Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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RSALFAC USE
Grammar Summary
Supplemental Material
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28 Using Modal Verbs To Express Degrees Of Certainty
28 Other Modal Verbs
29 AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS
30 IRREGULAR VERBS
34 Irregular Verbs With Similar Endings
36 Other Similar Irregular Verbs
39 ADJECTIVES
39 Using Adjectives
39 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
39 How to use Comparatives and Superlatives
40 Rules for Forming Regular Comparatives and Superlatives
41 Irregular Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
42 ADVERBS
42 Different Types Of Adverbs
43 PARTICIPLES
44 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
45 PREPOSITIONS
45 English Prepositions List
46 Prepositions of Time
47 Commonly used Prepositions of Place and Direction
48 Other Prepositions of Place and Direction
49 How to use Prepositions For / Since / Ago / Already / Yet
50 How to use Prepositions So / Too / Either / Neither / Also / As Well (As)
51 How to use Prepositions Too, So, Such, Enough
52 How to use Prepositions In, Into
53 CONDITIONALS
53 First Conditional
53 Second Conditional
53 Third Conditional
54 EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
55 CAUSATIVES
55 Basic Causative Sentence Structure
55 Passive Causative Sentence Structure
55 The Causative with Have
56 The Causative with Get
56 The Causative with Make
56 The Causative with Let
57 The Causative with Help
57 REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH
59 PASSIVE VOICE
61 TAG QUESTIONS
62 EMBEDDING
63 CLAUSES
63 Definition of Clause
63 Independent Clause
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63 Dependent Clause
63 Relative Clause
64 Noun Clause
64 Adjective Clause
64 Subject Adjective Clause
65 Object Adjective Clause
66 Possessive Adjective Clause
66 Location Adjective Clause
66 Adverb Clause
68 PHRASES
68 Prepositional Phrase
68 Participial Phrase
68 Infinitive Phrase
68 Gerund Phrase
68 Verb Phrase
PARTS OF SPEECH
(NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS)
NOUNS:
A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events and feelings.
Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an adjective and can take an article
or determiner. Nouns may be divided into two groups: Countable Nouns have plural forms and
Uncountable Nouns do not.
A determiner (a word that modifies a noun) is an article (a, an, the car), numeral (two cars, first
day), possessive adjective (my job, their friends), quantifier (some coffee, few tickets) or a
demonstrative adjective (this tape, those books)
NOTE: Words that end in …er, …ment, …ty, …ey, ness…, …tion, are NOUNS.
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HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF REGULAR NOUNS
boss - bosses
s, x, ch or sh Add -es tax - taxes
bush - bushes
Change y to i
fly - flies
consonant + y then try - tries
curry - curries
Add -es
cat - cats
most others Add -s face - faces
day - days
Change f to v
knife - knives
Ends with -fe then life - lives
wife - wives
Add -s
Change f to v
half - halves
Ends with -f then wolf - wolves
loaf - loaves
Add -es
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potato - potatoes
Ends with -o Add -es tomato - tomatoes
volcano - volcanoes
cactus - cacti
Ends with -us Change -us to -i nucleus - nuclei
focus - foci
analysis - analyses
Ends with -is Change -is to -es crisis - crises
thesis - theses
phenomenon - phenomena
Ends with -on Change -on to -a criterion - criteria
GERUNDS
Gerunds are verb forms used as nouns.
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consider You should consider taking another course.
think about You should think about taking another course.
delay You shouldn’t delay studying until the last minute.
deny You can’t deny taking the last cookie.
discuss We need to discuss using gerunds in sentences.
talk about We need to talk about using gerunds in sentences.
dislike He dislikes doing homework.
enjoy He enjoys doing homework
finish Ali didn’t finish answering all the questions.
imagine He couldn’t imagine leaving home.
keep Keep studying after you finish the course
keep on Keep on studying after you finish the course.
mention He mentioned studying at U.C.L.A.
mind I don’t mind waiting a few minutes.
miss He won’t miss having to study so much.
postpone We can not postpone moving to KKMC.
put off We can put off taking the ALCPT test.
quit He quit smoking.
stop He stopped smoking.
Notice that the gerund follows to with these verbs. Usually to is followed by the infinitive.
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start You may start answering now. You may start to answer now.
Gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence. Infinitives are used after adjectives.
PRONOUNS
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as SUBJECT PRONOUNS before the verb as the subject of a
sentence.
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
I am a student. We are students.
You (singular)are a student. You (Plural) are students.
He is a student. They are students.
She is a student.
It is a cat.
OBJECT PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as OBJECT PRONOUNS after a verb or a preposition as the subject.
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Singular Object Pronouns Singular Object Pronouns
After the Verb After a Preposition
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
We use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES before nouns to indicate possession.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS to indicate possession.
Singular Singular
Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns
__________________________________________________________________________________
We use the following the following PRONOUNS to show:
1. If the NOUN is singular or plural.
2. If the NOUN is near or far.
Singular Plural
NOTE: One additional reflexive pronoun that is not like the other pronouns is oneself.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns refer to things or people without mentioning what or who they are.
For people we use: anybody or anyone / somebody or someone / nobody or no one
For things we use: anything or something / nothing or none.
For locations we use: anywhere or somewhere / nowhere.
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SOMEONE / ANYONE / SOMEBODY / ANYBODY / NOBODY / NO ONE
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VERBS
Verbs are one of the major grammatical groups, and all sentences must contain one. Verbs refer to an
action (do, break, walk, etc.) or a state (be, like, own). The verb tense shows the time of the action or
state (present, past of future).
NOTE: Only THIRD PERSON SINGULAR subjects (he, she, and it) have
to have a verb with -S.
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Verb ending How to make the 3rd person
Example
in... singular (he, she it)
He passes
She dozes
s, z, sh, ch Add -ES
She wishes
He watches
say - saying
[anything else] Add -ING go - going
walk - walking
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How to make the simple
Verb ending in... Examples
past
live - lived
e Add -D
date - dated
try - tried
Consonant + y Change y to i, then add -ED
cry - cried
boil - boiled
[anything else] Add -ED fill - filled
hand - handed
THE VERB…TO BE
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE … THE VERB… TO BE
I am We are
You are You are
He is They are
She is
It is
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The verb TO BE can be followed by a noun, by an adjective, or a prepositional phrase in statements or
questions.
TO BE Followed by a Noun
STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
I am a student. Am I a student?
You are a student. Are you a student?
He is a student. Is he a student?
She is a student. Is she a student?
It is a dog. Is it a dog?
STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
TO BE Followed by an Adjective
STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
I am happy. Am I happy?
You are sad. Are you sad?
He is handsome. Is he handsome?
She is smart. Is she smart?
It is brown. Is it brown?
Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by an adjective.
STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
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STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
STATEMENTS QUESTIONS
I was We were
You were You were
He was They were
She was
It was
________________________________________________________________________
NOTE: You cannot use DO, DOES, or DID with the verb TO BE
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exist in the future.
SIMPLE I watched TV yesterday. Used to express events that happened at
PAST She watched TV yesterday. ONE time in the past. These events began
and ended ONE time in the past.
SIMPLE I will watch TV tomorrow. Used to express events that will happen at
FUTURE She will watch TV ONE time in the future. These events will
tomorrow. begin and end ONE time in the future.
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PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
STATEMENT I I am working.
You work.
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We You .
They We are working.
They
He He
She works. She is working
It It
NEGATIVE I I am not working.
You don’t work.
We You are not (aren’t) working.
They We
They
He He
She doesn’t work. She is not (isn’t) working.
It It
QUESTIONS I Am I working?
Do you work?
we you
they Are we working?
they
he he
Does she work? Is she working?
it it
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.
Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?
Did we not work? Didn’t we work?
Did he not work? Didn’t he work?
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STATEMENT I I
You He was working when the phone rang.
He She
She worked yesterday. It
It
We We
You You were working when the phone rang.
They They
NEGATIVE I I
You He wasn’t working when the phone rang.
He She
She didn’t work yesterday. It
It
We We
You You weren’t working when the phone rang.
They They
QUESTIONS I I
you Was he working when the phone rang?
he she
Did she work yesterday? it
it
we we
you Were you working when the phone rang?
they they
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.
Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?
Did we not work? Didn’t we work?
Did he not work? Didn’t he work?
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The future continuous tense is used to express events or situations that will be happening in the
future prior to another event that will be happening in the future.
STATEMENT I I
You He will be working when the phone rings.
He She
She will work tomorrow. It
It
We We
You You will be working when the phone rings.
They They
NEGATIVE I I
You He won’t be working when the phone rings.
He She
She won’t work tomorrow. It
It
We (won’t = will not) We
You You won’t be working when the phone rings.
They They
QUESTIONS I I
you Will he be working when the phone rings?
he she
Will she work tomorrow? it
it
we we
you Will you be working when the phone rings?
they they
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple future and the future continuous tenses.
Simple Past Tense Will you not work? Won’t you work?
Will we not work? Won’t we work?
Will he not work? Won’t he work?
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THE SIMPLE PERFECT TENSES
Form: have + past participle
TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING
SIMPLE I have already watched TV. Used to express events or situations that
PRESENT She has already watched TV. finished sometime before now.
SIMPLE I had already watched TV Used to express events or situations that
PAST yesterday. completely finished before another time
She had already watched TV in the past.
yesterday.
SIMPLE I will already have watched Used to express events or situations that
FUTURE TV when you arrive. completely finished before another time
She will already have watched in the future.
TV when you arrive.
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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS TENSES
The present perfect simple tense is used when the action of the verb happened at an unspecified time
in the past and when the action of the verb began in the past and continues until now.
The present perfect continuous tense is used when the action of the verb began in the past and is
continuing at the present time.
STATEMENT I I
You have finished. You have been finishing.
We We
They They
He He
She has finished. She has been finishing.
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You have not (haven’t) finished. You have not (haven’t) been finishing.
We We
They They
He He
She has not (hasn’t) finished. She has not (hasn’t) been finishing.
It It
QUESTIONS I I
Have you finished? Have you been finishing?
we we
they they
he he
Has she finished? Has she been finishing?
it it
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.
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Present Perfect Have you not been finishing? Haven’t you been finishing?
Continuous Tense Have we not been finishing? Haven’t we been finishing?
Has he not been finishing? Hasn’t he been finishing?
STATEMENT I I
You You
We We
They had left when Bob came. They had been leaving when Bob came.
He He
She She
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You You
We We
They had not left when Bob came. They had not been leaving when Bob came.
He He
She (had not = hadn’t) She
It It
QUESTIONS I I
you you
we we
Had they left when Bob came? Had they been leaving when Bob came?
he he
she she
it it
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.
Past Perfect Had you not left when Bob came? Hadn’t you left when Bob came?
Simple Tense Had we not left when Bob came? Hadn’t we left when Bob came?
Had he not left when Bob came? Hadn’t he left when Bob came?
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Past Perfect Had you not been leaving when Bob came?
Continuous Hadn’t you been leaving when Bob came?
Tense Had we not been leaving when Bob came?
Hadn’t we been leaving when Bob came?
Had he not left when Bob came?
Hadn’t he been leaving when Bob came?
STATEMENT I I
You will have finished. You will have been finishing.
We We
They They
He He
She will have finished. She will have been finishing.
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You will not have finished. You will not have been finishing.
We We
They They
(have not = haven’t) (have not = haven’t)
He He
She will not have finished. She will not have been finishing.
It It
QUESTIONS I I
Will you have finished? Will you have been finishing?
we we
they they
he he
Will she have finished? Will she have been finishing?
it it
NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.
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Example: Full Words Contractions
Present Perfect Will you not have finished? Won’t you have finished?
Simple Tense Will we not have finished? Won’t we have finished?
Will he not have finished? Won’t he have finished?
Present Perfect Will you not have been finishing? Won’t you have been finishing?
Continuous Tense Will we not have been finishing? Won’t we have been finishing?
Will he not have been finishing? Won’t he have been finishing?
INFINITIVES
An infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. An infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an
adverb. It is always "to" plus a verb.
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mean Ali didn’t mean to interrupt the meeting.
need You need to study to get a good grade.
neglect Don’t neglect to get a good nights sleep.
offer I offered to give him a ride.
plan I didn’t plan to go to Riyadh.
prefer I prefer to study by myself.
prepare I am prepared to take the test.
pretend I am pretending to study.
promise I promise to be a good student.
refuse I refuse to move to Iraq.
remember I remembered to bring my book.
request I requested to see the Major.
seem You seem to be upset.
tend I tend to get upset easily.
threaten I threaten to leave the program.
try I tried to give him some advice.
volunteer I volunteered to help him learn English.
wait I will wait to go to Egypt.
want I want to visit my mother.
wish I wish to travel around the world.
would like I would like to know you better.
Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs when they are followed by a noun or pronoun.
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The following verbs are followed by a WH question word and the infinitive.
Will
Must
Can
Should
May
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Might
For Modal Verbs the Sentence Structures are always the same.
Note: Modal auxiliary verbs are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare
infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").
No conjugation... means modal verbs do not change for present, past or future
tenses.
Bare infinitive… means do not use to before the verb… you can use ‘can eat’ ‘may eat’ ‘might
eat’…but do not use ‘can to eat’ ‘may to eat’ ‘might to eat’
Should… Is used when we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it to happen.
Example: We should be able to go to Spain next summer if we save
our money.
May… Is used when we wish to express the something will possibly happen.
Example: We may go to the party but we haven’t made a decision
yet.
Might… Is used when we want to express that something will possibly happen, but we are less
certain.
Example: He might be at home, but he usually prays at this time.
The helping verbs DO, DOES, DID, and MODALS are followed by the infinitive (verb one).
The helping verbs AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary verbs (such as in the
continuous tenses) are followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB.
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Note: AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary (helping verbs) are not followed by the
ING form of the MAIN VERB if the sentence is passive.
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Verbs ‘ought’
Simple Past weave wove Woven
Base Form Past Participle
Tense Verbs ‘ew’
bring brought brought
blow blew blown
buy bought bought
draw drew drawn
fight fought fought
fly flew flown
seek sought sought
grow grew grown
think thought thought
know knew knew
Verbs ‘aught’ overthrow overthrew Overthrown
catch caught slay
caught slew slain
teach taught throw
taught threw thrown
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mistake mistook mistaken
overtake overtook overtaken
shake shook shaken
take took Taken
Verbs ‘ore’
bear bore born
shear shore shorn
swear swore sworn
tear tore torn
wear wore worn
PAST
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST
PARTICIPLE
beat beat beaten
PAST
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST
PARTICIPLE
come came come
run ran run
become became become
SIMPLE PAST AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR
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say said said
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
stick stuck stuck
sweep swept swept
swing swung swung
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
understand understood understood
win won won
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ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
show* showed shown
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
speak spoke spoken
spring sprang sprung
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
write wrote written
ADJECTIVES
An adjective modifies a noun. It describes the quality, state or action that a noun refers to.
USING ADJECTIVES
i) Adjectives can come before nouns: a new car
ii) Adjectives can come after verbs such as be, become, seem, look, etc.: that car looks fast
iii) Adjectives can be modified by adverbs: a very expensive car
iv) Adjectives can be used as complements to a noun: the extras make the car expensive
NOTE: When we change a plural noun into an adjective we must add a hyphen (-) and remove the “s”
Examples: The shirt costs ten dollars… becomes… It’s a ten-dollar shirt.
The general has five stars… becomes… He’s a five-star general.
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interest interested interesting amaze amazed amazing
surprise surprised surprising annoy annoyed annoying
irritate irritated irritating excite excited exciting
The book interested Ali. It is an interesting book. Ali is interested in the book.
The story amazed Ahmed. It is an amazing story. Mohammad is amazing.
The news surprised the boys. The news is surprising. The boys are surprised.
The game excited people. It is an exciting game. They were excited people.
The noise irritated us. It was an irritating noise. They were irritated students.
SUPERLATIVES are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually
use THE, because there is only one superlative.
One syllable word, with one Double the consonant, Double the consonant,
consonant one vowel and and add -ER: and add -EST:
one consonant at the end
(except words ending in w).
hot, big, drop hotter, bigger, fatter hottest, biggest, dropped
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One syllable, with more
Add -ER: Add -EST:
than one vowel or more
than one consonant at the
end.
lighter, neater, faster lightest, neatest, fastest
light, neat, fast
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These tools are GOOD.
These tools are BETTER than those tools.
These are the BEST tools you can buy.
ADVERBS
Most adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word that modifies
the meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral;
a Pronoun; or a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes be used as a Complement of a Preposition.
ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.
Example: She did the work carefully. ('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe the
way the work was done, as opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)
ADVERB OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.
Example: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb,
whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)
PARTICIPLES
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There are two participles in English: the present participle and the past participle. They can both be
used as adjectives.
Present Participle:
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb.
It is used in:
i) Continuous or Progressive verb forms - I'm leaving in five minutes.
iii) With the verb 'be' to form the passive - He was robbed a couple of days ago.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of frequency tell a person how often something happens.
This chart will help you understand the meaning of the adverbs of frequency. These meanings are
subjective (which means everyone has a different understanding of their meaning) and are not exact.
These percentages will give you a general idea of their meaning.
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OTHER ADVERDS OF FREQUENCY
NOTE: Daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly always come after the main verb.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb. There are no exceptions to this
rule. By "noun" we include:
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ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST
There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think
of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use
individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions
of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of
the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one
meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
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seasons in summer; in winter; in spring; in autumn; in the fall
following something;
after after school; after lunch; after class; after swimming
later than something
how far something 6 years ago; 1 month ago; 3 days ago; 5 weeks ago;
ago
happened (in the past) 3 hours ago
earlier than something;
before before Christmas; before Ramadan; the day before yesterday
prior to something
time that separates two between Monday and Friday; between 3 o’clock and 4:20;
between
points between now and 4 PM; between 2005 and 2006
throughout an entire period during the holidays; during Ramadan; during March; during
during
of time 2006; during my vacation
for a specific period of time for 3 weeks; for a month; for a day; for 2 years
past for telling time of the day 23 minutes past 6 (6:23); a quarter past 3; half past 2
till/until (up up to a specific time or till tomorrow; a quarter till 3; till the year 2007
to) date until tomorrow; a quarter until 3; until next month
up to (until) until a specific time or date up to 6 hours a day; up to May 1/06; up to the end of March;
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up to 2007; up to tomorrow; up to a quarter to 3
within during a period of time within a day; within a month; within an hour
names of countries,
in Riyadh; in America; in the United States; in Saudi Arabia;
counties; continents;
in New York; in Texas; in Hafer Al-Batin
towns, cities, states
at the bus stop; at the corner; at the door; at the end of the
with places road; at the entrance; at the exit; at the cinema; at the back
IMPORTANT NOTES:
In / at / on the corner
We say 'in the corner of a room', but 'at the corner (or 'on the corner') of a street'
In / at / on the front
We say 'in the front / in the back' of a car
We say 'at the front / at the back' of buildings / groups of people
We say 'on the front / on the back' of a piece of paper
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NOTE: With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no
preposition.
I went home at 8 PM. She went inside the house.
They went downtown. The dog is going outside the building.
She went uptown. He is going downstairs to the basement.
after later in time than something else The dog ran after the cat.
against to strike or come in contact with The bird flew against the window.
along in a line; from one point to another They're walking along the beach.
below lower than something, under something Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.
between something or somebody is on each side Our boy is between his dog and cat.
down going from a high place to a low place He came down the hill.
in front of the part that faces forward Our house is in front of the supermarket.
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off movement away from something The cat jumped off the roof.
onto to move on the top of something The cat jumped onto the roof.
opposite on the other side, across from Our house is opposite the supermarket.
over above something or somebody The cat jumped over the wall.
through movement from one side to another You shouldn't walk through the forest.
up going from a low place to a high place He went up the hill…He went up the stairs.
How to use FOR / SINCE / AGO / ALREADY / YET when referring to TIME
SINCE
Use SINCE with a specified time. Refers to the time between a point in the past and now.
Examples: SINCE last week SINCE Monday SINCE three o’clock
SINCE 1975 SINCE I arrived SINCE May 21 1992
Use the PRESENT PERFECT or the PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tense with
SINCE
Examples: I HAVE STUDIED here SINCE last month.
I HAVE BEEN STUDYING here SINCE last month.
FOR
Use FOR with how much time. Refers to a length of time.
Examples: FOR three hours FOR one day FOR a few minutes
FOR a week FOR two months FOR several years
FOR a long time FOR a night FOR a couple of hours
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AGO
Use AGO with the SIMPLE PAST & PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES.
Examples: They left a few hours AGO. (Simple Past)
They were studying a few minutes AGO. (Past Continuous)
ALREADY
Use ALREADY to refer to something that occurred before now (before this time). It is often
used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tenses.
Examples: John has ALREADY eaten.
Note: ALREADY is used with affirmative sentences and comes in the middle of the sentence.
YET
Use YET to refer to something that occurs or should occur up to and including the present
time. It is often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS tenses.
Examples: The plane hasn’t arrived YET. The plane has YET to arrive.
He hasn’t been studying YET. He has YET to study.
Note: When YET is used in negative sentences it comes at the end of a sentence.
NO NEGATIVES
If there are NO NEGATIVES in a combined sentence use SO, TOO, ALSO, AS WELL
ONE NEGATIVE
TWO NEGATIVES
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If there are TWO NEGATIVES in your combined sentence use EITHER.
SO AND NEITHER
SO and NEITHER come after ‘and’ in the second clause and the VERB comes before the
subject.
The order of the words = and + (SO or NEITHER) + VERB + subject
Examples: He likes rice. We like rice.
He likes rice and SO DO we.
They haven’t gone. We haven’t gone.
They haven’t gone and NEITHER HAVE we.
NOTE: In the four cases cited above the verb in the second clause MUST have the same tense as the
verb in the first clause!!! Substitute the correct auxiliary or modal verb for the main verb in the second
clause of the sentence.
TOO
TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVE
Example: This coffee is TOO hot to drink.
This homework is TOO hard to do.
The car is TOO expensive to buy.
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NOTE: TOO carries a negative idea. It indicates the impossibility of the event that follows.
Example:
This coffee is TOO hot to drink. = I cannot drink this coffee because it is very hot.
This homework is TOO hard for me. = I cannot do this homework because it is hard.
The car is TOO expensive for me to buy. = I cannot buy this car because it is expensive.
SO
SUCH
ENOUGH
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How to use PREPOSITIONS IN, INTO
IN
INTO
A preposition indicating that something or somebody moves or is moved from outside to inside or
toward the inner part of something
CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional is for future actions dependent on the result of another future action or event,
where there is a reasonable possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied.
It is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations. These
situations take place if a certain condition is met.
For the first conditional the if clause (the conditional clause) uses the simple present tense.
Examples: I will go if I have enough money. OR If I have enough money I will go.
I can go I can go.
I may go I may go.
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SECOND CONDITIONAL
It is often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or improbable -
situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. It is often used to
express a wish.
For the second conditional the if clause uses the simple past tense.
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Example: I would go if I had enough money. OR If I had enough money I would go.
I could go I could go.
I might go I might go.
NOTE: Use were after if in the SECOND CONDITIONAL. Don’t use was
Example: If I were rich I would buy an airplane.
If he were lost he would telephone.
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THIRD CONDITIONAL
The Past Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. You can describe
what you would have done differently or how something could have happened differently if
circumstances had been different.
For the third conditional the if clause uses the past perfect tense.
Examples:
EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
Expressions of purpose tell the reason why something is done.
TO + SIMPLE VERB
IN ORDER TO + SIMPLE VERB
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FOR + NOUN
Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used TO drive nails. Knives are used TO cut meat.
We use hammers TO drive nails. We use knives TO cut meat.
Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used FOR driving nails. Knives are used FOR cutting meat.
We use hammers FOR driving nails. We use knives FOR cutting meat.
CAUSATIVES
The causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one thing or person causes another
thing or person to do something.
In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the past participle, and the
object comes before it:
Use a verb word after a person and use a participle after thing
Use an infinitive after a person and use a participle after thing (No verb word)
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make + thing + verb
REPORTED SPEECH
Direct speech or reported speech is the original words of the speaker. Quotation marks (“”) are used
around direct speech. Reported or indirect speech uses a noun clause (that) to tell us what someone has
said. Quotation marks are not used and pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.
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When the verb of the reported speech is in the past tense (said, told, asked). The verb in the noun
clause will also be in the past tense. When the reported speech is a Yes / No question (do does etc.)
use if or whether to begin the clause. When the reported speech is a question word (where, when etc.)
the clause begins with the question word and is a sentence, not a question. Study the examples below.
Present Past
He said, “I write letters on Tuesdays.” He said (that) he wrote letters on Tuesdays.
Will Would
He said, “I will write a letter tomorrow.” He said (that) he would write a letter tomorrow.
Can Could
He said, "I can write a letter next week." He said (that) he could write a letter next week.
May Might
He said, “I may write a letter to John.” He said (that) he might write a letter to John.
Must Must
He said, “I must write a letter to Alice.” He said (that) he must write a letter to Alice.
Have to Had to
He said, “ I have to write a letter to Rob.” He said (that) he had to write a letter to Rob.
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He asked, “When do you usually write He asked when I usually wrote letters.
letters?”
NOTE: The verb tenses change for yes / no and WH questions as above, and in reported speech there
is no question. (The speaker is reporting a question not asking a question.)
PASSIVE VOICE
To make a verb passive use a form of BE (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will
be) and the past participle.
With the passive voice the subject does not do anything. Something or someone does it
to the subject.
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NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is a non-specific word like he, they, or
someone, we usually leave it out of the passive sentence.
Examples: He left the book on the desk. The book was left on the desk.
Someone makes this car in Japan. This car is made in Japan.
They inspected the planes. The planes were inspected.
NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is specific we usually include it in the
passive sentence as the AGENT with the preposition BY.
Examples: Mr. Smith taught us last year. We were taught BY Mr. Smith last year.
Shakespeare wrote that play. That play was written BY Shakespeare.
The heavy traffic worried Ali. Ali got worried BY the heavy traffic.
The fire will damage the house. The house will be damaged BY the fire.
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I have helped ten students. Ten students have been helped by me
FUTURE Mr. Smith will teach me. I will be taught by Mr. Smith.
Ali will write many letters. Many letters will be written by Ali.
I will help ten students. Ten students will be helped by me
MODALS Mr. Smith will teach me. Mr. Smith will be teaching me.
Ali can write many letters. Ali could be writing many letters.
I should help ten students. I should be helping ten students.
I would help ten students. I would be helping ten students.
I ought to help ten students. I ought to be helping ten students.
I must help ten students. I must be helping ten students.
I have to help ten students. I have to be helping ten students.
I might help ten students. I might be helping ten students.
I might have helped ten students. I might have been helping ten students.
Ali should have sent it. It should have been sent by Ali.
TAG QUESTIONS
A tag question can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a pronoun at the
end. Use must be careful to use the proper auxiliary (helping) or modal verb to make a tag question.
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You won’t help, will you?
EMBEDDING
Embedding is a way to include yes / no and WH question word questions in another sentence. The
embedded question becomes a noun clause. The new sentence is no longer a question. If the
embedded question is originally a yes / no question it is introduced by if or whether. The order of
the words changes from the original question when the question is embedded in another sentence. In
other words:
Original Question Word Order = Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb
Embedded Question Word Order = Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb
Examples:
If the question is a WH question word question the clause is introduced by the WH question word and
the other words changes as follows:
Original Question Word Order = WH ? + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb
Embedded Question Word Order = WH ? + Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb
.
Examples:
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Note: The subject of the embedded question clause comes immediately after the WH question word
or IF or WHETHER. DO, DOES, and DID cannot be used in this kind of clause. DON’T, DOESN’T,
and DIDN’T can be used. Other auxiliary (helping) verbs and modals can be used but remember that
they come after the subject in the clause.
Embedded question clauses are often used as the object after verbs like know, wonder, understand,
ask, tell, find out, learn, hear, be sure, decide, remember and have.
This kind of verb can also occur as the subject of a sentence (What he told us surprised everyone.)
Note: Remember that the verb TO BE does not have auxiliary (helping) verbs in the present and past
tenses. In embedded clauses the verb TO BE must come after the subject and it is often the last word
in the clause. (I don’t know where they ARE. He hasn’t heard what the answer IS.)
CLAUSES
Definition of Clause:
A Clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a Subject and a Verb. It is usually
connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its
own.
Independent Clause
The independent clause is the main idea (main clause) of the sentence. It is not dependent on
another clause for meaning and context. (see examples following dependent clause definition)
Dependent Clause
The dependent clause is the subordinate idea of the sentence. It is dependent on another clause
for meaning and context. A dependent clause can be a relative clause such as a noun clause,
and an adjective clause or it can be an adverb clause. Basically any clause can be a dependent
clause if it is not the subject (main idea or independent clause) of a sentence
Examples of: I don't know what I'm going to wear to the wedding.
independent I don't know = independent clause
& dependent what I'm going to wear to the wedding = dependent clause
clauses The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
The boy never does his homework = independent clause
who sits next to me= dependent clause
I believe that she told the truth.
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I believe = independent clause
that she told the truth = dependent clause
Relative Clause
Any clause that modifies a noun in a sentence, or a noun phrase, is a relative clause.
Example: The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
who sits next to me… This clause gives essential information about the
boy. It answers the question which boy.
Noun Clause
Noun clauses serve as subjects and objects of verbs and prepositions, just like regular nouns.
In this sentence, the noun clause, "That she is telling the truth," is the subject of the sentence.
We make a complete sentence by adding the verb, "should be" and the other words, "obvious
to everyone."
In this sentence, the noun clause, "if the meeting has been cancelled," is the object of the verb,
"need to know." We make a complete sentence by having a subject and verb, "I need to
know," before the object.
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Adjective Clause
Adjective clauses generally describe nouns to make them clear to the reader.
NOTE: The subject adjective clause must immediately follow the noun it describes.
Subject adjective clauses which contain is, are, was or were can be shortened. The verb TO
BE is removed along with the relative word (who, which, that). Notice that when this happens
the noun can be followed by a prepositional phrase, the ING form of the verb (present
participle), or the past participle of the verb (passive)(verb three).
Examples:
The students who were taught by Tom are happy. (past participle phrase = passive)
The students taught by Tom are happy.
IMPORTANT
1. As in subject adjective clauses WHO is used for people, WHICH is used for things, and
THAT can usually be substituted for WHO or WHICH.
2. The relative pronouns WHO, WHICH, or THAT can usually be left out of the clause
without making the meaning unclear.
3. Subject Adjective Clauses and Object Adjective Clauses must follow immediately after
the word it describes.
Example: The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister.
Example: The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.
Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is not a relative clause since it does not modify a noun or noun phrase. It acts like an
adverb because it describes a verb. Adverb clauses tell us WHEN, WHERE, HOW, WHY, and to
WHAT extent something happened.
They drove down the street. A new hotel is being built on the street.
They drove down the street WHERE a new hotel is being built.
They drove… WHERE a new hotel is being built.
WHERE a new hotel is being built describes where (the place) they drove.
He was absent for a reason. The reason was that his father was sick.
The reason WHY he was absent was that his father was sick.
The reason… he was absent was that his father was sick.
In this sentence the clause that his father was sick describes why he was absent.
It refers back to the verb absent so therefore is an adverb clause.
Use HOW for method.
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PHRASES
Phrase:
A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain BOTH a subject and a verb.
Prepositional Phrase
Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a
noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers. Prepositional
phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
Examples:
The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (as adjective)
He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (as adverb)
For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (as a noun; the subject)
Participial Phrase
Participial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are
formed from verbs and end in "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives; therefore,
participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the sentence.
Examples;
Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes "she")
The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes "actor")
He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object "cabinet")
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is the
word "to" followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, adjective, or an adverb.
Examples:
To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun
subject)
He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb)
The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective)
Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with an
"ing" ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial phrases. The
difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases function as nouns.
Examples:
Geraldine's singing always enthralls the audience. (As subject)
Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object)
His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)
Verb Phrase
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A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the related helping words such as participles.
Example:
I have been asking for a raise for ten years.
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