NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how they interact.
While Newton's laws may seem obvious to us today, more than three centuries ago they were
considered revolutionary.

Newton's laws pertain to the motion of massive bodies in an inertial reference frame, sometimes
called a Newtonian reference frame, although Newton himself never described such a reference
frame. An inertial reference frame can be described as a 3-dimensional coordinate system that is
either stationary or in uniform linear motion., i.e., it is not accelerating or rotating. He found that
motion within such an inertial reference frame could be described by three simple laws. 

The First Law of Motion states, "A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain
in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force." This simply means that things cannot start,
stop, or change direction all by themselves. It takes some force acting on them from the outside to
cause such a change. This property of massive bodies to resist changes in their state of motion is
sometimes called inertia. 

The Second Law of Motion describes what happens to a massive body when it is acted upon by an
external force. It states, "The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its
acceleration." This is written in mathematical form as F = ma, where F is force, m is mass, and a is
acceleration. The bold letters indicate that force and acceleration are vector quantities, which means
they have both magnitude and direction. The force can be a single force, or it can be the vector sum
of more than one force, which is the net force after all the forces are combined. 

When a constant force acts on a massive body, it causes it to accelerate, i.e., to change its velocity,
at a constant rate. In the simplest case, a force applied to an object at rest causes it to accelerate in
the direction of the force. However, if the object is already in motion, or if this situation is viewed from
a moving reference frame, that body might appear to speed up, slow down, or change direction
depending on the direction of the force and the directions that the object and reference frame are
moving relative to each other. 

The Third Law of Motion states, "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction." This
law describes what happens to a body when it exerts a force on another body. Forces always occur in
pairs, so when one body pushes against another, the second body pushes back just as hard. For
example, when you push a cart, the cart pushes back against you; when you pull on a rope, the rope
pulls back against you; when gravity pulls you down against the ground, the ground pushes up
against your feet; and when a rocket ignites its fuel behind it, the expanding exhaust gas pushes on
the rocket causing it to accelerate. 

If one object is much, much more massive than the other, particularly in the case of the first object
being anchored to the Earth, virtually all of the acceleration is imparted to the second object, and the
acceleration of the first object can be safely ignored. For instance, if you were to throw a baseball to
the west, you would not have to consider that you actually caused the rotation of the Earth to speed
up ever so slightly while the ball was in the air. However, if you were standing on roller skates, and
you threw a bowling ball forward, you would start moving backward at a noticeable speed. 
NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVIATION

Key Points

 Sir Isaac Newton’s inspiration for the Law of Universal Gravitation was from the dropping of an
apple from a tree.
  Newton’s insight on the inverse-square property of gravitational force was from intuition about
the motion of the earth and the moon.
 The mathematical formula for gravitational force is [latex]\text{F} = \text{G}\frac{\text{Mm}}
{\text{r}^2}[/latex] where [latex]\text{G}[/latex] is the gravitational constant.

Key Terms

 induction: Use inductive reasoning to generalize and interpret results from applying Newton’s
Law of Gravitation.
 inverse: Opposite in effect or nature or order.

The Law of Universal Gravitation states that every point mass attracts every other point mass in the
universe by a force pointing in a straight line between the centers-of-mass of both points, and this
force is proportional to the masses of the objects and inversely proportional to their separation This
attractive force always points inward, from one point to the other. The Law applies to all objects with
masses, big or small. Two big objects can be considered as point-like masses, if the distance
between them is very large compared to their sizes or if they are spherically symmetric. For these
cases the mass of each object can be represented as a point mass located at its center-of-mass.
Forces on two masses: All masses are attracted to each other. The force is proportional to the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.

PARALLELOGRAM

*include solid mens formulas

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel (and therefore opposite angles equal).
A quadrilateral with equal sides is called a rhombus, and a parallelogram whose angles are all right
angles is called a rectangle.

What are the 4 properties of a parallelogram?

The parallelogram has the following properties:
 Opposite sides are parallel by definition.
 Opposite sides are congruent.
 Opposite angles are congruent.
 Consecutive angles are supplementary.
 The diagonals bisect each other.
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/parallelograms-and-triangles-63
TRIANGLE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION

Statement of Triangle Law

If 2 vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented both in magnitude and
direction by 2 sides of a triangle taken in an order then the resultant(both magnitude and
direction) of these vectors is given by 3rd side of that triangle taken in opposite order.

Derivation of the law

Consider two vectors P and Q acting on a body and represented both in magnitude and
direction by sides OA and AB respectively of a triangle OAB. Let θ be the angle
between P and Q. Let R be the resultant of vectors P and Q. Then, according to triangle
law of vector addition, side OB represents the resultant of P and Q.

        

So, we have

                  R = P + Q
Now, expand A to C and draw BC perpendicular to  OC.

From triangle OCB,

       

In triangle ACB,

              
Also,

              

Magnitude of resultant:
Substituting value of AC and BC in (i), we get

              

which is the magnitude of resultant.

Direction of resultant: Let ø be the angle made by resultant R with P. Then,

From triangle OBC,

              

which is the direction of resultant.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM

The Pythagorean Theorem

https://www.mathsisfun.com/pythagoras.html

One of the best known mathematical formulas is Pythagorean Theorem, which provides us with the relationship between the sides in a
right triangle. A right triangle consists of two legs and a hypotenuse. The two legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is the
longest side of the right triangle and is the side opposite the right angle.

The Pythagorean Theorem tells us that the relationship in every right triangle is:

a2+b2=c2a2+b2=c2

Example

C2=62+42C2=62+42
C2=36+16C2=36+16
C2=52C2=52
C=52−−√C=52
C≈7.2C≈7.2
There are a couple of special types of right triangles, like the 45°-45° right triangles and the 30°-60° right triangle.

Because of their angles it is easier to find the hypotenuse or the legs in these right triangles than in all other right triangles.

In a 45°-45° right triangle we only need to multiply one leg by √2 to get the length of the hypotenuse.

Example

We multiply the length of the leg which is 7 inches by √2 to get the length of the hypotenuse.

7⋅2–√≈9.97⋅2≈9.9
In a 30°-60° right triangle we can find the length of the leg that is opposite the 30° angle by using this formula:

a=12⋅ca=12⋅c

Example
To find a, we use the formula above.

a=12⋅14a=12⋅14
a=7
https://www.mathplanet.com/education/pre-algebra/right-triangles-and-algebra/the-pythagorean-theorem
 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
The principle of transmissibility states that the point of application of a force can be
moved anywhere along its line of action without changing the external reaction
forces on a rigid body. Any force that has the same magnitude and direction, and
which has a point of application somewhere along the same line of action will cause
the same acceleration and will result in the same moment. Therefore, the points of
application of forces may be moved along the line of action to simplify the analysis of
rigid bodies.

Because of the principle of transmissibility, each

of the above pairs is equivalent.

When analyzing the internal forces (stress) in a rigid body, the exact point of
application does matter. This difference in stresses may also result in changes in
geometry which will in turn affect reaction forces. For this reason, the principle of
transmissibility should only be used when examining external forces on bodies that
are assumed to be rigid.
 The exact point of application of a force will impact
how internal forces (stresses) are distributed, so the principle of transmissibility cannot be applied when examining
internal forces.
VECTOR RESOLUTION

Vector resolution can mean a couple of different things, but it boils down to a process where
one vector is broken down into two or more smaller vectors. This includes the process where
a vector is broken into two components, which was discussed in much more detail in another
lesson. But to summarize: a force of 50 newtons acting at 30 degrees above the horizontal
could be described as 43 newtons upwards and 25 newtons sideways. By doing this, we've
broken one vector into two smaller ones, like how 3 + 2 = 5, except in two dimensions. This
allows us to do physics in the x-direction and y-direction separately, which makes problem-
solving much easier.

But during this lesson, we're going to talk about problems where it isn't simply a horizontal
and vertical component. We're going to talk about cases where the two vectors could be in
any direction. A particular vector has any combination of smaller vectors that it could be
broken into: after all, 1 + 5 = 6, but so does 2 + 4 and 3 + 3. Today, we'll go through a case
where one of the numbers is missing, where 2 + BLANK = 6, and how you solve that when
instead of simple numbers, you're dealing with vectors.

The process of determining the magnitude of a vector is known as vector resolution. The two
methods of vector resolution that we will examine are
 the parallelogram method
 the trigonometric method

Parallelogram Method of Vector Resolution

The parallelogram method of vector resolution involves using an accurately drawn, scaled vector
diagram to determine the components of the vector. Briefly put, the method involves drawing the
vector to scale in the indicated direction, sketching a parallelogram around the vector such that the
vector is the diagonal of the parallelogram, and determining the magnitude of the components (the
sides of the parallelogram) using the scale. If one desires to determine the components as directed
along the traditional x- and y-coordinate axes, then the parallelogram is a rectangle with sides that
stretch vertically and horizontally. A step-by-step procedure for using the parallelogram method of
vector resolution is:
1. Select a scale and accurately draw the vector to scale in the indicated direction.
2. Sketch a parallelogram around the vector: beginning at the tail of the vector, sketch vertical and
horizontal lines; then sketch horizontal and vertical lines at the head of the vector; the sketched lines will
meet to form a rectangle (a special case of a parallelogram).
3. Draw the components of the vector. The components are the sides of the parallelogram. The tail of the
components start at the tail of the vector and stretches along the axes to the nearest corner of the
parallelogram. Be sure to place arrowheads on these components to indicate their direction (up, down,
left, right).
4. Meaningfully label the components of the vectors with symbols to indicate which component represents
which side. A northward force component might be labeled F north. A rightward velocity component might be
labeled vx; etc.
5. Measure the length of the sides of the parallelogram and use the scale to determine the magnitude of
the components in real units. Label the magnitude on the diagram.
The step-by-step procedure above is illustrated in the diagram below to show how a velocity vector
with a magnitude of 50 m/s and a direction of 60 degrees above the horizontal may be resolved into
two components. The diagram shows that the vector is first drawn to scale in the indicated direction;
a parallelogram is sketched about the vector; the components are labeled on the diagram; and the
result of measuring the length of the vector components and converting to m/s using the scale.
(NOTE: because different computer monitors have different resolutions, the actual length of the
vector on your monitor may not be 5 cm.)

 
Trigonometric Method of Vector Resolution
The trigonometric method of vector resolution involves using trigonometric functions to determine
the components of the vector. Earlier in lesson 1, the use of trigonometric functions to determine the
direction of a vector was described. Now in this part of lesson 1, trigonometric functions will be used
to determine the components of a single vector. Recall from the earlier discussion that trigonometric
functions relate the ratio of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle to the measure of an acute
angle within the right triangle. As such, trigonometric functions can be used to determine the length
of the sides of a right triangle if an angle measure and the length of one side are known.
The method of employing trigonometric functions to determine the components of a vector are as
follows:
1. Construct a rough sketch (no scale needed) of the vector in the indicated direction. Label its magnitude
and the angle that it makes with the horizontal.
2. Draw a rectangle about the vector such that the vector is the diagonal of the rectangle. Beginning at
the tail of the vector, sketch vertical and horizontal lines. Then sketch horizontal and vertical lines at
the head of the vector. The sketched lines will meet to form a rectangle.
3. Draw the components of the vector. The components are the sides of the rectangle. The tail of each
component begins at the tail of the vector and stretches along the axes to the nearest corner of the
rectangle. Be sure to place arrowheads on these components to indicate their direction (up, down, left,
right).
4. Meaningfully label the components of the vectors with symbols to indicate which component represents
which side. A northward force component might be labeled F north. A rightward force velocity component
might be labeled vx; etc.
5. To determine the length of the side opposite the indicated angle, use the sine function. Substitute the
magnitude of the vector for the length of the hypotenuse. Use some algebra to solve the equation for the
length of the side opposite the indicated angle.
6. Repeat the above step using the cosine function to determine the length of the side adjacent to the
indicated angle.
The above method is illustrated below for determining the components of the force acting upon Fido.
As the 60-Newton tension force acts upward and rightward on Fido at an angle of 40 degrees, the
components of this force can be determined using trigonometric functions.
 
 
 
In conclusion, a vector directed in two dimensions has two components - that is, an influence in two
separate directions. The amount of influence in a given direction can be determined using methods of
vector resolution. Two methods of vector resolution have been described here - a graphical
method (parallelogram method) and a trigonometric method.
 
 Type of Force Description of Force

(and Symbol)

An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object. If

  person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon th
Applied Force object. The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.

 
Fapp

The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large
  object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the obje
Gravity Force The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as found by the
equation:
  Fgrav = m * g
(also known as
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)
Weight)
and m = mass (in kg)
 
Fgrav

Normal Force The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with
another stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface
  exerting an upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the book. On
Fnorm occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that are in contac
with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizonta
on the person.
Return to Top

Friction Force The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or make
an effort to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and st
  friction. Though it is not always the case, the friction force often opposes the motion of
Ffrict object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk, then the desk exerts
friction force in the opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from the two surface
being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces between molecu
of different surfaces. As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and
upon the degree to which they are pressed together. The maximum amount of friction
force that a surface can exert upon an object can be calculated using the formula below
Ffrict = µ • Fnorm
The friction force is discussed in more detail later on this page.
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Air Resistance Force The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they trav
through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an
object. This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and due
 the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most noticeable for
  objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects wit
Fair large surface areas. Air resistance will be discussed in more detail in Lesson 3.
Return to Top

Tension Force The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire
when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is directed
  along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the
Ftens wire.
Return to Top

Spring Force The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any obj
that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted up
  by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs
Fspring (specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the force
directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the spring.

Electrical Force- The repulsive or attractive interaction between any two charged bodies is calle
as an electric force. Similar to any force, its impact and effects on the given body are described
by Newton’s laws of motion. The electric force is among the list of other forces that exert over object

The examples of electric force are as mentioned below:

 The charge in a bulb.

 Electric circuits.
 Static friction between cloth when rubbed by a dryer.
 The shock that is felt after touching a doorknob.
The electric force can also be viewed through current electricity like copper wiring that carries power
the whole building. The electrostatic force exhibits electric energy through static charges like cathode
ray tubes in TVs and electrostatic spray painting.

Magnetic Force- Magnetic

Force can be defined as the attractive
or repulsive force that is exerted between the poles of a
magnet and electrically charged moving particles. It is a
consequence of the electromagnetic force.
Examples of magnetic force is a compass, a motor, the magnets that hold stuff on the
 refrigerator, train tracks, and new roller coasters. All moving charges give rise to
a magnetic field and the charges that move through its regions, experience a force.

Types of Forces
 The Meaning of Force
 Types of Forces
 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams
 Determining the Net Force
A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another object. There
are a variety of types of forces. Previously in this lesson, a variety of force types were placed into two
broad category headings on the basis of whether the force resulted from the contact or non-contact
of the two interacting objects.
 
Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces
Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force  
Applied Force  
Spring Force  
What is a scalar?

A scalar is a quantity that is fully described by a magnitude only. It is described by just a single number. Some
examples of scalar quantities include speed, volume, mass, temperature, power, energy, and time.

What is a vector?

A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction. Vector quantities are important in the study of
motion. Some examples of vector quantities include force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, and
momentum.
What is force?

In physics, force is a push or pull on an object. A force can cause an object to accelerate, slow down, remain in
place, or change shape.
 Criteria Scalar Vector

A scalar is a quantity with A vector is a quantity with the

Definition
magnitude only. magnitude as well as direction.

Direction No direction Yes there is the direction

A number (Magnitude) and a A number (magnitude), direction and a

Specified by
Unit unit.

Represented Quantity symbol in bold or an arrow

Quantity symbol
by sign above

Example Mass and Temperature Velocity and Acceleration