Numerical Control Machining

Numerical Control Machining 1 NC Principles/General Types

1.1 NC principles

On manually operated machine tools, the machining of a component starts with the machine tool
operators studying the drawing and then determining the sequence of machining according to the
design requirement of the components, which would normally be size and tolerance, surface finish and
geometric accuracy. After the workpiece and tools have been mounted on the machine, the operator
manually command their positions and relative motions to machine the workpiece. Therefore, tool and
material positioning and control
and process feedback are
governed by the machine
operator. Quality of product
also depends on this machine
operator. As a consequence of
this, the quality of the product
and the rate of output also
directly depend on this
individual.

Since the industrial revolution

(c1750s) automation has been
introduced into processes
where large quantities of output
of the same kind of product are
Figure 1: The manually operated machine tool closed loop control
required. Initially these
system. included many updates to
existing conventional machine
tools, such as redesigning the centre lathe to incorporate a capstan or turret feature. The operator still
had to start and stop the machine, choose/set speeds and feeds and change tools (if required).

Eventually however, pre-computer, automatic machines were controlled via mechanical systems such
as cams, linkage mechanisms, mechanical stops, etc. This was termed 'hard' automation and the
processes concerned took a long time to set up and required the output of large quantities of the same
parts to justify this. For complex profiles special cam followers were required as well as form tools,
which were very expensive and had to be manufactured for each component type; thus adding to the
cost of the product. Due to this increased set up time and increased tooling costs larger batches of
components were need for economic justification.

In the 1950s, numerical control (NC) systems - sometimes called hardwired systems - appeared and the
computer replaced the operator for many of the manufacturing process control requirements. Nowadays
in a batch production manufacturing environment the operator is usually replaced by computer control of
some kind. Having evolved from NC, CNC (Computer Numerical Control) is an extended form of NC
which has a computer integrated with the machine control unit (MCU). This enables on-the-machine
editing to take place as well as other interactive functions. Controllers can now be networked into
company networks and Intranets.

Within NC, decisions are made by binary control. The electronic system converts these decisions to
physical movements of machine elements. Traditionally, before part programs could be stored in the
computer memory they had to be held on paper or magnetic tape. Nowadays, the machine control unit
would have a PC emulation controller, which could receive programs directly from a central database.

In NC machining, the control of the machine’s motion is carried out by a machine control unit (MCU). In
modern NC technology the MCU is a microcomputer
that stores the program and executes it by converting
each command into actions via the associated
processing equipment. It sends position commands to
the motion axes, the movement and position of the
carriages and worktables on which the tools or work
are mounted. As a component is being machined the
system is monitored through feedback devices, such
as encoders, optical gratings, etc which trigger system
adjustments. The feedback is used to correct the
machine motions so that the amount of movement is
(http://www.ssplprints.com/image.php?id=83209)
Accessed 12/12/2013 controlled to the specified requirements, ensuring that
the actual size of the work is within tolerance. A
hardware concept of an NC system is illustrated in
Figure 2.
Figure 2: A basic NC hardware concept. [1]
Therefore, the Operating principle of NC is to control
the motion of the work relative to the work piece and to
 control the sequence in which the motions are carried out.
In the case of Figure 3:
1) The signals from the tape reader (in binary format) are read by the machine control unit.
2) The geometry, machine tool control commands, feeds, speeds and tooling information called up in
each line by the program is interpreted.
3) These are then fed, where necessary, as control signals directly into the NC machine tool's table and
spindle drive motors to provide the necessary movement, cutting conditions and machine control signals
depending on the instruction generated by the part programmer.
4) The movement of the machine would be monitored via a series of transducers and feedback devices
and signals fed back into the machine control unit to ensure compliance with program instructions until
the program was complete.
The manner in which CNC controlled machining
processes operate means that theoretically, assuming all
tooling and fixturing conditions are the same, each
component should be identical to the previous one. As
cutting tool, machine tool and other process parameters
not directly controlled by the computer begin to change
then inaccuracies begin to appear, e.g. tool wear.
Nowadays, computer data files are input via direct links or
floppy disk. Controlling a machine directly from a central
computer is called Direct Numerical Control (DNC) -
supervisory control. Passing programs from a central
Figure 3: A traditional model of an NC control system
computer to a network of CNC machines is called
(pre-CNC). [1]
Distributed Numerical Control (DNC) - sometimes this is
also commonly referred to as Direct NC.
1.2 Components of NC system
A NC system consists of three basic components: (1) a part program, (2) a machine control unit and (3)
processing equipment. The part program is the detailed set of commands to be followed by the
processing equipment.
The MCU consists of both hardware and software. The hardware includes the microcomputer,
components to interface with the processing equipment and certain feedback control elements.
Traditionally It includes a tape reader if the programs are loaded into computer memory from punched
paper tapes. The software within the MCU includes control system software, calculation algorithms and
translation software to convert the NC part program into control instructions. Modern controllers include
an internal computer interface which allows programs to be edited in case they contain errors or
changes are required in cutting condition.
The processing equipment accomplishes the sequence of processing steps to transform the initial raw
material into a finished part. It operates under the control of the MCU according to the instructions
contained in the part program.
1.3 Definition of NC, CNC and DNC
Numerical control (NC) is the term used to describe the control of machine movement and various other
functions by instructions expressed as a series of numbers and initiated via a hardwired electronic
control system [1]. On-machine editing of the programs is not possible.
Computer numerical control (CNC) is the term used when the control system utilizes an internal
computer [1]. The term CNC is often used to distinguish this type of NC from its technological
predecessors [2].
1.4 Typical CNC applications
Typical CNC applications include milling, turning, drilling, grinding, bending/forming, punching/nibbling,
laser/flame/water jet cutting, welding, etc with combinations of these being possible on one work centre.
The benefits of CNC relative to manually operated equipment in these applications include:
• reduced non-productive time, which results in shorter cycle times;
• lower manufacturing lead times;
• simpler fixturing;
• greater manufacturing flexibility;
• improved accuracy ;
• reduced human error.
2. History
As mentioned previously, NC is a form of automation. The word 'automatic' comes from the Greek
meaning self-moving or self-acting. Automatic manufacturing relates to the self regulation of machines
and processes by their controllers. These types of systems preceded the use of digital computers, which
gave a whole new emphasis to the possibilities of control.
There are many advantages to automation. It reduces the skill level required with any actual
manufacturing task, lowers labour costs, relieves the monotony of the work and can remove people from
environmentally unfriendly situations and gives tighter control and repeatability of the process (and thus
the product). Beginning during the early industrial revolution which, historically, is assumed to have
started around the middle of the 18th century, the construction of simple but robust production machines
led to the development of automated processes particularly in the textile industry. There was a division
of labour as products and processes became more complex, people moved from working in craft-based
workshops to full blown factories. This was influenced even more with the development of powered
machinery for machining and fabrication, the need for repeatable standard designs and the introduction
of manufacturing to pre-specified tolerances as well as more output. All of these developments led to the
increased use of automated systems in manufacturing. Due to quantities and variety of parts involved in
machining environments, batch production (not mass production) began to dominate as it does to this
day.
One of the first examples of an NC process was the Jaquard loom used for weaving in the 1700s.
Falcon's loom, shown in Figure 4, is a derivation of this.
During the early 20th century mass production for
commercial products came into being, particularly
through the development of Henry Ford's Model 'T'
Ford plant at River Rouge. This was the heyday of
hard, fixed automation with large, inflexible systems
supplying large quantities of similar products over long
periods of time in a sellers' market environment.
Interestingly, from 1900-1949 the available HP (horse
power) for material removal manufacturing processes
increased fourfold. Machine tools were provided with
simple, mechanical and pneumatic automatic controls
via cam, mechanical linkage mechanisms, etc.
enabling them to produce large quantities of
components. This was followed in the 1930s through
the use of electrical plug board logic controllers
providing the basis for the numerical control (NC)
systems that began to appear under computer control
in the 1950s. Once the transistor was invented and
Figure 4: Falcon’s loom. computerised control system began to become
(http://www.ssplprints.com/image.php?id=83209) common place, NC was readily accepted and widely
Accessed 12/12/2013 used throughout the 1960s both in machining and
robotics. The first commercial use of robots was in 1961; however they were not seriously used in
production until the 1970s.
Punched paper tape and magnetic tape were the most common forms of data input to the machine
controller. Controller memory was very limited in size and needed another medium such as these so
that the programmed instructions could be read in and carried out one 'block' at a time. Computer
numerical control (CNC) was developed in the 1970s as the cost of computers substantially reduced
and the capabilities of computers were much improved with the introduction of the silicon chip. Within a
CNC system the computer became an integral part of the control cabinet and programs could be edited
and changed at the machine; whereas, under hard-wired NC the process had to be stopped, the job torn
down and the program checked off-line or away from the machine, amended and, once ready, then
reloaded after the machine was set up again, read for manufacture.
During the 1980s the use of CNC stand-alone workstation systems for the manufacture of mechanical
components lead to the dream of the totally automated, unmanned factory and the development of
flexible manufacturing cells (FMCs) and flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs). This automated
approach was also a response to the aggressive introduction of Japanese products onto Western
markets. FMSs incorporated automated material handling systems and processes with the minimum of
human input to the system with central scheduling and control of all work-in-progress, stores,
warehouses, etc. Central to this is the use of DNC as a means of controlling machines and processes.
However, this dream was short lived and people centred manufacturing systems still dominate.
Nowadays standalone CNC machine tools exhibit amazing flexibility and capabilities, e.g. CNC lathes
with milling and drilling capabilities, CNC machining centres with milling, jig boring, tapping and drilling
capabilities as well as enabling zero set-up times, etc.
The biggest successes in CNC applications have been in the area of machining and it is in this domain
that this course focuses.
3. Machine Axes
All CNC machine tools follow the same axes nomenclature with standard axes directions and motions.
Tool and, where possible, fixture movements are calculated relative to these axes and the machine
datum or pre-set local datum.
Two axes configurations are relevant: (a) linear axes and (b) rotational axes. These anti-friction mechanical systems mean that a lot less power is needed to drive the bedways along
the axes of the machine, so any power applied to the machine is to overcome cutting forces.
Alternatively, some heavy duty machines use hydraulic systems such as hydrostatic slideways (Figure
Linear axes’ right-hand rule: 9).
Finger direction positive.
Spindle axis always ‘Z’.
Longest travel slide always ‘X’.
Base of fingers x0, y0, z0.

Rotational axes’ right-hand rule

Clockwise for positive rotation.

Figure 5: Right hand rule. (Adapted from [4, p24]) Figure 6: Rotational Axes
(Adapted from [4, p24])

Some examples of machines and their corresponding axes are given in the handout.

4. Machine Control/Feedback
There are a number of key elements associated with CNC systems, which are vital to their accurate
control and positioning. These come under the following categories, each of which is now briefly
discussed:
• guidance systems;
• positioning systems;
• control systems;
• positioning transducers.
4.1 Guidance systems
Guidance systems simply control the way in which the table or spindle of a machine tool is traversed
along specific axes according to the requirements of the manufacturing process. They support guide a
machine table or spindle assembly along some form of bedways.
In traditional conventional machine tools, such a conventional lathes and milling machines, inverted V-
slides or dovetail slides tend to be used (Figure 7). However, positionally, these are not accurate
enough for CNC control systems and would be conducive to a great deal of wear, tear and hysteresis as
well as needing lots more power to drive the machine due to the high level of friction imposed by heavy-
duty cutting. They would also require a great deal of maintenance and upkeep. Due to the higher loads
exerted during the cutting process and the need for more accurate positioning due to the feedback
necessary in the control system environments are required which eliminate friction almost entirely.
Figure 9: Hydrostatic slideways. [4, p32]
4.2 Positioning systems
Traditional positioning approaches for CNC manufacturing come in two forms for CNC, namely point-to-
point (PTP) or Continuous Path (CP). This differentiation existed particularly in the early days of NC
when controller memory was limited and memory was very expensive relative to the function and type of
machine tool. However, memory is now so large and so cheap and, more importantly standardised in
chip form, that most machine tools have a CP capability.
(i) PTP is usually controlled by an open loop control system (see later) since the positional accuracy
required for machine members, e.g. drilling applications or processes where tool cutting
movement, is only usually in the spindle direction. The heavy duty cutting feed direction is
approached from same direction to avoid backlash and there is no transverse loads on the
cutting tools. So backlash is not a problem.
(ii) CP is for multi-axis machining where cutting is required in all other directions as well as the spindle
direction. Positional accuracy is required to very tight tolerances during cutting due to the fact
that the reaction forces occurring during the cutting process are high causing lots of backlash.
CP systems monitor displacement and velocity very carefully and try to eliminate this.
(iii) Usually, the table/spindle feed drives can be AC/DC stepper motors or DC servo motors, although
as shown earlier in Figure 9, hydraulic systems are possible as well.

Figure 7: Conventional machine tool guidance systems.

As a consequence of this, frictionless [sic] or anti-friction roller or ball bearing systems or ball slides tend Figure 10: Recirculating ballscrew drive. [4, p37]
to be used. Physically, a number of drive systems which aid the positioning of the machine tool bed and/or spindle
exist, such as screw/nut combinations such as that found on a conventional lathe leadscrew, a
recirculating ball screw (see Figure 10), a rack and pinion or some form of hydraulic drive.

More recently, there has been the development of high-speed machining which has required very
different forms of technology to enable a shaft to be driven and also the machine bed to be driven in the
X-Y plane. The type of drive system used for the latter now tends to be the linear drive motor.

Figure 8: Anti-friction mechanical guidance systems. [4, p31]
Mechanical transfer elements such as recirculating ballscrew drives, rack and pinion drives and toothed
belts result in system-inherent inertial and frictional losses. A significant part of the available torque is
actually applied to compensate for acceleration and braking forces. The shortcomings of mechanical
transfer elements such as mechanical play, elasticity and wear and tear are particularly noticeable
during processes requiring high dynamics and precise movement. The disadvantages inherent in
mechanical transfer elements are now completely eliminated. The forward traverse motion is directly
produced by means of a linear motor which achieves high dynamics and great precision. This is
normally impossible due to the principle of construction and the inherent disadvantages of a rotary drive.
However, with a linear motor such limitations no longer apply.

Linear electric motors (Figure 11) are very much like rotary electric motors - they use the forces between
magnetic poles to push one object relative to another. However, while a rotary motor uses these forces
to twist a rotor around in a circle, a linear motor uses these forces to push a bed along a track. Both the
bed and the track must contain magnets and at least some of these magnets must be electromagnets
that can be turned on and off or reversed. By timing the operations of the electromagnets properly the
linear motor pushes or pulls the table along the track smoothly and continuously.

A pair of coils can be used to create a magnetic field that translates, rather than rotates. If each pair of
coils in the diagram below were pulsed ‘on’, from left to right, then the induced electromagnet of the
central coil or of the eddy currents in the slab of conductor would align first with the left coil, then with
the next and so on. This would give us a pushed linear movement. Alternatively, sets of powered coils
could be situated in the pulled moving part and induce eddy currents in the bed. Either case gives a
linear motion which is useful for moving a machine bed at high velocity.
Figure 12: An open loop system. [4, p25]
Advantages of linear drives:
However, closed loop systems now predominate (Figure 13) controlled by a PID-based controller.
• high acceleration ability;
• high speed along with great precision;
• high dynamics due to low mass moment of inertia;
• consistent system properties, even over long travel paths;
• overlapping processes can be easily realised by means of multi-roller technology;
• practically no wear and tear;
• no mechanical transfer elements required;
• overcoming limits with linear direct-drive technology;
• accurate direct monitoring.

Linear motor designs replace the entire

mechanical transmission of a machine tool
with a magnetic circuit fixed between guide
rails. Since motor and the ball screw
inertias are eliminated, the main advantage
is increased acceleration. While
conventional transmissions achieve take off
speeds of 10 m/s, linear motors take off at Figure 13: Illustration of closed loop operation.
up to 100 m/s with accelerations of 20 m/s2.
Displacement speeds are doubled (100
m/min instead of 50 m/min on conventional
CNC machines) and the positioning
precision is increased due to simplified
Figure 11: Linear motor.
(Adapted from: system dynamics. The drawbacks, apart
:http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/electricmotors_staticimages.htmltions.physics.uns
w.edu.au/jw/electricmotors_staticimages.html) from the price, are low thrust, heat
Accessed 12/12/2013
generation and the magnitude of the
magnetic fields which is a nuisance for
swarf.

When compared to designs of just a few years ago, today's linear motor driven machine tools achieve
greater feed forces, accelerations and traverse speeds thanks to better motor designs, new machine
architectures and improved controls. This results in less non-productive time.
Kd s
4.3 Control systems
As mentioned earlier, control systems can be open loop or closed loop. For less heavy duty, transverse
feeding open loop systems (Figure 12) tend to be used; the tendency is to rely on the accuracy of the
motor to control transverse feeds but with no conventional machining operations taking place (note that Figure 14: Block diagram of PID controller.
laser cutting and other similar types of process can be controlled using open loop systems). The signal
The PID controller involves three separate parameters; the proportional (P), the integral (I) and
from the machine control unit (MCU) of amplified and a rotational displacement sent to the motor which
derivative (D) values. The ‘P’ value determines the reaction to the current error, the ‘I’ determines the
then moves the machine tool slide, part of the table or spindle assembly),the appropriate distance along
reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the ‘D’ determines the reaction to the rate at which the
the axis or axes. One of these systems would be fitted to each axis of movement of the machine.
error has been changing.

Within closed loop system operation, the displacement (in this case) and/or velocity of the appropriate
slide is monitored continuously through some form of transducer and fed back to the controller. The
controller then determines the deviation from the desired position and sends an appropriate signal to the
drive motor to produce the necessary displacement/velocity change to the slide to give the position
desired by the controlling part program. This is used in continuous path (CP) systems because it is
imperative that the wide variation in cutting forces experienced by the machine are properly
compensated during the machining process; thus giving a more accurate cut and final component
dimensions. This is illustrated in more detail in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Detail of a closed loop system. [4, p25]
4.4 Positioning transducers
A wide range of positioning and velocity transducers exist for use in CNC systems (Figure 16): (a) linear
transducers, e.g. potentiometers, Moire fringes; (b) pulse counting systems using photo-cells, e.g. rotary
encoders; (c) rotary synchro motors; (d) synchro resolvers; (e) tachometers, i.e. small AC generators
where the amplitude changes with speed, etc.
Figure 16: Moire fringes. [3] Figure 17: Rotary encoder. [2]
Machines that move need a means of measuring this movement. The most common type of
measurement component today is the encoder. Encoders can be categorized into optical (photoelectric),
magnetic and mechanical. Photoelectric encoders, due to their high accuracy, high reliability and
relatively low cost, play a significant role in modern machine tools. There are two basic types of
encoders: rotary and linear. While the technical principles behind them are similar, generally their
specific applications are not. While the basic principle of operation developed many years ago is still the
basis of today's encoders, a revision of even that technology for high accuracy is now available.
Regarding the basic principle, most of today's linear and rotary encoders operate on the principle of the
photo-electrical scanning of very fine gratings. The scanning unit in an encoder consists of a light source,
a condenser lens for collimating the light beam, the scanning reticule with the index gratings and silicon
photovoltaic cells. When the scale is moved relative to the scanning unit the lines of the scale coincide
alternately with the lines or spaces in the index grating. The periodic fluctuation of light intensity is
converted by photovoltaic cells into electrical signals. These signals result from the averaging of a large
number of lines. The output signals are two sinusoidal signals that are then interpolated or digitized as
necessary.
In various sectors of machine tool technology, angular positions and angular motions need to be
converted into electrical signals, either for display, automation or numerical control. Rotary encoders are
used for the purpose of measuring rotational movement in drives. They are also often used in measuring
linear movements, for example when used in conjunction with spindles and recirculating ballscrews.
However, the evolutionary trend of machine tools increasingly evolves towards higher accuracy and
resolution, increased reliability and speeds and more effective working ranges; consequently, the
corresponding feedback systems must also evolve. Currently, linear feedback systems are now
available that can achieve resolutions in the submicron range. Submicron resolutions are required in the
semiconductor industry and in ultra-precision machining. Achieving these is possible with the use of
linear scales that transmit displacement information directly to a digital readout, CNC controller or other
peripheral device for display or evaluation.
As in rotary scales, linear scales operate using the same photoelectric scanning principle but comprise
an straight construction with their output signals interpolated or digitized in a more direct manner. One of
these signals is always used by the accompanying digital readout or numerical control system to
determine and establish home or datum positions on the linear machine axis in case of a power cut or
mainly for workpiece referencing. Overall, there are two physical versions of a linear scale: exposed or
enclosed with the descriptions highlighting the type of application.
For typical encoder accuracy see the repeatability values given in the CNC machine profiles given at the
end of this handout.
4.5 Precision in positioning
The three critical measures of precision for a CNC positioning system are:
(a) control resolution;
(b) accuracy; and;
(c) repeatability.
These terms are most easily explained by considering the single axis of a position system.
Figure 16: Definition of control resolution, accuracy and repeatability. (X. Luo)
Control resolution refers to the system’s ability to divide the total range of the axis movement into
closely spaced points which can be distinguished by the control unit. This is defined as the distance
separating two adjacent control points in the axis moment. Control points are sometimes called
addressable points because they are locations along the axis to which the worktable can be specifically
directed to go. It is desirable for the control resolution to be as small as possible. This depends on
limitations imposed by: (a) its electromechanical components; and/or (b) the number of bits used by the
controller to define the axis coordinates location.
The electromechanical factors that limit resolution include the leadscrew pitch, the gear ratio in the drive
system, the step angle in a stepper motor for an open loop system or the angle and space between the
slots in an encoder disk for a closed loop system. Together, these factors determine a control resolution,
or minimum distance within which the worktable can be moved. For example, the control resolution for
an open loop system driven by a stepper motor with a 1:1 gear ratio between the motor shaft and a
leadscrew is given by
p
CR1 = (1)
ns
Where CR1 - control resolution of the electromechanical components, mm (in);
p – leadscrew pitch, mm/rev (in/rev);
ns – number of steps/rev.
A similar expression can be developed for a closed loop positioning system.
Although unusual in modern computerised technology, the second possible factor that limits control
resolution is the number of bits defining the axis coordinate value. For example, this limitation may be
imposed by the bit storage capacity of the controller. If B = the number of bits in the storage register for
an axis, then the number of control points into which the axis range can be divided is 2B. Assuming that
the control points are separated equally within the range, then:
L
CR2 = (2)
2B − 1
Where CR2 – control resolution of the computer control system, mm (in);
L – axis range.
The control resolution of the positioning system is the maximum of the two values, i.e:
CR = Max{CR1 , CR2 } (3)
It is generally desirable that: CR2 ≤ CR1 ; meaning that normally the electromechanical system is the
limiting factor in control system.

When a positioning system is directed to move the worktable to a given control point, the capability of
the system to move to that point will be limited by mechanical errors. These errors are due to variety of
inaccuracies and imperfections in the mechanical system, such as play between the leadscrew and the
worktable, backlash in the gears and the deflections of machine components. It is convenient to assume
that the error from a statistical distribution about the control point is an unbiased normal distribution with
mean = 0. If it is further assumed that the standard deviation of the distribution is constant over the
range of the axis under consideration, then nearly all of the mechanical errors (99.74%) are contained
within ± 3 standard deviations of the control point. This is pictured in Figure 16 for a portion of the axis
range which includes three control points.

Accuracy is defined as a worst-case scenario in which the desired target point lies exactly between
adjacent control points. Since the system can only move to one or the other of the control points, there
will be an error in the final position of the worktable. If the target were closer to one of the control points
then the table would be moved to the closer control point and the error would be smaller. Therefore, it is
appropriate to define accuracy as the worst case. The accuracy of any given axis of a positioning
system is therefore the maximum possible error that can be occur between the desired target point and
the actual position taken by the system. In equation form (4) this is:
CR
Accuracy = + 3σ (4)
2
Where CR is the control resolution (mm) and σ is the standard deviation of the error distribution (mm).

Repeatability refers to the capability of a positioning system to return to a given control point that has
been previously programmed. This capability can be measured in terms of the location errors
encountered when the system attempts to position itself at the control points. Location errors are a
manifestation of the mechanical errors of the positioning system which are assumed to have a normal
distribution as shown in the diagram. Therefore, the repeatability on any given axis of a positioning
system can be defined as the range of mechanical errors associated with that axis, This is reduced to:
Figure 17(a): The AMU’s CNC machining centres (Milling)
Repeatability = ±3σ (5)
5. CNC Systems
Modern CNC systems can take a number of forms:

• stand-alone (single process) machining centres;

• multi-process machining centres;
• flexible manufacturing cells (FMC);
• flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).

5.1 Stand-alone (single process) machining centres

Stand-alone CNC machining centres usually relate to specialised machines which carry out one process
only, e.g. a CNC lathe which only does turning, a CNC laser cutter, a CNC punch press. CNC machining
centres which carry out milling (CNC mills [sic]) usually also come under this category; however, they
can sometimes do drilling and tapping and single-point tool boring as well.

These machines are very accurate and complex parts can be produced with much higher quality and
repeatability in shorter and more predictable machining times. There is also a reduced need for specially
design and manufactured fixtures and tools and a higher productivity is gained for smaller batch sizes
with a quicker turnaround of work-in-progress (WIP). However, CNC machines are great WIP
generators and if some secondary machining or processing is required then this can lead to some real
manufacturing system problems. It is also important that engineers design their components to suit the
capability of available CNC processes
The main disadvantage associated with CNC is the high initial capital investment required in the form of
hardware, training, support services, etc. Even though a high proportion of the process is automated,
multi-skilled operators are still needed because of the detailed knowledge required regarding cutting
materials and methods. The unit cost of typical components manufactured on some CNC equipment is
quite high; therefore it is vital that high level operators are used in these circumstances.
The machines shown in Figure 17 are those that reside in the School’s Advanced Manufacturing Unit
(AMU) are excellent examples of stand-alone CNC machining centres.
Figure 17(b): The AMU’s CNC laser machining facility.
5.2 Stand-alone (multi-process) machining centres
These types of machine tools were brought onto the market because it was realised that an abstract
way of thinking about how new technology could enhance traditional CNC machines could provide new,
flexible, multi-process machining centres. Combinations of processes became possible, e.g. turn-mill-
drill machining centres based on traditional lathes fitted turrets and traditional turning tooling along with
powered milling and drilling tooling, secondary work holding and back-face machining. The main
advantages being that accurate, complex multi-feature parts can be produced in shorter and more
predictable manufacturing times, particularly due to reduced floor-to-floor times. With regard to the
disadvantages, in addition to the previous ones mentioned, it is known that complex, time-consuming
programming is required. On-line programming CAD/CAM systems are available to reduce this but they
require considerable setting up.

The machine tool shown in Figure 18 is also based in the AMU. This is a Mori-Seiki C-axis turning
centre and can combine turning, profile milling, drilling and tapping.
 Figure 18: The AMU’s C-axis turning centre.

References:
[1] D. Gibbs and T. M. Crandell, 1991, An Introduction to CNC Machining and Programming, Industrial
Press Inc, New York, USA.

[2] M. P. Groover, 2010 Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken,
USA.

[3] G. E. Thyer, 1988, Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools, Industrial Press Inc, New York,
USA.

[4] S. J. Martin, 1979, Numerical Control of Machine Tools, Hodder and Stoughton Educational,
Sevenoaks, UK.