ELEC9712

High Voltage Systems

OVERHEAD LINES

1 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
ƒ Line voltage and constraints
o 415V – 1000 kV
o Power frequency – corona discharge loss
o Bundled conductors
o Lightning protection – OH earth wires
o Aerial bundled cables, covered conductors
ƒ Power transfer – temperature limits
o Inductive reactance limits
o HVDC lines
ƒ Conductor size – sag, stress, etc

1.1 Temperature constraints:

ƒ Clearances – sag statutory regulations.
ƒ Losses – resistance.
ƒ Conductor creep.
ƒ Annealing of conductor
ƒ High temperature conductors

1.2 Corona discharge:

ƒ Energy loss.
ƒ Radio interference.
ƒ Audible noise.
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1.3 Line conductors and losses

Stranded copper, aluminium or galvanized steel: may

be in various forms. Most common HV conductor is
ACSR (Al conductor steel reinforced). AC resistance of
ACSR is typically increased by 5% at full-load (due to
temperature). For all aluminium alloy (AAA) and composite
aluminium, the increase is negligible.
For copper, 5% - 6% is usual at full load.
Increase is determined by: R = Ro ⎡⎣1 + α (T − To ) ⎤⎦

1.4 Peak voltage

Electrical clearances between live conductors determined by
peak volts due to lightning and switching over-voltages.

Air gap (m)

Figure: Flashover voltage vs gap width.

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1.5 Earthing
All metal poles and towers must be earthed. With damp
ground and concrete foundations, earth resistance will be
about 20Ω. Overhead earth lines will reduce this.

For higher voltage lines, above about 33kV, the system will
have two earth wires strung above the main phase
conductors. These serve to intercept potential lightning
strikes to the main conductors and to divert the lightning to
earth. The overhead earth wires will be earthed to the tower
earth at each tower structure.

Each tower will have an earth electrode buried in the ground:

typically a driven rod or a metal mesh buried in the soil.

The earth resistance represented by this earth system and its

interface with the (relatively poor conductivity) soil can
cause problems with step and touch potentials. The low
conductivity of the soil will cause elevation of voltage over a
significant distance from the electrodes whenever any earth
current flows.

Note that earth current will only flow under fault conditions
or when there is a lightning strike.

Whenever a pole supports two different voltage lines (eg

415V and 11kV). The earths of each line voltage system are
usually isolated by separating the earth electrodes by
significant distances on either side of the pole. (except
CMEN).

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2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS
The commonly-used materials for overhead lines are:
(i) Hard-drawn copper (HDCu).
(ii) Cadmium-copper (CdCu).
(iii) Hard-drawn aluminium (AAC).
(iv) Aluminium alloy (AAAC).
(v) Galvanized steel (SC/GZ)
(vi) Aerial bundled cable (ABC)
(vii) Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)

Conductors are of stranded configuration.

For HV transmission, above about 33 kV, the conductors

used are invariably ACSR, with the steel wire reinforcement
increasing tensile strength, thus allowing longer spans.

Note: copper is not normally used with a steel core.

For standard distribution, conductors are copper, Cd-Cu,

aluminium alloy and galvanized steel [for SWER lines in
remote areas only] or aerial bundled cable in certain bushfire
prone areas.

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For higher voltages, usually 66kV and above, the total phase
conductor may comprise a bundle of 2, 3, 4, 6 or 8 individual
conductors separated by spacers. The purpose is to reduce
electric field level at the conductors to limit corona
discharges losses. Typical spacing of the individual
conductors may be about 20-30 cm.

The relevant electrical and physical properties of overhead

line conductors are shown below.

Physical constants of conductor materials.

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 :

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3. SPACINGS & CLEARANCES OF LINES
Spacings and clearances are designed to:
(i) Protect personnel (ground clearances)
(ii) Prevent clashing (spacings)
(iii) Prevent flashover: power frequency (spacing)
(iv) Prevent flashover: impulse (spacing)

Ground clearances are statutory requirements: specified in

Regulations and by the Electricity Supply Association of
Australia in ESAA Hb C(b)1-1999. They are listed below.

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Conductor spacing:

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4 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 Resistance (variation factors)

ƒ temperature: ~ 5%
ƒ skin effect: < 2%
ƒ stranding: 1 – 2%
ƒ composition (eg Cu-Cd, ACSR etc)

DC resistance values are normally quoted by manufacturers

at 20oC.

4.2 Inductance

Standard formulae are used, e.g

μ μo ⎛ d ⎞
L = Li + Le = + ln ⎜ ⎟ H/m/phase
8π 2π ⎝ r ⎠

In three-phase lines, spacings between phases may not be the

same. For bundled conductors, spacings between conductors
are not equal. For such cases, geometric means de and re
must be used for d and r.

d1 a2
a1
d2
d3 a3
d4 2r
A phase B phase
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 d e = n d1 × d 2 × K × d n

re = n a1 × a2 × K × an−1 × r
Thus:
μ μo ⎛ d e ⎞
L= + ln ⎜ ⎟ H/m
8π 2π ⎝ re ⎠
Example: for a quad conductor

re = 4 a × a × ( )
2a × r a
2a

= 4
2r × a 3 a
2r
Typically: a ≈ 16r

Hence: re = 4
2 × 163 × r 4 = 8.7 r

Typically: d e ≈ d

( d r )quad
Hence: = 0.11
( d r )single

⎛d ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠quad 2.16
and: = 1−
⎛d ⎞ ln ( d r )
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠single
Thus, L decreases when bundled conductors are used.

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Note that the internal inductance (0.05 μH/m) is usually
neglible compared to the external L when non-magnetic
conductors are used. However when galvanized steel is used
the internal inductance is increased about 1000-fold (to about
50 μH/m) and may be comparable to the external L.

4.3 Capacitance

For fully-isolated lines:

2πε o
C= F/m/phase
ln ( d r )

However, the effect of the ground may be significant.

The image theory can be used, but is only accurate for a

perfectly conducting ground. For normal finite resistivity
grounds, the image conductor is displaced from the true
image position.

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Carson developed formulae for the depth of the image return
conductor in terms of the earth resistivity ( ρe ) , e.g.
ρe
di = 720 m (where f = frequency)
f

The presence of overhead earth wires will also affect the

capacitance values. Typically, they will increase C by about
10%.

4.4 Electric field

For smooth cylinders:

V
E ( ro ) = V/m
ro ln ( d ro )

at the conductor surface.

Stranding will increase E by ~30%. Must design radius and
spacing to avoid corona discharge. Corona visual inception
occurs at:
Ev = 30 kV/cm (peak)
= 21.1 kV/cm (rms)

To reduce E ( ro ) to keep it well below Ev, we can:

a) Use hollow conductors with high ro,
b) Use bundled conductors with 2, 3, 4, 8 per phase.
These give an increase in effective re. For example,
re = 8.7 r for a quad. This will decrease E.

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Bundling of conductors reduces L, increases C and increases
thermal dissipation and hence thermal rating.

Bundling of conductors: (a) 2 conductors, (b) 4 conductors.

1 conductor
V = 1000kV (line-line)

Emax =
(10 6
3 )
⎛ 7.6 ⎞
1.25ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.0125 ⎠
72 kV/cm

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4.5 Insulators

Insulators are required to provide adequate dielectric

strength under both power frequency and lightning
impulse voltage conditions. They also to have to
provide mechanical strength, either as suspension
insulators or as support insulators. They have to
contend with rain, dust, industrial contaminations,
ultraviolet light degradation and with being used as
target practice by shooters. Modern insulators are either
porcelain or glass or composite structures. Composites
have a fibre glass core and outer silicone rubber sheath.

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Cap and pin insulators. The metal cap and pin are
cemented to the main porcelain or glass unit. The
convoluted surfaces are designed to increase creepage
paths to limit possible surface flashover when the
surface is contaminated. They can be joined together in
long strings to cover voltage ranges up to 765 kV eg.
Each unit is rated at about 11 kV. A 132 kV insulator
might have about 10-12 units in a string.

Composite (long rod) insulators These units are one

single moulding of appropriate length for the required
voltage application. The weathershed is usually silicone
rubber 9ma be EPDM) and the core is fibre-glass.

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The net result of the shunt capacitance to earth of the
insulator string is that the line end units are more highly
stressed than the tower end units. This may require
installation of a grading electrode attached to the line
end unit to reduce its effective capacitance and thus
voltage.

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4.6 Step, touch and transferred voltages

These voltages will arise relative to the earth electrode

whenever fault current or lightning current flows in the
earth circuit to the earth electrode with a person (or an
animal!) in the general vicinity of the earth electrode.

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5 THERMAL RATING OF OH LINES
The maximum temperature is determined by annealing and
by sag limits. 85oC was common, but 100oC is now
recommended by ESAA. Some use 120oC. 120oC will give
loss of only about 5% of tensile strength due to annealing
over line life. Modern high temperature composite conductor
materials have been developed with very low expansion
coefficients and these allow temperatures up to about 160 C
with significant increase in rating. They have yet to be
extensively adopted however.

Rating determination equation:

I 2R + Hs = Hr + Hc
where:
I = load current,
I2R = ohmic heating in W/m
R = line resistance / unit length
Hs = absorbed solar radiation heat (W/m)
Hr = radiated heat loss (W/m)
Hc = convected heat loss (W/m)

5.1 Solar absorption

Hs = α × S × d
where:
α = absorptivity ( 0 ≤ α ≤ 1)
S = solar radiation flux density (W/m2)
d = projected area of conductor = diameter x 1 (m2/m)

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Typically:
S is 700 – 1000 W/m2 temperate
1000 – 1200 W/m2 tropical
α is ~0.1 for new lines
~0.9 for old lines

5.2 Radiation

H r = 5.67 × 10−8 ε A ⎡(T + 273) − (TA + 273) ⎤ W/m

4 4

⎣ ⎦
where:
ε = emissivity (~0.1 new, ~0.9 old)
A = surface area = π × d × 1 (m2/m)
T = conductor temperature (oC)
TA = ambient temperature (oC)

Note:
H r = hr A[T − TA ]
Hence:
hr = 5.67 × 10−8 ε A ⎡(T + 273) + (TA + 273) ⎤
2 2
⎣ ⎦
× ⎡⎣(T + 273) + (TA + 273) ⎤⎦

Thus hr is temperature-dependent.
5 W/m2/C is a useful rule of thumb.

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5.3 Convection

This is very sensitive to wind speed and is a major factor in

ratings. Wind speed is never zero. Lowest is about 0.5 m/s at
conductor height. Generally, the average is about 2 m/s.

Convection loss is very difficult to quantify. Requires use of

Nusselt, Prandl, Reynolds and Grashof numbers.

e.g. for forced convection:

H cf = π k f Nu (Ts − TA ) W/m2

where kf = thermal conductivity of air.

= ⎡⎣ 242 + 0.035 (Ts + TA ) ⎤⎦ × 10−2 W/m.K

Nu depends on Reynolds number and whether flow is laminar

or turbulent:
Laminar: Re < 3200
Turbulent: Re > 3200

ud
Re =
1000ν f
where:
u = wind speed (m/s)
d = diameter
ν f = kinematic viscosity
= ⎡⎣132 + 0.48 (Ts + TA ) ⎤⎦ × 10−7 m2/s

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For laminar flow:
Nu = 0.55 ( 0.034 + 0.575Re0.487 )
For turbulent flow:
Nu = 0.55 ( 0.071 + 0.901Re0.715 )

For natural convection, use Grashof number (Gr) rather than

Re. But generally, forced convection due to wind is used.

Typical empirical formulae:

Based on UK ERA tests, for bare overhead lines

(a) Natural convection (no wind)

Stranded conductor:
H c = (12.8 × 10 d ) (T − TA )
0.699
−4 1.233
W/cm
Smooth conductor:
H c = (19.5 × 10 d ) (T − TA )
0.561
−4 1.187
W/cm

(b) Forced convection (wind speed u cm/s)

Stranded conductor:
H c = 13.8 × 10−4 ( ud ) (T − TA ) W/cm
0.448

Smooth conductor:
H c = 15.95 × 10−4 ( ud ) (T − TA ) W/cm
0.462

where:
d = conductor diameter (cm)
T − TA = temperature rise above ambient (oC).

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5.4 Tabulations of ratings
Ratings based on the preceding equations are provided in
tables such as those shown below, from the ESAA guide.

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5.5 Probabilistic ratings

The preceding approach to rating determinations requires use

of specific weather conditions (temperature, wind, solar
radiation etc.). These are not generally available for the
whole length of a long line and so some assumptions must be
made about the conditions.

These assumptions are based on long-term observations of

weather data for specific locations and thus give probabilistic
ratings. By the nature of these they are usually conservative.
Normally there will be control centre-based ratings program
that will allow variation of input data to cover any major
variations of weather conditions.

5.6 Real Time ratings

With modern developments in sensor technology and in

wideband communications, it is now possible to have real
time data of conductor and ambient temperatures, wind speed
and solar radiation along the line. These can be sent to the
control centre where a computer will calculate real ratings of
the line at any particular moment.

5.7 Overload ratings

In this case, use thermal capacity of the line in calculation:
Step 1: specify the overload period.
Step 2: determine initial temperature of conductor
Step 3: determine additional heat to reach peak T.
Step 4: deduct heat loss.
Step 5: calculate current needed to give required I2R.
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5.8 Rating of aerial bundled cable

Aerial bundled cable (ABC) is now extensively used in both

low voltage (415V) and high voltage (11kV) applications.
ABC has an insulating sheath over the conductor and thus the
rating determination must take account of the thermal
resistance of this sheath.

The calculation is performed using the thermal resistance

model in combination with the radiation and convection
dissipation mechanisms outlined previously.

The temperature limitation will also have to include the

sheath material considerations.

a) Use cable rating techniques with effective thermal

resistance for air-surface.

insulation cable-air

I 2R solar

b) Use heat balance equation with conductor temperature

and heat dissipation coefficients for radiation and
convection. The insulation surface temperature is
unknown, so iteration is necessary.

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6 SAG & TENSION IN OVERHEAD LINES

y
l 2 l 2

S F
A ωX
y H
x=0 x
x

Notation:
l = span length
S = sag (mid-span)
X = true conductor length at x = x
ω = conductor weight / unit length
ω X = weight of length X.
F = tension in conductor at A.
H = horizontal component of F.

At A, the spatial gradient is:

dy ω X
=
dx H

But: dX = dx 2 + dy 2

2
dX ⎛ dy ⎞
Hence: = 1+ ⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ dx ⎠

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 ω2 X 2
= 1+
H2

Integration gives:
H ⎛ ωx ⎞
X ( x) = sinh ⎜ ⎟
ω ⎝H ⎠

H⎡ ⎛ ωx ⎞ ⎤
or: y ( x) = ⎢ cosh ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
ω⎣ ⎝H ⎠ ⎦
⎛l⎞
But: y⎜ ⎟ = S
⎝2⎠
Hence:

H⎡ ⎛ ωl ⎞ ⎤
S= cosh ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
ω ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2H ⎠ ⎦

This is the exact formula for the sag ( S ) in terms of the

conductor weight/unit length (ω ) , span ( l ) , and tension ( H ) .

We can obtain a simpler formula by expanding the cosh term

in the above expression. Using:
x2 x4
cosh ( x ) = 1 + + + K
2! 4!

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 H⎡ ω 2l2 ω 4l4 ⎤
S = ⎢1 + + + K − 1⎥
ω ⎣ ( 2!) 4 H 2 ( 4!)16 H 4 ⎦
ωl 2 1 ω 3l 4
= + +K
8 H 384 H 3

Typically, l = 400m , H = 2500kg [ = F ] , ω = 1.74kg/m

1.74 × 4002 1.743 × 4004

Then: S = +
8 × 2500 384 × 25003
= 13.92 + 0.023 = 13.945

Thus, S = 13.92 approximation has only 0.2% error. Hence,

we can use a simple parabolic relationship to calculate sag:

ωl 2
S=
8H

At the support point at the end of the span:

⎡ ⎛ ωl ⎞⎤
F = H ⎢cosh ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2H ⎠⎦
⎡ ω 2 l2 ⎤
≈ H ⎢1 + 2 ⎥
⎣ 8H ⎦

ω 2 l2
If 2
≈ 1, then F ≈ H
8H

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Using the above example,
ω 2l2 1.742 × 4002
=
8H 2
8 × 25002
= 9.7 × 10−3
≈ 0.01

Thus, we can say that F = H [where F is the tension in the

line at the support], and then:

ωl 2
S=
8F

True conductor length (L):

L H⎡ ⎛ ωl ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢sinh ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 ω⎣ ⎝ 2H ⎠⎦

2 H ⎡ ω l ω 3l 3 ⎤
L= + + K
ω ⎢⎣ 2 H 48 H 3 ⎥
or:
⎦
ω 2 l3
≈l+
24H 2

ωl 2 ω 2l4
But: S= ⇒ S =
2

8H 64 H 2

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 ω 2 l3 S 2 64 8S 2
Hence: = × =
24 H 2 l 24 3l

Hence:
8S 2
L =l+
3l

The true conductor length is important when calculating the

effects of expansion due to temperature change.

6.1 Effect of temperature on lines

If L = Lo at temperature To ,

L1 (T ) = Lo ⎡⎣1 + β (T1 − To ) ⎤⎦
where:
β = coefficient of linear expansion

But we also have from above:

8So2
Lo = l + [ So = sag at To]
3l
8S12
L1 = l + [ S1 = sag at T1]
3l
⎡ 8So2 ⎤
= ⎢l + ⎥ ⎡⎣1 + β (T1 − To ) ⎤⎦
⎣ 3l ⎦
8So2 8So2
=l+ + lβ (T1 − To ) + β (T1 − To )
3l 3l
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Hence:
8S12 8So2 8So2
= + lβ (T1 − To ) + β (T1 − To )
3l 3l 3l
neglect
Hence:
3
S12 = So2 + β l 2 [T1 − To ]
8

3
S1 = So2 + β l 2 [T1 − To ]
8

In practice, the tension F will also change with temperature,

and thus:
L1 = Lo + Lo ( f1 − f o ) E + β Lo [T1 − To ]

where f1 and fo are the tensions at T1 and To and E is the

modulus of elasticity.

The result is that the relationship between S1 and So at

temperatures T1 and To is actually a cubic equation which
must be solved by manual iteration or by using a computer to
solve the equation. However it is often adequate to neglect
the effect of length variation with tension.

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Example:

l = 100m , So = 1m at To = 30o C , β = 20 × 10-6 o C-1 .

Find the increase in sag and the change in L for a 50o C

temperature rise to T1 = 80o C . Neglect any change in tension.

S1 = 12 + × ( 2 × 10−5 ) × 50 × 1002
3
New sag:
8
= 4.75
= 2.18 m

Thus, increase in sag = 2.18 – 1.0 = 1.18 m.

8 × 12
Lo = 100 + = 100.03 m
3 × 100
8 × 2.182
L1 = 100 + = 100.13 m
3 × 100

Thus, increase in actual conductor length is:

ΔL = L1 − Lo = 0.10m

corresponding to: ΔS = S1 − So = 1.18m

N.B. L1 = Lo ⎡⎣1 + β (T1 − To ) ⎤⎦

= 100.03 (1 + 2 × 10−5 × 50 ) = 100.13 m

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6.2 Effect of wind on OH lines

Wind force on an OH line generates an additional tension on

the line in addition to the weight. It is usual to take the wind
as transverse to the line, producing a horizontal force in
addition to the vertical weight.
ωw ωw

≡ ωo
ωo ωT

Thus, the total effective force on the line conductor is:

ωT = ωo2 + ωw2 N/m

Wind pressure is expressed as:

1
P= ρ GV 2 N/m2 [Pa]
2
where:
ρ = air density = 1.225 kg/m3 at 15oC and 1 bar.
G is a terrain/gust factor [usually ~1.5-2.0]
V is wind speed, m/s

It is usually assumed for wind force allowance, that:

P = 500 N/m2 [Pa]
corresponding to V ≈ 50km/hr .

Then: ωw = 500d N/m [for conductor diameter d]

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Example:
An OH line has:
Span l = 150 m
Effective conductor diameter d = 20 mm
Conductor cross-section = 300 mm2
Conductor weight wo = 2.3 kg/m = 22.5 N/m
Wind pressure = 382 N/m2 (transverse)
Maximum allowable conductor stress = 100 MN/m2

Determine the effective sag.

wl 2
We use: S=
8F

where w is the effective value, including wind:

ww = 382 × (1× 20 × 10−3 ) = 7.64 N/m

wo = 22.5 N/m
Hence:
w = wo2 + ww2
= 22.52 + 7.642 = 23.6 N/m

Fmax = Area × Stress

= ( 300 × 10−6 ) × (100 × 106 ) = 30 × 103 N
Hence:
23.6 × 1502
S= = 2.21 m
8 × 30 × 10 3

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6.3 Other wind effects:
Wind causes two forms of vibrational movement of the
lines that can cause problems over time.

(a) Aeolian vibration:

ƒ Small amplitude, high frequency oscillations in
vertical direction
ƒ Amplitude: 0.5 – 2 conductor diameter.
ƒ Frequency: 10 – 100 Hz.
ƒ Dampers must be used to prevent such movement.

Stockbridge dampers

(b) Galloping:
ƒ Large amplitude, low frequency vertical oscillation
ƒ Amplitude: ~ 1m or more.
ƒ Can get fundamental or dual modes.

ƒ May cause clashing.

ƒ Can be terrain-induced (eg lines on ridges).

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7 INSULATION DESIGN & COORDINATION
Basic insulation designs to determine clearances, etc are
dependent, primarily, on transient over-voltages.

It is necessary to know the properties of the transients and

their frequency of occurrence and also the properties of the
insulation.
(i) Lightning impulse.
(ii) Switching transients.
(iii) Power frequency over-voltages.
(iv) Insulation strength – time.

7.1 Lightning:

Need to know keraunic levels (number of flashes per year at

one location), lightning properties (voltage, current, etc).

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For suspended insulators, the clearance contours are almost
circular. Effect of wind swing is neglected.

7.2 Switching transients:

Switching surges, unlike lightning, are generated within the

power system through circuit breaker and switch operation.
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The causes, magnitudes, and waveshapes of switching surges
are numerous. Example causes are:
1. De-energization of capacitor banks, cables, or lines with
or without connected transformers and/or shunt reactors.
2. Energization or de-energization of buses with disconnect
switches.
3. Energization of lines or cables with or without connected
transformers and/or shunt reactors.
4. high-speed reclosing of lines with or without shunt
reactors.
5. Energizing and de-energizing transformers with or
without connected shunt reactors.
6. De-energization of shunt reactors.
7. Sudden loss-of-load on long lines with or without
connected transformers.
8. Out-of-phase switching.
9. Reinsertion of series capacitor modules.

The details of such transients, from breaker switching must

be known, including transmission-line effects such as
reflections and attenuation details, etc.

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7.3 Power-frequency overvoltages:
These impose less severe requirements. Possible mechanisms
of flashover are:
1. Extreme swing.
2. Insulator contamination.
Flashovers at power frequency are a problem because they
are sustained.

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7.4 Overall clearance requirements:

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8 CORONA ON OH LINES

8.1 Corona effects

ƒ Radio and TV interference.

ƒ Audible noise.
ƒ Ozone and NOx generation.
ƒ Power loss.
ƒ Interference with testing.

8.2 Corona is caused by:

ƒ Low pressure.
ƒ Moisture (foul weather conditions).
ƒ High electric field at conductor.
ƒ Insulator contamination.
ƒ Rough surfaces.

It occurs wherever the electrical field at a conductor exceeds

the corona inception electric field of the gas insulation.

For air, with smooth conductors,

Eo = 30 kV/cm (peak) = 21.1 kV/cm (rms)

Partial discharge (corona) starts at about Eo ≈ 30kVpeak .

Corona becomes visible at (for air):

Ev = Eo (1+0.3r -1 2 ) (r in cm)

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Conductor stranding can reduce Ev by 20 – 30% from smooth
cylinder case.

The general formula for Ev is:

30 ⎛ 0.3 ⎞
Ev = δ M ⎜1 + ⎟ kV(rms)/cm
2 ⎝ δr ⎠

For two conductor line:

Vv
Ev =
2r ln ( d r )
60 ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
Vv = rδ M ⎜1 + ⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟ kV(rms)
2 ⎝ δr ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

For 3-phase line:

Vv
Ev =
r ln ( d r )
30 ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
Vv = rδ M ⎜1 + ⎟ ln ⎜ r ⎟ [Peek’s formula]
2 ⎝ δr ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where:
δ = air density factor
3.92b
= [b = pressure in cm of Hg]
T + 273
M = surface roughness factor: [0-1]
e.g. stranding

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Corona power loss

Negligible in good (fair) weather: e.g ~1-5 kW/km for 500

kV line.

In poor (foul) weather: ~ 150-200 kW/km for 500 kV line.

Corona discharge can also occur on objects (even earthed)

which are under the influence of the OH line electrical field,
e.g. pole tops, tips of leaves, vehicles, persons.

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 Chart for Isc for rectangular objects.

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