces
The strength of attractive forces between molecules determines whether any sample of matter
is a gas, liquid, or solid.
 At or near STP, the forces of attraction between molecules of most gases are so small
that they can be ignored.
 When T decreases or P increases or both, the forces of attraction become important to
the point that they cause condensation (gas to liquid) and ultimately solidification (liquid
to solid).
 In order to understand the properties of liquids and solids, we must look at the nature of
these intermolecular forces of attraction.
We discuss three types of intermolecular forces. Their origins are electrostatic, that is, the
attraction between positive and negative charges.
Figure 5-9 London dispersion forces. A temporary polarization of electron density in one atom in turn
induces temporary positive and negative charges in an adjacent atom.
London Dispersion Force
 London dispersion forces exist between all atoms and molecules.

 They are the only forces of attraction between atoms and nonpolar molecules.
40
 They range in strength from 0.01 to 2 kcal/mol depending on mass, size, and shape of
the interacting molecules.
 In general, their strength increases as the mass and number of electrons in a molecule
increases.
 Even though these forces are very weak, they contribute significantly to the attractive
forces between large molecules because they act over large surface areas.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
Dipole-dipole interactions: the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative dipoles.
 Consider butane and acetone, compounds of similar molecular weight.
Butane is a nonpolar molecule. The only interactions between butane molecules are London
forces.
Acetone is a polar molecule. Its molecules are held together in the liquid state by dipole-dipole
interactions.
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond: a noncovalent force of attraction between the partial positive charge on a
hydrogen bonded to an atom of high electronegativity, most commonly O or N, and the partial
negative charge on a nearby O or N.
Figure 5-10 Two water molecules joined by a hydrogen bond.
 The strength of hydrogen bonds ranges from 2 to 10 kcal/mol.

 Their strength in water is approximately 5.0 kcal/mol.
 By comparison, the strength of an O-H covalent bond in a water molecule is 119
kcal/mol.
 Nonetheless, hydrogen bonding in liquid water has an important effect on the physical
properties of water.
 The relatively high boiling point of water is due to hydrogen bonding between water
molecules. Extra energy is required to separate a water molecule from its neighbors.
41
 Hydrogen bonds are not restricted to water; they form whenever there are O-H or N-H
groups.
Liquids
 As pressure increases in a real gas, its molecules come closer and closer with the result
that attractions between molecules become important.
 When distances decrease so that almost all molecules touch or almost touch, a gas
condenses to a liquid.
 In liquids, there is very little space between molecules; consequently, liquids are difficult
to compress.
 The density of liquids is much greater than that of gases because the same mass of
molecules occupies a much smaller volume in the liquid state.
 The position of molecules in a liquid is random and there is irregular space between
them into which other molecules can slide; this causes liquids to be fluid.
Surface Tension
Surface tension: The layer on the surface of a liquid produced by uneven intermolecular
attractions at its surface:
 Molecules in the interior of a liquid have equal intermolecular forces in all directions.
 Molecules at the liquid-gas interface experience a greater attraction toward the interior of
the liquid than toward the gas phase above it.
 Therefore, there is a preferential pull of molecules
on the surface toward the interior of the liquid.
 This preferential pull crowds the molecules on the
surface, and creates a thin elastic skin-like layer.
 Surface tension is directly related to strength of the
intermolecular attraction between molecules.
Evaporation/Condensation
An important property of liquids is that they evaporate.
 In a liquid, there is a distribution of kinetic energies (KE) among its molecules.

 Some have high KE and move rapidly, others have low KE and move more slowly.
 If a molecule at the surface is moving slowly (has a low KE), it cannot escape from the
liquid because of the attractions of neighboring molecules.
 If, however, it is moving more rapidly (has a higher KE) and moving upward, it can
escape the liquid and enter the gaseous space above it.
 If the container is open, this process continues until all molecules escape.
 If the container is closed, molecules remain in the space above the liquid.
 At equilibrium, molecules continue to escape from the liquid while an equal number are
recaptured by it.
 The partial pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with the liquid is called the vapor
pressure of the liquid.
 Vapor pressure is a function of temperature.
42
 Vapor pressure increases with temperature until it equals the atmospheric pressure.
 Boiling point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
Figure 5-12 Evaporation. Some molecules at the Figure 5-14 The change in vapor pressure with
surface of the liquid are moving fast enough to temperature for four liquids. The normal boiling
escape into the gaseous phase. point is defined as the temperature at which its
vapor pressure equals 760 mm Hg.
Boiling Point
Boiling points of covalent compounds depend primarily on two factors:
43
1) the nature and strength of intermolecular forces and

2) molecular size and shape.
Intermolecular forces
 Consider CH4 (MW 16, bp -164 °C) and H2O (MW 18, bp 100 °C). The difference in boiling
points between them is due to the greater strength of hydrogen bonding between water
molecules compared with the much weaker London dispersion forces between methane
molecules.
 Consider methane (left), CH4 (MW 16, bp -164 °C), and hexane C6H14 (right) (MW 86, bp 69
°C). Because of its larger surface area, London dispersion forces are stronger between
hexane molecules than between methane molecules.
Molecular Shape
Molecular shape
 When molecules are similar in every way except shape, the strength of London forces
determines boiling point.
 Both have the same molecular weight.

 2,2-Dimethylpropane is roughly spherical while pentane is a linear molecule.
 Pentane has the higher boiling point because it has the larger surface area and stronger
London dispersion forces between its molecules.
Solids
 Cooling reduces the velocity and kinetic energy of molecule to the point where the
kinetic energy can no longer overcome intermolecular attractive forces. When the
attractive forces between molecules become so strong that random motion stops, a solid
is formed.
Crystallization (solidification): Formation of a solid from a liquid.
Types of Solids
44
Phase Changes
Phase: Any part of a system that looks uniform throughout.
 examples: solid water (ice), liquid water, and gaseous water (steam)
Phase change: A change from one physical state (gas, liquid, or solid) to another.
Figure 5-20 Phase diagram of water.

Temperature and pressure scales are greatly
reduced.
45
Supercritical carbon dioxide

Phase diagram of carbon dioxide
46

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Notes

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Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry 11ed | 2 nd Year, 2nd Semester

CHAPTER 1: MATTER, ENERGY, AND MEASUREMENTS

Metric & English System

Mass & Weight

 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 g

Celsius (C): Defined by setting the normal freezing point of

Kelvin (K): Zero is the lowest possible temperature; also called

Example: Convert 381 grams to pounds.

The Three States of Matter

 KE increases as the object’s velocity increases.

 Law of Constant Composition: any compound is always made up of elements in the

 Proton has a positive charge +1 and a mass of approximately

 Neutron: mass of 1 amu but zero charge.

 The mass of the electrons in an atom is so small compared to

 A carbon atom of this composition is referred to as carbon-12.

Mass and Size of an Atom

 Families: the elements in the vertical columns of the Periodic Table

Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from lowest

Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy, each

Orbital box diagrams

Noble gas notation

Figure 2-15 Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.

Figure 2-16 Atomic radii of the main-group elements (in picometers).

Ionization energy is a periodic property:

CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL BONDS

The Octet Rule

Example: In gaining one electron, a chlorine atom

 Monatomic (containing only 1 atom)

B. Naming Monatomic Anions

 Here are the monatomic anions we deal with most often:

C. Naming Polyatomic Ions

Forming Chemical Bonds (Two Major Types of Chemical Bond)

 On the Pauling scale, fluorine, the most electronegative element is

We use a single-headed curved arrow to show this transfer of one electron.

Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds

 Lithium ion, Li+, and bromide ion, Br-, form LiBr.

 NaNO3 is sodium nitrate

 Nonpolar covalent bond: Electrons are shared equally.

In a polar covalent bond:

2. Determine the connectivity of atoms.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

 The less electronegative element is

Linus Pauling - 1930s

All contributing structures must:

 The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by four regions of

Figure 3-8 The shape of a water molecule, H2O.

• The Lewis structure shows oxygen surrounded by four regions of

Figure 3-9 The shape of a formaldehyde CH2O.

Figure 3-9 The shape of an ethylene molecule, C2H4.

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Now balance hydrogen atoms, which occur in C3H8 and H2O:

 If an atom occurs as a free element, as for example O2, balance it last:

Balance These Equations

It is common practice to use only whole numbers. Therefore,

 If two of the ions combine to form a water-insoluble compound, a precipitate forms.

 Suppose we prepare these two aqueous solutions.

Net Ionic Equation

 Two ions form a compound that is insoluble in water.

 An acid neutralizes a base (Chapter 9).

 All compounds containing Li+,

 Oxidation: The loss of electrons.

 Some of the zinc metal dissolves.

 Zinc metal loses electrons to copper ions.