LEGAL ASSPECT

Q.4. Present a detail note on Shops and Establishment Act.

Ans.: Shops and Establishment Act:

Objectives
- To provide statutory obligation and rights to employees and employers in the unorganized sector of
employment, i.e., shops and establishments.

Scope And Coverage

- A state legislation; each state has framed its own rules for the Act.

- Applicable to all persons employed in an establishments with or without wages, except the members of
the employer's family.

- State government can exempt, either permanently or for a specified period, any establishments from all
or any provisions of this Act.

Main Provisions
- Compulsory registration of shop/establishment within thirty days of commencement of work.

- Communications of closure of the establishment within 15 days from the closing of the establishment.

- Lays down the hours of work per day and week.

- Lays down guidelines for spread-over, rest interval, opening and closing hours, closed days, national
and religious holidays, overtime work.

- Rules for employment of children, young persons and women

- Rules for annual leave, maternity leave, sickness and casual leave, etc.

- Rules for employment and termination of service.

- Maintenance of registers and records and display of notices.

- Obligations of employers.

- Obligations of employees.

About What:
1. To regulate conditions of work and employment in shops, commercial establishments, residential
hotels, restaurants, eating houses, theatres, other places of public entertainment and other
establishments.
2. Provisions include Regulation of Establishments, Employment of Children, Young Persons and
Women, Leave and Payment of Wages, Health and Safety etc.
Applicability & Coverage:
1. It applies to all local areas specified in Schedule-I
2. Establishment means any establishment to which the Act applies and any other such
establishment to which the State Government may extend the provisions of the Act by notification
3. Employee means a person wholly or principally employed whether directly or through any
agency, whether for wages or other considerations in connection with any establishment
4. Member of the family of an employer means, the husband, wife, son, daughter, father, mother,
brother or sister and is dependent on such employer
Returns:
1. Form-A or Form-B (as the case may be) {Section 7(2)(a), Rule 5}
Before 15th December of the calendar year, i.e. 15 days before the expiry date

The employer has to submit these forms to the authority notified along with the old certificate of
registration and the renewal fees for minimum one year’s renewal and maximum of three year’s
renewal

2. Form-E (Notice of Change) {Rule 8}

Within 15 days after the expiry of the quarter to which the changes relate in respect of total
 number of employees qualifying for higher fees as prescribed in Schedule-II and in respect of
other changes in the original statement furnished within 30 days after the change has taken
place. (Quarter means quarter ending on 31st March, 30th June, 30th September and 31st
December)
Registers:
1. Form-A {Rule 5}
Register showing dates of Lime Washing etc
2. Form-H, Form-J {Rule 20(1)} (if opening & closing hours are ordinarily uniform)
Register of Employment in a Shop or Commercial Establishment
3. Form-I {Rule 20(3)}, Form-K (if opening & closing hours are ordinarily uniform)
Register of Employment in a Residential Hotel, Restaurant, Eating-House, Theatre, or other
places of public amusement or entertainment
4. Form-M {Rule 20(4)}
Register of Leave – This and all the above Registers have to be maintained by the Employer
5. Visit Book
This shall be a bound book of size 7” x 6” containing at least 100 pages with every second page
consecutively numbered, to be produced to the visiting Inspector on demand. The columns shall
be:
i. Name of the establishment or Employer
ii. Locality
iii. Registration Number
iv. Date and
v. Time

Q. 6 Ishaan is a fresher and recently is appointed as a part-time employee in Consumer Redressal

Dispute Agency. As his superior, how will you guide him regarding the redressal forums, the
nature of making complaints and the working of the agency?
Ans.: Redressal forum: Twenty-five years ago, consumer action in India was virtually unheard of. It
consisted of some action by individuals, usually addressing their own grievances. Even this was greatly
limited by the resources available with these individuals. There was little organized effort or attempts to
take up wider issues that affected classes of consumers or the general public.
All this changed in the Eighties with the Supreme Court-led concept of public interest litigation. It gave
individuals and the newly formed consumer groups, access to the law and introduced in their work the
broad public interest perspective.
Telepress Features
Several important legislative changes took place during this period. Significant were the amendments to
the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (hereafter "MRTP Act") and the Essential
Commodities Acts, and the introduction of the Environment Protection Act and the Consumer Protection
Act. These changes shifted the focus of law from merely regulating the private and public sectors to
actively protecting consumer interests.
The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (hereafter "the Act") is a remarkable piece of legislation for its focus
and clear objective, the minimal technical and legalistic procedures, providing access to redressal
systems and the composition of courts with a majority of non-legal background members.
The Act establishes a hierarchy of courts, with at least one District Forum at the district level (Chennai
has two), a State Commission at the State capitals and the National Commission at New Delhi. The
pecuniary jurisdiction of the District Forum is up to Rs. one lakh and that of the State Commission is
above Rs. one lakh and below Rs. 10 lakhs. All claims involving more than Rs. 10 lakhs are filed directly
before the National Commission. Appeals from the District Forum are to be filed before the State
Commission and from there to the National Commission, within thirty days of knowledge of the order.

How to make a complaint

This section explains how to make a complaint using our Complaints Registration Form. It tells you what
information you need to include on the form, and where you need to send your completed form.

Definition of a complaint

The UK Border Agency defines a complaint as “any expression of dissatisfaction about the services
provided by or for the UK Border Agency and/or about the professional conduct of UK Border Agency
staff, including contractors.”
The following will not be treated as complaints:

• Letters relating to the decision to refuse a UK visa. Visa applicants are expected to raise this
using the existing appeal channels.

• Letters-chasing progress on an application unless it is outside our published processing times.

What information should you send?

You should make your complaint using our Complaints Registration Form.

It is important that you give as much information about yourself as possible. The Complaints Registration
Form tells you the type of information we need. This will help us to find the information relevant to your
case and to contact you about it. If possible you should also include:

• Full details about the complaint (including times, dates and locations);

• The names of any UK Border Agency / Visa Application Centre staff you have dealt with;

• Details of any witnesses to the incident (if appropriate);

• Copies of letters or papers that are relevant; and

• Any travel details that relate to your complaint.

What happens next?

The 'How we will deal with your complaint' page explains:

• How we handle your complaint

• What to do if you are not happy with the outcome of your complaint or how we have handled it

• What will happen after your complaint has been dealt with

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion?

Ans.: Measures of Central tendency:

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers
divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population. The symbol M is
used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below: m=
ΣX
N

Where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of numbers in
the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=
20
5
=4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the
population.
The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of
the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown
passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=
ΣX
N
=
634
31
=20.4516
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23
22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20
19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15
14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Table 1: Number of touchdown passes
Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean), it is by far the most
commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic
mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean.

Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a
distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. For the data in the table,
Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the
median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The
median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile.
Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the
module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.
Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3
You 3 3 3
John's 3 4 2
Maria's 3 4 2
Shareecia's 3 4 2
Luther's 3 5 1
Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz
For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore,
your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3,
the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the
distribution.
Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle
number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the
median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is
4+7
2
=5.5.

Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes,
the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown
passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each
value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables).
Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The
Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time
data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval
(650).

Range Frequency
500-600 3
600-700 6
700-800 5
800-900 5
900-1000 0
1000-1100 1
Table 3: Grouped frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is zero if all the data
are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It cannot be less than zero.
Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured. In other words, if
the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the measure of dispersion has the same units.
Such measures of dispersion include:
• Standard deviation
 • Interquartile range
• Range
• Mean difference
• Median absolute deviation
• Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation)
• Distance standard deviation
These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale parameters, in which
capacity they are called estimates of scale.
All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are location-invariant,
as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a dispersion of SX then a linear transformation
Y = aX + b for real a and b should have dispersion SY = |a|SX.
Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they have no units even if
the variable itself has units. These include:
• Coefficient of variation
• Quartile coefficient of dispersion
• Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient
There are other measures of dispersion:
• Variance (the square of the standard deviation) — location-invariant but not linear in scale.
• Variance-to-mean ratio — mostly used for count data when the term coefficient of dispersion is
used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count data are themselves dimensionless:
otherwise this is not scale-free.
Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan variance and the
Hadamard variance.
For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number. See qualitative
variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy.
Sources of statistical dispersion
In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement errors: instrument
measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible. One may assume that the quantity being
measured is unchanging and stable, and that the variation between measurements is due to
observational error.

In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be intrinsic to the
phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is also seen in the arena of
manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist finds variation.The simple model of a stable
quantity is preferred when it is tenable. Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it warrants such a
simplification.
Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion?

Ans.: Measures of Central tendency:

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers
divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population. The symbol M is
used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below: m=
ΣX
N
Where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of numbers in
the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=
20
5
=4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the
population.
The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of
the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown
passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=
ΣX
N
=
634
31
=20.4516
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23
22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20
19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15
14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Table 1: Number of touchdown passes
Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean), it is by far the most
commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic
mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean.

Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a
distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. For the data in the table,
Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the
median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The
median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile.
Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the
module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.
Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3
You 3 3 3
John's 3 4 2
Maria's 3 4 2
Shareecia's 3 4 2
Luther's 3 5 1
Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore,
your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3,
the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the
distribution.
Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle
number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the
median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is
4+7
2
=5.5.

Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes,
the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown
passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each
value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables).
Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The
Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time
data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval
(650).
Range Frequency
500-600 3
600-700 6
700-800 5
800-900 5
900-1000 0
1000-1100 1
Table 3: Grouped frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is zero if all the data
are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It cannot be less than zero.
Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured. In other words, if
the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the measure of dispersion has the same units.
Such measures of dispersion include:
 • Standard deviation
• Interquartile range
• Range
• Mean difference
• Median absolute deviation
• Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation)
• Distance standard deviation
These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale parameters, in which
capacity they are called estimates of scale.
All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are location-invariant,
as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a dispersion of SX then a linear transformation
Y = aX + b for real a and b should have dispersion SY = |a|SX.
Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they have no units even if
the variable itself has units. These include:
• Coefficient of variation
• Quartile coefficient of dispersion
• Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient

There are other measures of dispersion:

• Variance (the square of the standard deviation) — location-invariant but not linear in scale.
• Variance-to-mean ratio — mostly used for count data when the term coefficient of dispersion is
used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count data are themselves dimensionless:
otherwise this is not scale-free.
Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan variance and the
Hadamard variance.
For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number. See qualitative
variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy.
Sources of statistical dispersion
In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement errors: instrument
measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible. One may assume that the quantity being
measured is unchanging and stable, and that the variation between measurements is due to
observational error.
In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be intrinsic to the
phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is also seen in the arena of
manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist finds variation.The simple model of a stable
quantity is preferred when it is tenable. Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it warrants such a
simplification.
Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific examples of
how the case study method can be applied to business research.

Ans.: While case study writing may seem easy at first glance, developing an effective case study (also
called a success story) is an art. Like other marketing communication skills, learning how to write a case
study takes time. What’s more, writing case studies without careful planning usually results in sub optimal
results?
Savvy case study writers increase their chances of success by following these ten proven techniques for
writing an effective case study:
 Involve the customer
throughout the
process. Involving the
customer throughout the
case study development process helps ensure customer cooperation and approval, and results in an
improved case study. Obtain customer permission before writing the document, solicit input during the
development, and secure approval after drafting the document.
• Write all customer quotes for their review. Rather than asking the customer to draft their
quotes, writing them for their review usually results in more compelling material.

Case Study Writing Ideas

• Establish a document template. A template serves as a roadmap for the case study process,
and ensures that the document looks, feels, and reads consistently. Visually, the template helps
build the brand; procedurally, it simplifies the actual writing. Before beginning work, define 3-5
specific elements to include in every case study, formalize those elements, and stick to them.
• Start with a bang. Use action verbs and emphasize benefits in the case study title and subtitle.
Include a short (less than 20-word) customer quote in larger text. Then, summarize the key
points of the case study in 2-3 succinct bullet points. The goal should be to tease the reader into
wanting to read more.
• Organize according to problem, solution, and benefits. Regardless of length, the time-tested,
most effective organization for a case study follows the problem-solution-benefits flow. First,
describe the business and/or technical problem or issue; next, describe the solution to this
problem or resolution of this issue; finally, describe how the customer benefited from the
particular solution (more on this below). This natural story-telling sequence resonates with
readers.
• Use the general-to-specific-to-general approach. In the problem section, begin with a general
discussion of the issue that faces the relevant industry. Then, describe the specific problem or
issue that the customer faced. In the solution section, use the opposite sequence. First, describe
how the solution solved this specific problem; then indicate how it can also help resolve this issue
more broadly within the industry. Beginning more generally draws the reader into the story;
offering a specific example demonstrates, in a concrete way, how the solution resolves a
commonly faced issue; and concluding more generally allows the reader to understand how the
solution can also address their problem.
• Quantify benefits when possible. No single element in a case study is more compelling than
the ability to tie quantitative benefits to the solution. For example, “Using Solution X saved Customer Y
over $ZZZ, ZZZ after just 6 months of implementation;” or, “Thanks to Solution X, employees at Customer
Y have realized a ZZ% increase in productivity as measured by standard performance indicators.”
Quantifying benefits can be challenging, but not impossible. The key is to present imaginative ideas to the
customer for ways to quantify the benefits, and remain flexible during this discussion. If benefits cannot
be quantified, attempt to develop a range of qualitative benefits; the latter can be quite compelling to
readers as well.
• Use photos. Ask the customer if they can provide shots of personnel, ideally using the solution.
The shots need not be professionally done; in fact, “homegrown” digital photos sometimes lead to
surprisingly good results and often appear more genuine. Photos further personalize the story and help
form a connection to readers.
• Reward the customer. After receiving final customer approval and finalizing the case study,
provide a pdf, as well as printed copies, to the customer. Another idea is to frame a copy of the
completed case study and present it to the customer in appreciation for their efforts and cooperation.
Writing a case study is not easy. Even with the best plan, a case study is doomed to failure if the writer
lacks the exceptional writing skills, technical savvy, and marketing experience that these documents
require. In many cases, a talented writer can mean the difference between an ineffective case study and
one that provides the greatest benefit. If a qualified internal writer is unavailable, consider outsourcing the
task to professionals who specialize in case study writing.

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing
would be more appropriate.

Ans.: Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a
specific phenomenon on its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study.
Observation is classical method of scientific study.

The prerequisites of observation consist of:

• Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate results. The observer
must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed. The distance and the light
must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good working conditions and
operated by skilled persons.

• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases.

• Recording should be accurate and complete.

• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number of
cases can be observered again by another observer/another set of mechanical devices as the
case may be. If it is feasible two separate observers and set of instruments may be used in all
or some of the original observations. The results could then be compared to determine their
accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observation
○ The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to study behavior as it
occurs. The researcher needs to ask people about their behavior and interactions he can
simply watch what they do and say.

○ Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in
their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researched
situation for instance in interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There
is no such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed persons are
not aware of their being observed.

○ Observations in more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate
meaningfully e.g. studies of children, tribal animals, birds etc.

○ Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of
behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior
through observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be
verified by observing what they actually do.

○ Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only
observation can be providing an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation
between union and management representatives.

○ Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their
conduct than questioning.

○ It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

 ○ Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate
data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for all Organisations. Their purpose is to give the
interviewer(s) a chance to assess your suitability for the role and for you to demonstrate your abilities and
personality. As this is a two-way process, it is also a good opportunity for you to ask questions and to
make sure the organisation and position are right for you.
Interview format
Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what format the
interview will take.
• Competency/criteria based interviews - These are structured to reflect the competencies or
qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job, which will usually have been detailed in
the job specification or advert. The interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask
such things as: ‘Give an example of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common
goal.’
The organisation determines the selection criteria based on the roles they are recruiting for and
then, in an interview, examines whether or not you have evidence of possessing these.
Recruitment Manager, The Cooperative Group

• Technical interviews - If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge,
it is likely that you will be asked technical questions or has a separate technical interview.
Questions may focus on your final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You
should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that
you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you do not know the exact answer - interviewers are
interested in your thought process and logic.
• Academic interviews - These are used for further study or research positions. Questions are
likely to center on your academic history to date.
• Structured interviews - The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all the candidates
the same questions.
• Formal/informal interviews - Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel more
like an informal chat about you and your interests. Be aware that you are still being assessed,
however informal the discussion may seem.
• Portfolio based interviews - If the role is within the arts, media or communications industries,
you may be asked to bring a portfolio of your work to the interview, and to have an in-depth
discussion about the pieces you have chosen to include.
• Senior/case study interviews - These ranges from straightforward scenario questions (e.g.
‘What would you do in a situation where…?’) to the detailed analysis of a hypothetical business
problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem, how you identify the key issues,
how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether you can develop and present an
appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.
Specific types of interview
The Screening Interview
Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification requirements.
Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates. (This is why you need
a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume center for help.) Sometimes human
professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have honed skills to determine whether
there is anything that might disqualify you for the position. Remember-they does not need to know
whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether you are not a match. For this reason, screeners
tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps in your employment history or pieces of information that
look inconsistent. They also will want to know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the
company.
Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:
• Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.
• Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as verifying
your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning personality for
the person making hiring decisions!
• Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving specifics
by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer."
• If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital information
sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you sleeping or vacuuming
the floor, you will be able to switch gears quickly.
The Informational Interview
On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational interview. A
meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers who might otherwise
consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Job seekers ostensibly secure informational
meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current or desired field as well as to gain further
references to people who can lend insight. Employers that like to stay apprised of available talent even
when they do not have current job openings, are often open to informational interviews, especially if they
like to share their knowledge, feel flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected
you to them. During an informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get
to know one another better without reference to a specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

• Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.
• Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable if you
contact other people and use his or her name.
• Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.
• Write a thank you note to the interviewer.
The Directive Style
In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly.
Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; when interviewers ask
each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare the results. Directive
interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you what they wish to know. You
might feel like you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the conversation develops naturally. Their
style does not necessarily mean that they have dominance issues, although you should keep an eye open
for these if the interviewer would be your supervisor.

Either way, remember:

• Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead.
• Do not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you for
information that you think is important to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely interject
it.
The Meandering Style
This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the discussion. It
might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to your advantage. The
interviewer might ask you another broad, open-ended question before falling into silence. This interview
style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that best serves you.

The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly important when interviewers
use a non-directive approach:
• Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities and
experiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notes that you
can reference throughout the interview.
• Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go in any
direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she becomes more directive
during the interview, adjust.
• Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the
interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that you run the
risk of missing important information about the company and its needs.
Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading Newspaper
that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain reader habits and
interests. What type of research report would be most appropriate? Develop an outline of the
research report with the main sections.
Ans.: There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:
1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led by your own critical
thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what has been written.
Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turn and really
think about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is your opportunity for
showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but that you have the knowledge and
 skills to interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation to each other, particularly if
there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a particular area.
Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature surrounding a topic is a
gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language, terminology and conventions
in the field. In the early stages of your research you cannot be expected to have a fully developed
appreciation of the implications of all findings.
As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will find it easier and more
purposeful to ask questions as you read:
○ What is this all about?
○ Who is saying it and what authorities do they have?
○ Why is it significant?
○ What is its context?
○ How was it reached?
○ How valid is it?
○ How reliable is the evidence?
○ What has been gained?
○ What do other authors say?
○ How does it contribute?
○ So what?
2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and discussions with your
supervisor during the searching and organising phases of the cycle, you will eventually reach a
final decision as to your own topic and research design.
As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your literature review will
emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept map, grouping linked
items, ideas and authors into firm categories as they relate more obviously to your own study.
Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own intentions and
conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey will help you decide the most
appropriate structure.
A review can take many forms; for example:
○ An historical survey of theory and research in your field
○ A synthesis of several paradigms
○ A process of narrowing down to your own topic
It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.
As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:
○ An introduction
○ A body
○ A conclusion
The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be explored.
The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and subsections.
The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors in association with their
main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on these ideas and authors, showing
how each relates to the others, and how the debate informs your understanding of the topic. A
short conclusion at the end of each section presents a synthesis of these linked ideas.
The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of your
sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later, when you come to
write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to relate your findings in one-to-
one correspondence with many of the concepts or questions that were firmed up in the
conclusion of your literature review.
3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct quoting,
paraphrasing and summarizing)
You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that it is not data you
generated yourself.
 When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results with reference to their
source, for example:
○ 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded positively.'
When using published data, you would say:
○ 'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see table 2).'
○ 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of subjects responded
positively.'
In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the same results on page
17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would naturally substitute the name, date and page
number for 'table 2'. In each case it would be your voice introducing a fact or statement that had
been generated somewhere else.
You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks' and your 'voice'
provides the ‘mortar’, which determines how strong the wall will be. In turn, this is significant in
the assessment of the merit and rigor of your work.
There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:
○ Direct quote
○ Paraphrase
○ Summary
In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated with the words in
the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't do this you would be in severe
breach of academic convention, and might be penalized. Your field of study has its own
referencing conventions you should investigate before writing up your results.
Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:
○ 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).
If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it, and it must
be an identical copy of the original in every respect.
Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by silencing
your critical view or voice.
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's intended
meaning:
○ As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by the
presence of cloud in the sky.
Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the authors without being rigidly
constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the original. You retain a degree of
flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by restating the main
points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The original writing is
'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is predominant:
○ Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the likelihood
of rain.
○ Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be expected as the result of
clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted the findings of Jones (1986).
4. Using appropriate language
Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing with the
subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.

Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your literature review,
and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your citations, you should find that your
writing becomes more lucid and fluent because you know what you want to say and how to say it.
The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing, and on the
context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific requirements. However, there
may still be some points of grammar and vocabulary you would like to improve. If you have
doubts about your confidence to use the English language well, you can help yourself in several
ways:
○ Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics
 ○ Look for specific language information in reference materials
○ Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on your
campus
Grammar tips - practical and helpful
The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.
Which tense should I use?
Use present tense:
○ For generalizations and claims:
 The sky is blue.
○ To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the time of reading:
 I think therefore I am.
○ For authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be compared on equal
terms with others:
 Smith (1988) suggests that...
○ In referring to components of your own document:
 Table 2 shows...
Use present perfect tense for:
○ Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to the present:
 Several studies have attempted to...
Use simple past tense for:
○ Completed events or actions:
 Smith (1988) discovered that...
Use past perfect tense for:
○ Events which occurred before a specified past time:
 Prior to these findings, it had been thought that...
Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:
○ Convey degrees of doubt
 This may indicate that ... this would imply that...
Other language tips
○ Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an intellectual tone
for the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to read your mind!
○ Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point.
○ Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or more ideas which may be
linked with 'and', 'but', 'because', 'whereas' etc.
○ Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or those that show
the interaction of two or more complex elements.
○ Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information more densely than
verbs.
○ Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are highlighting the 'doer' or the
'done to' of the action.
○ Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of complex sentences in
order to keep subject, verb and object in clear view.
○ Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of a research study

Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate something
in particular.
Review of literature
So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what had previously
been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the big picture, and began to
realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything done previously.
Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question clearly in mind,
designed my own investigation process, using certain known research methods (and perhaps some that
are not so common). I began with the broad decision about which research paradigm I would work within
(that is, qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research instrument to
get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew I would have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure
that the instrument and my proposed method(s) of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then I
carried out the research study and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my intended
methods of analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of
classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc). It was then that I
began to realise what I had found.
Findings/results
What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned down? It
was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but in writing my report,
I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure my readers did not miss it. For each
display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of important observations relating only elements
within my own set of results and comparing only like with like. I was careful not to let my own
interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts - just the facts. I dealt
correctly with all inferential statistical procedures, applying tests of significance where appropriate to
ensure both reliability and validity. I knew that I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean
as possible. They would carry a great deal more credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took
no shortcuts and remained both rigorous and scholarly.
Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in the results that
answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers? What about the
unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly? Could there have been any
other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested by the results of similar studies? Where
did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my field? Can I actually generalise from my findings in a
breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see myself as reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what,
after all? There were some obvious limitations to my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I
won't become over-apologetic about the things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating
byways sadly left behind. I have my memories...
Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did I end up
answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear, succinct sentences.
That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with whatever generalizations I can
make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a result of doing this thing at all. The more
you find out, the more questions arise. How I wonder what you are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do
we all go from here?

Three stages of research

1. Reading
2. Research design and implementation
3. Writing up the research report or thesis
Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.

Establishing good practice

1. Keep your research question always in mind.
2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.
3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic, particularly to your hypothesis
or research question.
4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.
5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.
6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind, changes of mind,
reactions to experimental outcomes etc.
7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.
8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other research data,
remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or unexpected occurrences at the
time you notice them.
9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have frameworks to fit
findings into straightaway.
10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the start.
11. Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way you will
consider and store new information as it comes to light.