Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry April 2006

ver. 2.1
www.traditionaltree.org

Metroxylon amicarum, M. paulcoxii, M. sagu,

M. salomonense, M. vitiense, and M. warburgii (sago palm)
Arecaceae (palm family)

Will McClatchey, Harley I. Manner, and Craig R. Elevitch

IN BRIEF

photo: C. Elevitch
Distribution  Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and
some islands in Micronesia and Polynesia.
Size  Depending on species, 9–33 m (30–108 ft).
Habitat  Tropical lowland forest and freshwater
swamps, usually found near sea level but can be
found 1–700 m (3–2300 ft) with rainfall of 2000–
5000 mm (80–200 in).
Vegetation  Grow with a wide range of species
found in lowland freshwater swamps and in tradi-
tional swidden gardens in lowland rain forests.
Soils  Can grow on a wide variety of soils, includ-
ing well drained, poor quality sand, clay, or ‘a‘ā
lava.
Growth rate  The growth rate is rapid, exceeding
1.5 m (5 ft) per year in optimal conditions.
Main agroforestry uses  Coastal protection, im-
proved fallow, homegardens.
Main products  Staple food, thatch.
Yields  Under good conditions, M. sagu can yield
15–25 mt of air-dried starch per ha (6.7–11.1 t/ac) at
the end of an 8-year growth cycle. Other species
are somewhat less productive.
Intercropping  Interplanting for its non-food
products is practiced extensively on many Pacific
islands.
Invasive potential  It has little potential to be- M. warburgii growing among bread-
come invasive. fruit (Artocarpus altilis) and poumuli
(Flueggea flexuosa) in American Samoa.
INTRODUCTION
The genus Metroxylon is found from 17°S to 15–16°N lati-
tude ranging from Thailand, peninsular Malaysia and
Indonesia, to Micronesia, Fiji, and Samoa. The palms are
generally found at low elevations in swamps. The genus is
of significant economic importance in traditional societies
and is of ever increasing importance in Malaysia, Indonesia,
the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. Because of their
value, Metroxylon species have been moved from place to
place by aboriginal peoples, with much of the present dis-
tribution probably due to multiple ancient introductions.
Metroxylon species stand between 9 and 33 m (30–108 ft)
in height. Generally, the species tolerate salinity and pro-
longed flooding and acidic and wet soils. Observations of
M. warburgii in Samoa suggest that the species does well
in polycultural complexes.
Metroxylon palms are used throughout the Indo-Pacific re-
gion by lowland-, marsh-, and near-marsh-dwelling peo-
ples. Metroxylon is of extreme importance to over a million
people who use the palms as their primary dietary starch
source. The palms are of secondary importance to thou-
sands of other people who use them as a source of superior
house thatch with limited use as a food supplement.
DISTRIBUTION
Native range
Metroxylon species are found in moist localities in tropi-
cal rainforests, moist upland rainforest, and freshwater
swamps of Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and some high vol-
canic islands in Micronesia and Polynesia. They are also
present on a few low islands and atolls of the Pacific, (e.g.,
Futuna and Nukuoro).
The natural habitat of Metroxylon is tropical lowland for-
est and freshwater swamps. The palms are often found
growing in the freshwater margin at the back of mangrove
swamps, extending inland as far as slow moving freshwater
flows.
They are found in swamps from southern Thailand, pen-
insular Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines through
Pohnpei, Samoa, and Fiji. Distribution is extensive in New
Guinea, but they are not found in swamps in Northern
Australia. Much of the distribution outside of Melanesia is
probably of ancient anthropogenic origin.
M. amicarum is native to the Caroline Islands (Federated
States of Micronesia, states of Pohnpei and Chuuk), the
Marshall Islands, and formerly in Guam and Palau.
M. paulcoxii is found in Western Samoa on ‘Upolu and
  Metroxylon species (sago palm)
Savai‘i islands.
M. sagu is believed to be endemic to Papua New Guinea,
New Britain, and the Molucca Islands. Flach (1997) con-
siders Papua New Guinea to be the center of diversity. M.
sagu is present in Aimelik, Palau, at the old Japanese intro-
duction station.
M. salomonense is endemic to the Solomon Islands includ-
ing Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea).
M. vitiense is endemic to Fiji on the islands of Viti Levu,
Ovalau, and Vanua Levu.
M. warburgii is found in Futuna, Fiji, Rotuma, Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, Western Samoa, American Samoa, and
possibly in Tahiti, Tokelau, and Tonga.
Current distribution
In Papua New Guinea and most Pacific islands, Metroxylon
spp. are found mainly in wild stands. As it is difficult to
distinguish between wild and feral, many so-called wild
stands may stem from ancient plantations. Various spe-
cies are grown throughout the tropics in experimental and
commercial plantations.
M. amicarum in Pohnpei is found in freshwater wetlands,
either coastal or moist upland rainforest. A few were re-
ported by Stone (1970) to be planted in Guam. There is
no local name for this species in Guam, suggesting that it
is an introduced species there. M. amicarum is possibly an
aboriginal introduction to Pohnpei from the Santa Cruz
Islands as a cultivar of M. warburgii (McClatchey 1998,
2002).
M. paulcoxii is possibly an aboriginal introduction from
the Santa Cruz Islands via Rotuma as a cultivar of M.
warburgii.
M. sagu is by far the most important economic species and
is now grown commercially in Malaysia, Indonesia, the
Philippines, and New Guinea for production of sago starch
and/or conversion to animal food or fuel ethanol. In many
countries of SE Asia, except Irian Jaya, M. sagu is mainly
found in semi-cultivated stands. Irian Jaya has about 6 mil-
lion ha of M. sagu. The stands of good quality M. sagu can
be quite large. Papua New Guinea has an estimated 1 mil-
lion ha of wild and 20,000 ha (49,400 ac) of semi-cultivat-
ed M. sagu. M. sagu is also found in Guam, Palau, Nukuoro,
Kosrae, and Jaluit, Marshall Islands (Fosberg et al. 1987),
most likely the result of human introduction.
M. warburgii has been distributed from Northern Vanu-
atu and the Santa Cruz Islands to many other adjacent
island groups, such as Banks, Tikopia, Anuta, and Rotuma,
and a bit further to Fiji, Samoa, and Futuna. It is expected
that further research will find that M. warburgii is a widely
Distribution of Metroxylon species.

dispersed and highly varied species. known. M. upoluense is often used, although it is an invalid
name.
M. sagu  Sagus inermis Roxb. and Sagus spinosus Roxb. are
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION not preferred names. In Rauwerdink’s classification, M.
rumphii and M. squarrosum are given as synonyms (Flach
Preferred scientific names 1997).
Metroxylon amicarum (H. Wendland) Beccari
M. salomonense  Coelococcus salomonensis Warburg, Ber.
M. paulcoxii McClatchey
and Metroxylon bougainvillense Beccari are not preferred
M. sagu Rottboell
names.
M. salomonense (Warburg) Beccari
M. vitiense (H. Wendland) H. Wendland ex Bentham & M. vitiense  Coelococcus vitiensis H. Wendl. ex Seem. and
Hooker f. Sagus vitiensis H. Wendl. ex Seem. are not preferred
M. warburgii (Heim) Beccari names
M. warburgii  Coelococcus warburgii Heim. M. upoluense is
Family
often used, although it is an invalid name.
Arecaceae (palm family)

Subfamily
Common names
Calamoideae M. amicarum
Caroline ivory nut, Caroline ivory nut palm, Polynesian
Non-preferred scientific names ivory nut palm, Polynesian ivory palm (English)
Many species of Metroxylon have previously been classified oahs (Pohnpei)
under the genera Coelococcus and Sagus. oj (Marshall Islands)
M. amicarum  Sagus amicarum Wendl., Coelococcus rupang, rúpwúng (Chuuk)
amicarum (Wendl.) Warb., C. carolinensis Dingl., M. car- M. paulcoxii
olinense (Dingl.) Becc., M. amicarum var. commune Becc.,
niu Lotuma (Western Samoa)
and M. amicarum var. majus Becc. are not preferred names
(Fosberg et al. 1987). M. sagu
M. paulcoxii  No valid non-preferred scientific names ambasao (Kwara’ae, Solomon Islands)

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  

balau (Melanau, Sarawak)
chr aè saku (Cambodian)
lumbiya (Philippines)
pohon sagu, pohon rumbia (Bahasa Indonesia)
rumbia (Malaysia)
sago palm, true sago palm, sago (English)
sakhu (Thai)
sa:khu’u, tônz (Laos)
saksak (Pidgin English, Papua New Guinea)
sagu (Vietnamese)
tha-gu-bin (Myanmar)
M. salomonense
ao (San Cristobal)
atava, endeve, karamava, katuva, karama, katua, karmo, nive
(Choiseul)
ato (Bougainville, Florida Islands)
ato, hapiri, naota, natho, tete-na (Santa Isabel)
ato, rao, sao (Guadalcanal)
atovo, endeve, kinenda, nggoe, pina (New Georgia)
kalovo (Savosavo)
lao, rao, sao, wanda (Malaita)
M. paulcoxii, ‘Upolu, Samoa. photo: W. McClatchey
name (Shortland Islands)
nat (Russell Islands)
pina (Vella Lavella)

M. amicarum, Chuuk Atoll. photo: W. McClatchey M. sagu, Aimelik, Palau. photo: W. McClatchey

  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

M. salomonense, Kolobaqara, Solomon Islands. photo: W.
McClatchey
M. vitiense, Nasavusavu, Vanua Levu, Fiji. photo: W.
McClatchey
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  
M. warburgii, American Samoa. photo: W. McClatchey
M. vitiense
songo, songa, niu soria, seko (near Nadi) (Fiji)
M. warburgii
enkul, natakra, natalawa, natangura, netato, nindru ambih,
notah, nuwauriet, sokora, tangula, tenebee, tsuku, wataghor
(Vanuatu)
lnkoko, noeroe, lovnete, nete, nokwo, otovo, ole, oe, koko, laukoko
(Santa Cruz group)
niu Lotuma (Western Samoa)
ota (Anuta, Futuna, Rotuma, Tikopia)
Size
Note that for the leaf and petiole lengths the lower num-
bers apply to juvenile palms, while the higher numbers ap-
ply to mature palms.
M. amicarum reaches a height of 12–33 m (39–108 ft) tall,
with a stem 30–36 cm (12–14 in) in diameter. Leaves 4–7 m
(13–23 ft) long, petiole 1–3 m (3.3–10 ft) long.
M. paulcoxii is small to moderate size; petiole 1–3 m (3.3–10
ft) long, rachis 1.5–2.9 m (5–9.5 ft) long.
M. sagu reaches 15 m (49 ft) in height with bole diameter M. amicarum 
(without leaf sheaths) of 35–60 cm (14–24 in). Fruit rounded to pyriform, (5.3)7.2–8.3(13) cm ((2.1)2.8–
M. salomonense attains 8–20 m (26–66 ft) tall, with stems 3.3(5.1) in) in diameter, 5.6–13 cm (1.7–5.1 in) long; epicarp
25–55 cm (10–22 in) in diameter. Leaf petiole 1.3–7 m (4–23 covered in 26–38(40) rows of golden to chocolate brown
ft) long, rachis 2.9–7.5 m (9.5–25 ft) long. and grey margined, reflexed scales, with mid-fruit scales
M. vitiense grows to 5–16 m (16–52 ft) tall, with stem 36–50 7–14 mm (2.7–5.4 in) long. M. amicarum seeds are dissemi-
cm (14–20 in) diameter. Leaf petiole 1.8–8 m (6–26 ft) long, nated by gravity or water. Fruits are often found on shores
rachis 4–6 m (13–20 ft) long of the Caroline Islands, having been carried by ocean waves
and currents from one island to another or one part of an
M. warburgii reaches a height of less than 9 m (30 ft) when island to another.
mature. Six to 9 m (20–30 ft) tall, with stem 31–43 cm di-
ameter (12–17 in), leaves 0.3–1.5 m (1–5 ft) long M. paulcoxii
Fruit obpyriform, 5.4–6 cm (2.1–2.4 in) in diameter, 6.5–7
Flowers cm (2.6–2.7 in) long, with emergent apical stigmatic re-
The inflorescence is large, paniculate, and mainly terminal mains; epicarp covered in 24–26 rows of green to golden
for most species. The palms are monoecious, having both yellow-brown to grey margined, reflexed scales, with the
male and female flowers on the same plant. Flowers differ mid-fruit scales 13 mm (5.1 in) long.
little between species other than in length of the parts. The
palms are monocarpic; i.e., they fruit and flower once and M. salomonense
then die. An exception is M. amicarum, which flowers for Fruit rounded, globular, 5.9–8 cm (2.3–3.1 in) in diameter,
a number of years (pleonanthic) instead of flowering once 5.2–7 cm (2.0–2.7 in) long; epicarp covered in 25–38 regular
and dying. Flowers are borne on crowded spikes, spirally ordered alternating vertical rows of green to golden yellow,
in pairs (of male and hermaphrodite, functional female) sometimes tinged with red, to brown, with grey margined,
flowers. reflexed scales, with mid-fruit scales 11–19 mm (4.3–7.5 in)
long.
Leaves
Like most palms, Metroxylon species have an erect crown
of large, pinnate arching leaves. Leaves moderate to large,
pinnate; petiole 0.33–7 m (1–23 ft) long, unarmed or armed
with single to multiple spines 1–46 cm (0.4–18 in) long, oc-
curring as clusters, combs, or upon collars of short lateral
vascular bundles, sometimes with wide, thin, and papery
flattened spines up to 50–60 cm (20–24 in) long and 1–2
cm (0.4–0.8 in) wide; rachis 2.3–7.7 m (7.5–25.3 ft) long, un-
armed or armed like the petiole or much less so, particular-
ly in leaves emerging higher on the stem, the surface often
adorned with transverse spineless combs; leaflet number
proportional to leaf length, usually 160–340, 72–203 cm
(28–80 in) long and 4–17.8 cm (1.6–7 in) wide, with a single
large, hard, sometimes yellow midrib, frequently glossy
green above and dull-pale green below, unarmed or armed
with short spines, 1–29 mm (0.04–1.14 in) long, along the
margins and main vein.

Fruit
Mature fruits are globose, ovoid or pyriform, 1.5–8.3 cm
(0.6–3.3 in) wide, and 2.3–10.6 cm (0.9–4.2 in) long. The
epicarp is covered in 7–40 regular ordered, alternating ver-
tical rows of green to golden yellow, to dark brown, to grey-
margined, reflexed scales, with mid-fruit scales 4–19 mm
(1.6–7.5 in) long. M. vitiense, showing spines on leaf base and petiole, Viti
Levu, Fiji. photo: W. McClatchey

  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

M. sagu
Fruit depressed-globose to obconical, 3–5(7) cm (1.2–2(2.7)
in) in diameter, covered with 18 vertical rows of rhom-
boid greenish-yellow scales. M. sagu produces both pol-
linated (seeded) and parthenocarpic (non-pollinated) fruit.
Seeded fruits contain a stony (hard), white endosperm and
brown testa. Parthenocarpic fruit are smaller and contain
a spongy mesocarp. M. sagu fruits take about 24 months
to mature.

M. vitiense
Fruit rounded to elliptic/ovular, 4.1–5.8 cm (1.6–2.3 in) wide,
4.9–6.4 cm (1.9–2.5 in) long; epicarp covered in 25–27 rows
of green to golden yellow to dark brown to grey margined,
reflexed scales, with mid-fruit scales 9–12 mm (3.5–4.7 in)
long.

M. warburgii
Fruit obpyriform, (3.5)5.4–7 cm ((1.4)2.1–2.7 in) wide,
(4.4)6.4–8.5 cm ((1.7)2.0–3.3 in) long, with emergent apical
stigmatic remains; epicarp covered in 23–31 rows of green
to golden yellow-brown, grey margined, reflexed scales,
with mid-fruit scales 9–13 mm (3.5–5.1 in) long.

Bark
The bark of mature palms is gray, rough, and fissured in
long plates or corky ridges. The stem is frequently sur-
rounded by deteriorating, partially attached leaf-sheaths. Young inflorescences cut from M. salomonense, Guadalcanal,
The lower internodes frequently have suckers and/or sharp Solomon Islands. photo: W. McClatchey
to blunted adventitious roots. On younger trees the bark
is smoother and paler gray to brownish in color. The inner
bark is light colored and bitter.

How to distinguish from similar species/look-a-

likes
Metroxylon species may be confused with other palms, al-
though not with any that are found in the native range.
Palms in Samoa have often been incorrectly reported
as Metroxylon vitiense, when only M. warburgii and M.
paulcoxii have been reported in Samoa.
M. amicarum has inflorescences that are axillary; most of
the other Metroxylon species are monocarpic (the termi-
nal bud develops into a large inflorescence). M. amicarum
palms are also the tallest, reaching 33 m (108 ft) or possibly
taller.
M. sagu has 18 rows of scales on the fruit. The other
Metroxylon species have between 24 and 40 rows of scales.
M. sagu commonly reproduces by suckers and rarely by
Fruits maturing on M. amicarum. photo: D. Ward
seed, while the other species are not reported to reproduce
by suckers and normally reproduce by seed. M. sagu is eas-

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  

Developing inflorescence of M. salomonense over a period of 2 years and 4 months. The tree shown was planted in 1985 as a ju-
venile. From left to right: first-order branches forming (11 Dec 2000), flowers forming (6 Sept 2001), and fruit forming (26 Apr
2003). left and center photos: E. Burson, right photo: R. Baker

ily distinguished by the robust size of the inflorescence

branches, which are massive compared with other species.
M. warburgii, along with M. paulcoxii and some M.
amicarum, is easily recognized by its pear-shaped fruits. M.
warburgii is found over a very wide range of islands and is
unstudied throughout much of that range. It is very likely
that the species is more variable than currently realized.
M. amicarum fruits, Nett, Pohnpei. Note the wide variation
in shape from fruits collected from one stand of trees. photo:
W. McClatchey
GENETICS
While M. sagu is mainly propagated vegetatively, the other
species reproduce by seed. Of these, M. amicarum and some
individuals of M. warburgii stand out because they do not
die upon reaching a reproductive age, instead persisting to
become quite tall.

Known varieties
The number of locally identified and named varieties of
M. sagu is very large. In the Western Sepik basin of Papua
New Guinea, Rauwerdink (1986) noted that local sago
growers distinguished 20 local cultivars.
Varietal differences have been noted for a number of char-
acteristics including degree of spininess; color of starch;
width, length, and thickness of leaflets; number of years
until inflorescence initiation, to name a few.
M. sagu has many selected varieties that are thornless and
reach maturity in less than 6 years. Rauwerdink (1986) has
reviewed the range of varieties and characteristics of pre-
ferred types.
M. amicarum fruit. photo: R. Baker

  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

Selected varieties are not known for the other species cov-
ered here.

Culturally important related species in the genus

All of the species are of major importance to local cultures,
except for M. vitiense, when was of marginal importance
in Fijian society except for a few communities where it
was considered to be a source of superior thatch and edible
heart of palm.

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES

The less commercially important species are found both in
lowland tropical freshwater swamps as well as in tradition-
al swidden gardens in higher altitude lowland rain forests.
In Pohnpei, M. amicarum is an occasional component of
the montane (upland) rainforest. Plants common to this
rainforest are Clinostigma, Glochidion, Myrsine, Elaeocarpus,
Syzygium, Psychotria, Timonius, Astronidium, Cyathea tree
ferns, and many lianas (Ipomoea, Merremia, Freycinetia,
Hypserpa, and Pachygone). M. amicarum is also found in
freshwater swamps where common components are spe-
cies of Terminalia, Campnosperma, Barringtonia, Erythrina,
Ficus, Hibiscus, Phragmites, Acrostichum, and Scirpodendron
(Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998).
In Papua New Guinea freshwater swamps, M. sagu is
found in association with Campnosperma brevipetiolata,
Terminalia brassii, Pandanus, and several other species. Massive inflorescence branches of M. sagu. photo: W.
(Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg, 1998). McClatchey
In the Solomon Islands, M. salomonense forms a distinc-
tive freshwater forest type (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
1998). AND TOLERANCES
M. vitiense commonly grows in forests in swampy places
(Smith 1979). Formerly, it was common near Navua, Viti Climate
Levu, but is now found in the more inaccessible swampy The suitable climate for Metroxylon species is the humid
valleys. tropical rainforest of SE Asia and the equatorial Pacific.
In Samoa, M. warburgii is found in a number of villages on The relative humidity should be at least 70%, but the plant
Upolu and Savai‘i islands growing as a cultivated species can tolerate lower humidity for short periods without
in polycultural agroforests. Here M. warburgii has been damage, and incidental light should be above 800 k/cm2/
found growing in traditional agroforests in association day (Flach 1997).
with Citrus spp., breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), screwpine Metroxylon species do not tolerate water shortage well. In
(Pandanus spp.), coconut (Cocos nucifera), and Alocasia mac- rainfall-dependent sago palm growing localities, rainfall
rorhiza, to name a few common cultivated species. should be uniform and ample. Flooding for prolonged pe-
riods and stagnant water are detrimental to growth.
As long as sufficient water is present, there does not seem
to be an upper temperature limit for growth of sago. The
palms cannot tolerate frost and grow more slowly in cooler
climates such as Hawai‘i or areas with seasonally cooler
weather such as Florida and Queensland.

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  

Metroxylon species can be found in areas where the rain-
fall is high throughout the year or where there is a sum-
mer maximum of rainfall. Soil moisture is probably more
important than rainfall pattern or amount, if groundwater
and surface water sources are adequate. Flach (1997) noted
that if there are short dry spells, the water table should be
at most 40–50 cm (16–20 in) below the soil surface.
Elevation range
1–700 m (3.3–2300 ft). Although certain Metroxylon species
grow well in inland and upland areas, all Metroxylon palms
growing away from lowland regions are the result of hu-
man cultivation.
Mean annual rainfall
2000–5000 mm (80–200 in)
Rainfall pattern
Metroxylon grows in areas with summer or winter peaks or
uniform rainfall without pronounced dry spells.
Dry season duration (consecutive months with <40
mm [1.6 in] rainfall)
The plant does not tolerate drought (unless there is ample
groundwater).
Mean annual temperature
25°C (77°F)
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month
Greater than 30°C (86°F)
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month
17°C (63°F)
Minimum temperature tolerated
17°C (63°F) (Flach 1997)
Soils
Metroxylon species can grow on a wide variety of soils. They
can persist on well drained, poor quality materials includ-
ing sand, clay, or ‘a‘ā lava. The palms will grow in soil that is
periodically inundated by salt water as long as fresh water
flow is more prevalent.
Soil texture
They prefer medium and heavy soils.
Soil drainage
Metroxylon species grow best in soils with impeded drain-
age or with seasonal waterlogging. Waterlogging for long
periods impedes growth and productivity.
10  Metroxylon species (sago palm)
Soil acidity
The palms thrive in acidic to neutral pH (4.0–7.4) soils.
One reference indicates tolerance of very acid soils (Flach
1997).
Special soil tolerances
All of the species seem to tolerate salinity for short periods
without apparent damage, with some populations growing
in regular salt spray, periodic tidal flux, and at the edges of
brackish mangrove swamps. Salinity should not exceed 10
S/m (equivalent to 1/8 the salt concentration of sea water)
(Flach 1997).
Tolerances
Drought
Drought is detrimental to the growth and productivity of
all Metroxylon species.
Full sun
The palms do best when there is an adequate amount of
sunlight, which is needed to complete their life cycle. With
sunlight, the trunks will elongate and begin to produce and
store starch.
Shade
Trees grow well in moderately open forest canopies un-
der up to 50% shade. Where growing in mixed stands, the
palms can be shaded out by dense shade cast by taller di-
cotyledonous trees. M. sagu produces suckers even when
shaded.
Fire
The palms do not tolerate fire.
Frost
The plants do not tolerate frost.
Waterlogging
Metroxylon species tolerate waterlogging, although M. sagu
is not found where the groundwater depth is too deep. In
permanently wet situations, M. sagu will develop pneu-
matophores (modified roots for gaseous exchange). In
permanently wet or flooded localities many specimens
will remain in the rosette stage and not complete their life
cycle and reach maturation (Flach 1997). M. sagu is one
of the few species that can be grown in swamps without
extensively modifying the swamp habitat. However, even
though modification is unnecessary, cultivation within the
swamp habitat may have detrimental effects on the swamp
ecosystem.
Salt spray
Salt spray as well as mild soil salinity are toler-
ated.

Wind 
They are tolerant of windy conditions includ-
ing bad storms and are rarely observed with
sheared tops.

GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Cultivated varieties in well established planta-
tions (particularly of M. sagu) grow to a height
of 12–18 m (40–60 ft) in 6–14 years. At maturity
the trees convert stored stem starch into a large,
terminal inflorescence; therefore, farmers watch
for early development of the inflorescence as an
indication of harvest time. At that time, hor-
mones in the tree convert stored starch into
simpler sugars for mobilization.
M. sagu undergoes four stages during its life
cycle. Flach’s (1997) model has an 11–12 year life
cycle from seed to seed under optimum eco-
logical conditions. These stages are:
1. Rosette stage of 45 months from seeding;
during this period the plant forms a total of
about 90 leaves. This is a period character-
ized by relatively little growth.
2. Bole formation stage of 54 months; during
this period, the bole elongates to maximum
height and produces one leaf per month.
Plants during this stage have a total of a
bout 24 leaves and 54 leaf scars on the bole M. amicarum, growing in broad, flat valley with numerous freshwater
and are producing a high amount of starch. seeps and small streams, just above sea level. Kitti, Pohnpei. photo: W.
3. Inflorescence stage of 12 months. The plant McClatchey
forms two leaves per month, the rate of
starch accumulation starts to decrease, and Other Metroxylon species typically require 12–15 years to
the starch moves from the lower to the upper bole. reach maturation but under ideal circumstances may flow-
Palms are harvested for starch during this and the next er in 10 years.
period. In the semi-cultivated M. sagu stands of Papua
New Guinea and Irian Jaya, local collectors say that for Growth rate
high production per unit time and area, starch should The growth rate is rapid. Assuming a life cycle of 12 years,
be harvested at flower initiation (Flach 1997). growth to a height of 20 m (66 ft), and optimal ecological
4. Fruit ripening stage of 24 months. conditions, this gives a growth rate of 1.67 m/yr (5.5 ft/yr).
Some varieties of M. sagu develop an inflorescence at 6–7
years. While this species forms dense stands in freshwater
Flowering and fruiting
swamps, it produces its highest yield of starch and com- These palms are monocarpic, meaning they flower once,
pletes it life cycle when the soil is drier and not flooded. then die. M. amicarum is an exception; it flowers repeatedly
over many years. Most of the time, M. warburgii flowers

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  11

only once; however, some individuals exhibit growth that
is between hapaxanthic and pleonanthic, with an extended
but still terminal growth period with large leaves in the
inflorescence.
Yields
In Papua New Guinea and Southeast Asia, M. sagu is har-
vested for its large starch grains. Barrau (1959) gave the
average yield per trunk as 110–136 kg (242–299 lb) of starch,
and up to 400 kg (880 lb) for sterile cultivars. Purseglove
(1968) stated that in a New Guinea swamp forest there are
about 60 palms per hectare (24 palms/ac) worth felling for
their starch, yielding 7000 to 9000 kg (15,400–19,800 lb) of
starch per year, with a water content of 35–40%.
In the subsistence economy of the Oriomo Papuans, 150–
160 hours of work are required to produce enough sago
starch for one person per year (1 kg [2.2 lb] air dried starch/
day) (Ohtsuka 1983). In Salawati Island, West Irian, an av-
erage wild sago palm trunk weighing 1000 kg (2200 lb)
yields 150 kg (330 lb) of dry starch (Flach 1997). Sarawak
smallholders produce about 50,000 mt (55,000 t) of air-
dried sago flour per year for export (Singapore Zoological
Gardens Docents 2000).
Leaf production rates are uncertain. However, growers in-
dicate that it is critical that at least three mature leaves be
left when harvesting leaves for thatch, or else the palm is
likely to die. Often palms harvested for thatch have im-
peded growth and the appearance of stress. As an indica-
tion of this stress, Haska (1995) noted that for M. sagu in
West Java, average starch production “is only 55 kg/trunk”
from palms grown for leaves, while it is “175 kg/trunk for
the same variety grown for starch only.”
Rooting habit
M. sagu has heavy aerial and spongy roots with a tough
central vascular strand that penetrate only about 1 m (3.3
ft) deep into the soil (ARCBC 2004). It is likely that the
rooting system is fairly shallow, similar to coconut’s. In wet
areas, the palm produces pneumatophores (roots which aid
in respiration).
Reaction to competition
When growing in mixed forests, Metroxylon can be shaded
out by faster growing species. It does not compete well
against dicotyledonous trees (Flach 1997). However, it
readily grows as a living fence on the sunny side of gardens
and in agroforestry plantations of mixed, shorter stature
trees and shrubs.
12  Metroxylon species (sago palm)
PROPAGATION
All Metroxylon species are propagated by seed. An excep-
tion to this is M. sagu, which for the most part is sterile,
reproducing via vegetative suckers emerging from roots or
lower trunks of parent plants. The species also reproduces
by stolons, often meters in length. For more information
on propagating M. sagu, see Schuiling and Jong 1996.
Propagation by seed
Seed collection
With the exception of M. amicarum, Metroxylon species
reproduce only once, at the end of their life cycle. The
flowering stage occurs at an age of 6–20 years. Seeds only
germinate when fully mature (signified by large fruit size
and the husk turning color from green to straw or brown-
ish). Fruits take 24–36 months to reach maturity. Because
of the height of the fruit at the apex of the palm, and the
difficulty of assessing maturity, it’s best to collect fruit im-
mediately after it has fallen to the ground.
Seed processing
The seeds are large and can easily be cleaned of loose debris
or soil after falling.
Seed storage
The seeds lose their viability rapidly when stored and do
not tolerate dry conditions. Successful germination oc-
curs within 1–2 months after maturity, and it is best to
sow seeds immediately after harvest. Seeds may germinate
while still attached to the infructescence (vivipary) and
grow to heights of 0.9–1.2 m (3–4 ft) tall before breaking
off and falling to the ground. This is particularly common
in M. warburgii.
The short life span of the seeds and the long reproductive
cycle means that Metroxylon is best maintained and con-
served in field gene banks (Flach 1997). In a sago swamp,
seeds germinate readily when they are laying on moist
soils.
Pre-planting seed treatments
Flach (1997) noted that germination can be speeded up if
the seed husk is removed and the covering over the em-
bryo (operculum) is loosened. Care should be taken not to
damage the embryo.
Growing area
Due to the large seed size and rapid early growth,
Metroxylon is well suited for direct-seeding in the field, as-
suming conditions are consistently moist. Seedlings can
also be germinated in a nursery and transplanted bareroot
at a young age, or grown to a larger size in a container.
Seedlings transplant well as long as roots are not bound.

Germination
The seeds germinate best when exposed to a temperature
of 30°C (86°F) and high humidity for prolonged periods
(Ehara et al. 1998). Under such conditions, freshly har-
vested Metroxylon seeds have a high germination rate in
1–2 months. Such conditions can be achieved in a closed
nursery, which heats up quickly in the sun. Artificial heat
such as a climate-controlled cabinet or temperature-regu-
lated bottom heat can also work. Prolonged exposure to
temperatures above 38°C (100°F) can harm the seeds.

Media
A standard well drained nursery medium containing peat
moss, coir, sand, etc., can be used, as long as the medium is
free of pathogenic organisms.

Time to outplanting
Plants should be outplanted as soon as possible. Plants can
have roots up to 30 cm (12 in) long and 2–3 eophils (first
leaves) and still survive transplantation.

Approximate size at time of outplanting

Although it is best to outplant before the second eophil
emerges, plants with several sub-mature leaves (1–2 m [3.3–
6.6 ft] long) and a well developed root system have been
successfully planted out. Transplanting volunteer seedlings collected from under ma-
ture palms may be the easiest propagation method. This is a
M. warburgii seedling collected in American Samoa. photo:
DISADVANTAGES C. Elevitch

Metroxylon species, aside from M. sagu, are not very pro-

ductive as starch plants. Their importance as a source of
thatch is gradually decreasing as more durable man-made
materials become available. Other minor products such as
vegetable ivory are of limited economic importance. The
spiny leaves may be considered a drawback, especially in
urban environments. Expansion of the species into fresh-
water swamps may have serious ecological implications for
the fauna and flora and is not recommended.
the crown; termites (Coptotermes spp.), which can be a pest
on peat soils containing undecayed vegetative material; and
red striped palm weevil larvae (Rhynchophorus spp.), which
burrow into injured plant tissue (Gumbek and Jong 1991,
cited by Flach 1997). Wild boars and monkeys may uproot
newly planted suckers. Sudden drainage of a swamp can
lead to a loss of leaves associated with a physiological dis-
ease (Flach 1997).

Potential for invasiveness Other disadvantages or design considerations

Metroxylon species are not considered to be an invasive. More research information is needed on the fertility re-
quirements of Metroxylon in order to raise yields above
Diseases and pests subsistence levels.
The Pacific island species have few notable pests or diseases.
The problems of diseases and pests are greater with inten-
sive cultivation of M. sagu. In Sarawak, the main pests are
the hispid beetle larvae (Botronyopa grandis) that feed on
young tissue of the unopened spear at the central base of

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  13

AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL Ornamental
PRACTICES Considered to be a desirable ornamental plant in Pohnpei
and other Pacific islands.
Soil stabilization
The root systems are able to trap silt.
USES AND PRODUCTS
Crop shade/overstory The various species of Metroxylon have important cultural
In the Western Province of Papua New Guinea, farmers values throughout many parts of the Pacific and SE Asia.
plant kava (Piper methysticum) in beds under a
cover of M. sagu (Lebot 1991).

Improved fallow
Throughout the Pacific, Metroxylon species are
planted or protected in fallow land.

Homegardens
Metroxylon species are frequently incorporated
in mixed homegardens on many Pacific islands.

Living fences
Young palms, with their numerous spines, act
as fences for pigs and deterrents to trespassers.
As the palms mature and develop above-ground
stems, new palms may be planted adjacent to
the juveniles to maintain the spininess of the
fence.

Boundary markers
The seeds are planted along rock walls and other
property boundaries.

Windbreaks
Although Metroxylon species are not recom-
mended for use as windbreaks, they are toler-
ant of windy conditions and are rarely observed
with sheared tops.

Animal fodder
After removing most of the starch, the pith of
M. sagu is fed to pigs in Papua New Guinea and
many SE Asian countries. It is used as a basis
for commercial animal feed in SE Asia.

Wildlife habitat
The palms provide nesting sites for birds.

Coastal protection
As the species is somewhat tolerant of salinity,
it may offer some protection to low-lying coast-
al areas from extensive saltwater inundation by Top: Living fence of M. warburgii and pandanus in Samoa. Bottom: M.
storm surges. warburgii in a Samoan homegarden together with coconut, breadfruit, pa-
paya, citrus, and other trees. photoS: C. Elevitch

14  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

The two primary uses are for the production of
edible starch and durable leaf thatch. Several PREPARING SAGO STARCH
secondary uses have also been recorded, but 1. Preparatory processing
these are not comparable in economic impor- • Possible homage (monetary, spiritual, or familial) paid for
tance to the primary uses. M. sagu is a staple access to a Metroxylon tree.
food crop in the Sepik and Gulf provinces of • Selection of a tree containing usable starch.
lowland Papua New Guinea, where most of the • Felling of the tree.
sago grows in wild, uncultivated stands. Among • Possible transport of the log.
the Asmat of Papua New Guinea, felling of the • Splitting the tree open, lengthwise.
palm and harvesting of the sago starch is ac- • Removal of the pith.
companied by ritual. In house construction, the 2. Extraction of starch.
leaves of sago are used for roof thatch and wall • Crushing, threshing, and/or hand kneading of the pith to
siding, and the wood is also used for floorboards release the starch.
and rafters. In the Solomon Islands, the thatch • Washing and straining to extract the starch from the fibrous
is known to last 5 years or longer. The decay- residue.
ing trunks of the sago palm are a source of sago • Collection of raw starch suspension in a settling container.
palm beetle grubs (Rhynchophorous ferrugineus/ • Decanting the water layer in order to collect the residual semi-
bilineatus), an excellent source of protein. In the solid pan of starch.
other parts of the Pacific, M. warburgii and M. 3. Storage of starch product.
amicarum are viewed as emergency food and are • Drying to form flour.
rarely or no longer eaten by people, although • Cooking to form a bread or pudding.
they are used for thatch and animal feed. Vari- • Distribution of the dried/cooked end product.
ous parts of the plant are used for traditional
medicines, toys, and other miscellaneous items. (Barrau 1958, Henderson and Hancock 1988, McClatchey and Cox
1992).
Staple food
Metroxylon starch may be eaten as raw chunks end passes through a kind of strainer, made of a fold of the
of pith or as baked pieces of pith. Whole logs have been vegetable matting that invests the bases of the branches of
baked and taken as sea-provisions on long canoe voyages the cocoa-nut tree, and is then received in another trough
(Codrington 1891). of similar material. The fibrous portion of the pith is thus
Each of the species is presently or has been formerly used left behind, and the sago is deposited as sediment in the
as a source of edible starch, with the possible exception of lower trough. When this trough is full of sago, the super-
M. vitiense. The most intensive use as a food source has fluous water is poured off, and the whole is placed over a
been in the western Solomon Islands and Bougainville. fire so as to get rid of the remaining moisture.... The sago is
Throughout the rest of the range of distribution, it was now fit for consumption, and is wrapped up in the leaves in
eaten as a famine food, although this is questionable in the form of cylindrical packages 1½ to 2 feet in length.”
Fiji (Seemann 1865–1873) and in at least one culture in the As discussed above, production of sago from M. paulcoxii
eastern Solomon Islands (Woodford 1890). and M. warburgii is probably a recently introduced concept
Production and use of sago starch varies somewhat from in Samoa. No one was observed producing starch from M.
location to location but can generally be summarized in paulcoxii. Although starch production from M. amicarum
the stages as indicated in the text box above. is known, it is very rare, the trees being much too highly
Guppy’s (1987) description of sago processing is typical: valued for thatch. Presently, many cultures have virtually
abandoned the production of sago starch, in favor of other
“In the extraction and preparation of the sago, the natives starch crops such as sweetpotato, taro, cassava (manihot),
of Bougainville Straits employ the following method. Af- or imported rice.
ter the palm has been felled and all the pith removed, ei-
ther by scooping it out or splitting the trunk, the pith is Throughout SE Asia there are many traditional ways of
then torn up into small pieces and placed in a trough ex- preparing sago for consumption. (See Flach (1997) for
temporized from the broad sheathing base of one of the many details about the starch, etc.). In Indonesia and many
branches of the felled tree. The trough is then tilted up and of the SE Asian countries, sago starch is produced com-
is kept filled with water, which running away at the lower mercially for use as food. In Cirebon, Indonesia, the starch
is used in making noodles. The starch is also used in mak-

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  15

ing white bread.
Sago pearls are made in West Malaysia and Sarawak. In
West Malaysia the pearls are used in the preparation of
three-palm pudding (sago pearls in coconut milk, and sug-
ar from Arenga pinnata). In Sarawak the pearls are mixed
with rice bran.

Fruit
Immature fruits (seeds) are occasionally reported as being
eaten, particularly by children.

Nut/seed
In Chuuk, buttons were made from the hard, white, ivory
like nut (endosperm) of M. amicarum during the Japanese
mandate years. The nut is eaten by pigs in Chuuk and
Pohnpei (Merlin et al. 1992, Merlin and Juvik 1996).

Leaf vegetable
The apical meristems or palm hearts are large and soft. The
trees may be harvested prior to maturation exclusively for
this purpose, with the meristem and several feet of the im-
mature leaves being used. These palm hearts are used lo-
cally or are sold in local markets. They are eaten raw as
a vegetable or cooked with other foods (now common in
curries).

Secondary food products

Indirect traditional uses of Metroxylon include collection
of mushrooms and beetle larvae that feed upon fallen trees.
These are then eaten by local peoples. Naturally fallen
palms may be checked periodically for growth of mush-
rooms and larvae, and in some areas palms are felled with
the intention of collecting larvae or fungus at later times.
The practice of intentionally felling Metroxylon to induce
POHNPEI LORE
In Pohnpei, M. amicarum is the tallest of three native
palms. Of those born of chiefly status (Nanmwarki),
the maternal lineage, or “blood,” is known as Nein-
neinioahs Soupeidi. The phrase is an honorific, with
symbolic reference to this tall palm (Merlin et al.
1992). The implication is that the child will grow to be
as tall, or as high in rank, as his forbears (as tall as an
M. amicarum palm).
One legend says that before Pohnpei was vegetated,
people lived in houses of rock without any roofs. A
lady with magical powers visited the island and took
pity on the people there. She then sent them the oahs
plant, which the people used for thatching and other
significant purposes (Elias 1998).
Top: The starch can be eaten raw. Bottom: The starch is usu-
ally harvested and refined into pure starch using a water pro-
cess. Both photos: M. warburgii, American Samoa. photos:
W. McClatchey
production of secondary products may represent one of the
earliest forms of agriculture.
Appliances
The smooth inner surface of the sheaths also may be used
as temporary containers or troughs for animal feed and
as kneading boards for bread made from sago. Metroxylon
leaflets may be used to line cooking pits. Woven leaflets
are used as temporary baskets. Whole leaves are used to
cover and protect dry-stored canoes (Feinberg 1988). The
stiff, hard midribs may be used to make brooms, may serve
as temporary sewing needles or pins, or may be used as
thatch sheet skewers (Firth 1950). Guppy (1887) reported
that gourd bottle-corks/stoppers are made from lightly
rolled discs of sago leaves. The leaf sheaths are commonly
covered externally with rough spines and/or rib-like pro-
tuberances. These rough sheaths have served as rasps in the
preparation of sago and other food products that must be

16  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

grated.
Toys
Bats, balls, and rafts are made by children from the leaf
base.
Beverage/drink/tea
Starch of M. sagu is used in the manufacture of fructose
syrup for non-alcoholic drinks. Perhaps the starch can also
be used for making starch pearls similar to tapioca pearls
used in fruit drinks.
Medicinal
The roots, young leaves, and stem cork of M. amicarum are
used for traditional medicine in Pohnpei.
Timber
The wood (outer cortex) of Metroxylon stems is used as
flooring and as planking for crossing short streams or
swampy areas. The wood is not reported as being long last-
ing or durable, but is employed as a by-product by those
who extract starch. Wood has also been used as house raf-
ters (e.g., in Chuuk) and as wall material, although this is
Left: The leaf sheath covered with spiny ribs can be used as a grater in preparing sago starch. Right: M. warburgii with fronds
pruned for thatch, Samoa. photos: C. Elevitch
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  17
an infrequent usage. The woody leaf petioles of M. sagu
are used to make walls, ceilings, and fences (Schuiling and
Jong 1996).
Fuelwood
The bark can be used as a factory fuel.
Canoe/boat/raft making
The leaf rachis, without leaflets, may be used as a “raft”
(Firth 1950). Children sometimes make surfboards from
the petiole base (leaf sheath) that can be up to one meter
wide.
Fiber/cordage
The fibrous outer layers of M. sagu leaf petioles are used for
cordage and mat weaving (Schuiling and Jong 1996). Pith
and leaf fibers have been studied for use in paper produc-
tion (Kasim et al. 1995).
Fodder
The raw starch is used as pig feed on a local level. The
starch has also been used on an industrial scale to feed
pigs and chickens (Dunsmore and Ong 1970, Jalaludin et
al. 1970, Müller 1977, Ong 1973, Springhall and
Ross 1965).

Thatch/roofing/mats
Leaves are highly valued for thatch for roofs
and house walls in many islands of the Pacific.
In Pohnpei, roofs are called oahs, the Pohnpeian
word for M. amicarum, as the leaves are used for
thatch (Merlin et al. 1992).
The leaves are made into thatch in two different
ways, with slight variations of these patterns in
different cultures. Leaves may be woven into
thatch sheets using the following procedure:
1. Mature leaves are split down the middle of M. warburgii thatch, Rotuma. photo: W. McClatchey
the rachis.
2. The halves of the leaf are woven and be constructed from the same thatch sheets.
matched with the distal apex of one half attached to In northern Vanuatu, where both M. warburgii and M.
the proximal petiole base of the other, and vice versa. salomonense are present, thatch from each species is used
3. The pair of leaves is allowed to dry in the sun, thus cur- for different constructions. Metroxylon warburgii sheets are
ing it into a dry thatch. used for roofing, whereas M. salomonense sheets are used
for wall siding (Zona, pers. comm.). In Samoa, older in-
4. Drying may take from half a day to a week or more
formants indicated that the leaves of M. paulcoxii were not
depending on the temperature and weather.
useful for thatch but that M. warburgii is considered to
The thatch sheets may also be used green and allowed be a superior thatch. Younger Samoan informants did not
to dry on the house (Gardiner 1898). A slightly different seem to be aware of the difference between species and
weaving pattern is used for sets of leaves used to thatch the seemed to harvest the leaves indiscriminately.
apex of the roof. Rather than using pairs of leaf halves, two
The leaflets (basic thatch materials) of M. amicarum and
entire leaves are woven facing one another, then one of the
M. warburgii contain highly modified and enlarged sub-
two leaves is split in half (down the rachis) leaving two leaf
hypodermal bundles of fibers. These fibers explain the en-
halves and one entire leaf all woven together. After weav-
during quality of thatch made from these species. As hu-
ing, the entire leaf is at the center of the thatching strip
mans have selected these species, they have probably also
and the leaf halves are attached to each side. These unique
selected for increased fiber production and have selectively
apical thatch leaves are commonly called fakatafiti (or a
planted cultivated trees with better leaf qualities.
cognate) throughout their usage in western Polynesia.
Alternatively, leaves may be manufactured into sewn thatch Resin/gum/glue/latex
sheets through the following procedure: In Indonesia, the starch is used as an extender in plywood
1. Leaflets are removed from the rachis. adhesives.
2. Each leaflet is folded over a supporting spine of wood Body ornamentation/garlands
(e.g., Areca macrocalyx), bamboo (e.g., Bambusa or
Metroxylon fruits, particularly those of M. salomonense and
Schizostachyum spp.), or rattan (Calamus spp.).
M. amicarum, have been (and are still) used as sources of
3. The leaflets are sewn or pinned to the spine using co- vegetable ivory. Formerly European industries imported
conut sennit, thin lengths of split Calamus, or Flagel- quantities of Metroxylon seeds, i.e., “ivory nuts,” which
laria stems or other suitable materials. were cut into buttons for clothing. The seeds, which are
4. The lengths of the leaflets may be trimmed to produce quite hard and ivory-like, are carved to produce cultural
a uniform-size sheet or may be left in uneven lengths. items of trade in local economies and for sale to tourists.
5. The resulting thatch sheets are dried in the sun as the The Solomon Islands presently exports M. salomonense
woven sheets. seeds to Alaska, where they are carved and sold by tradi-
tional peoples in place of sea-mammal ivory. Metroxylon
The thatch is applied in layers, with each sheet being tied amicarum seeds carved and sold locally in the Federated
to the rafters with coconut sennit or vines. Walls may also States of Micronesia are also shipped to Japan. Some of

18  Metroxylon species (sago palm)


At Buma Village (North of Auki) in Malaita Province, Solomon Islands,
leaves of M. salomonense are used in traditional houses for wall sidings and
roof thatch. These materials are reputed to last for about 7 years. Other
palms in this photo include coconut and betel nut. photo: H. Manner
M. warburgii thatch and walls, Rotuma. photo: W. McClatchey
these “ivory nuts” that were brought to Europe by sail-
ors eventually became labeled as collections of “petrified
apples” in the Berlin Museum herbarium. The vegetable
ivory is distinguished from that of other palm seeds in that
Metroxylon often has a greenish hue and a grain that is
spiraled.
Ceremonial/religious importance
Among the Asmat of Papua New Guinea, a palm that is
about to bear fruit is selected, then dressed with a woman’s
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  19
skirt of leaves. After a honorific recitation of
brave deeds by the men, the palm is felled and
attacked as an enemy. Holes are bored into the
trunk. The sago palm beetle (Rynchophorus fer-
rugineous/bilineatus) then lays its eggs there, and
6 weeks later the grubs are harvested, carried
triumphantly as a slain enemy to the village on
a tray of sago leaves, and then consumed (Sin-
gapore Zoological Gardens Docents 2000).
Other
Other uses of Metroxylon that are either being
studied or are presently in use include alterna-
tive uses (non-food) of sago starch and uses of
by-products of sago production. Sago starch is
a useful substrate for commercial fuel ethanol
production (Haska 1995, Holmes and New-
combe 1980, Ishizaki and Tripetchkul 1995, Lee
et al. 1987, Newcombe et al. 1980, 1982, Rhee et
al. 1984).
By-products of commercial sago production
include reclaimed fibers and waste pith used
as fertilizer. Sago pith residue as a diluent and
supplement to green manures has been stud-
ied (Bintoro 1995). This use is of particular eco-
nomic interest, because Metroxylon frequently
grows in swampy areas with poor soils. Suitable
fertilizers developed from local inputs, such as
pith residue, could provide efficient low cost
agricultural improvements for the peoples who
farm in and adjacent to commercial sago grow-
ing areas.
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Starch
In contrast to other sources of starch, sago
yields are exceptionally high. Under good con-
ditions the range is from 15 to possibly 25 mt of
air-dried starch/ha (6.7–11.1 t/ac) of M. sagu at
the end of an 8-year growth cycle (Flach 1997).
One source notes that this industry earns RM620/mt of
air-dried starch (Flach 1997). M. sagu is considerably more
productive for starch production compared with other
Metroxylon species. Although the starch yields of other spe-
cies have not been measured, the starch from each species
(including M. amicarum) is similar in taste and consistency
to that of M. sagu. It seems likely that because traditional
selection in species other than M. sagu (and possibly some
populations of M. warburgii in Vanuatu and Rotuma, Fiji)
has probably focused on leaf qualities rather than starch,
that starch production has not been maximized and there-
fore will be of lower quality and quantity.

Thatch
Thatch made of Metroxylon leaves is of considerable value
to local peoples. On Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands,
sewn thatch sheets sell for SI$1.50 each, or about one third
to one fifth of a day’s wages. Thatch sheets of M. amicarum
sell for US$0.50 to US$2.00 each in Pohnpei, with higher
prices charged after storms and for large projects such as
hotels. Metroxylon thatch lasts for up to 10 years, whereas
the alternative thatches of coconut leaves, sugarcane leaves,
and pandanus must be replaced every 1–4 years. Some well
thatched Metroxylon roofs are said to have lasted as long
as 50 years. The value of this thatch to traditional peoples
cannot be underestimated.
The economic value of Metroxylon leaf was demonstrated
following Cyclone Namu (May 1986) in the Solomon Is-
lands, when for a long period many destroyed homes could
not be rebuilt because of a lack of roofing and walling ma-
terial (Henderson and Hancock 1988).
Example 1: Pig-forage area and agroforest, Aopo Village,
Savai‘i Island, Samoa. photo: H. Manner
INTERPLANTING/FARM
APPLICATIONS Example 2
For highest yields of starch, M. sagu should probably be Location
grown as a monocrop, as few other plant food species do
Taga Village, Savai‘i Island, upland garden, and agroforest
well in the peat swamp. Except for Papua New Guinea,
area.
there are few extensive stands of Metroxylon throughout
the Pacific islands. As a food staple, sago is not a preferred Description
starch in the Pacific. However, interplanting Metroxylon
This area has young M. warburgii trees with old fronds
for its other products is practiced extensively on many Pa-
trimmed off, standing about 4 m (13 ft) high in association
cific islands.
with screwpine (Pandanus spp.), coconut, banana, bread-
fruit (Artocarpus altilis), and taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza).
Example 1
Location
Aopo Village, Savai‘i Island, Samoa
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND
AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION
Description Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the Pa-
This is a backyard pig-foraging area and agroforest. The cific: http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html.
most prominent species found in this backyard kitchen
garden was M. warburgii. The palms stand about 10 m (33
ft) in height and have large inflorescences, indicating ma- GERMPLASM RESOURCES
turity. Other trees in the vicinity are citrus species, coconut, Collections of most species are found at the Bogor Botani-
etc. cal Garden, Fairchild Botanical Garden, University of the
South Pacific, Laucala campus, and the Lyon Arboretum,
Honolulu.
Major collections of M. sagu varieties are held by the Uni-

20  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

versity of Malaysia, Sarawak, and the Ministry
of Agriculture, Lae, Papua New Guinea.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(☛  indicates recommended reading)
ARCBC. 2004. ASEAN’s 100 Most Precious
Plants. ASEAN Regional Centre for Bio-
diversity Conservation (ARCBC). <http://
www.arcbc.org/arcbcweb/ASEAN_Precious_
plants/edible/Metroxylon_sagu.htm>.
Barrau, J. 1959. The sago palm and other food
plants of marsh dwellers on the South Pacific
Islands. Economic Botany 13: 151–162.
Becarri, O. 1918. Asiatic palms—Lepidocaryeae.
Annals Royal Botanical Garden, Calcutta 12:
156–195.
Ehara, H., C. Komada, and O. Morita. 1998.
Germination characteristics of sago palm
seeds and spine emergence in seedlings pro-
duced from spineless palm seeds. Principes
42(4): 212–217.
Ehara, H., H. Naito, C. Mizota, and P. Ala. 2003.
Distribution, growth environment and utili-
zation of Metroxylon palms in Vanuatu. Sago
Palm 10: 64–72.
Elias, P. 1998. Metroxylon amicarum. <http://
www.comfsm.fm/~dleeling/botany/1998/vhp/
metroxyl.htm>.
☛ Flach, M. 1997. Sago Palm: Metroxylon sagu
Rottb. Promoting the Conservation and Use
of Underutilized and Neglected Crops 13. In-
stitute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Re-
search (Gatersleben) and International Plant
Genetics Resources Institute (Rome, Italy).
Example 2. Top: Agroforestry system Taga Village, Savai‘i Island, Samoa.
<http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/ Bottom: Older M. warburgii trees at Tafua-tai, Savai‘i Island, Samoa,
pdf/238.pdf>. spaced about 8 m (26 ft) apart. photos: H. Manner
Fosberg, F. R., Sachet, M-H., and Oliver, R. 1987.
A geographical checklist of the Micronesian An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany. Dioscorides
Monocotyledonae. Micronesica 20(1 & 2): 19–129. Press, Portland, Oregon.
Jones, D.L. 1995. Palms Throughout the World. Smithson- Marcus, J., and K. Banks. 1999. A practical guide to germi-
ian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. nating palm seeds. Principes 43: 56–59.
☛ Kainuma, K., M. Okazaki, Y. Toyoda, and J. Cecil. (eds.). McClatchey, W. 1996. A revision of the genus Metroxylon
2002. New Frontiers of Sago Palm Studies. Proceedings section Coelococcus (Arecaceae). Ph.D. Dissertation,
of the International Symposium on SAGO (SAGO 2001), University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
October 15–17, 2001, Tsukuba International Congress Cen- McClatchey, W. 1998. Phylogenetic analysis of morpho-
ter, Tsukuba, Japan. Frontiers Science Series 37. Universal logical characters of Metroxylon Section Coelococcus
Academic Press, Tokyo, Japan. (Palmae) and resulting implications for studies of other
Lebot, V. 1991. Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.): the Poly- Calamoideae genera. pp. 285–306. In: Henderson, A. Evo-
nesian dispersal of an oceanian plant. pp. 169–201. In: Cox, lution, Variation, and Classification of Palms. Memoirs of
P.A. and S.A. Banack. Islands, Plants and Polynesians: the New York Botanical Garden.

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  21

McClatchey, W. 1998. A new species of the genus Metroxylon life Service Biological Report 88 (24). <http://plants.usda.
(Arecaceae) from Western Samoa. Novon 8: 252–258. gov/wetinfo.html>.
McClatchey, W. 2002. Biogeographical Observation of USDA. No date. Plant profile for Metroxylon amicarum.
Metroxylon Section Coelococcus. pp. 119–126. In: K. Kai- Wetlands Indicator Status: Metroxylon amicarum (H.A.
numa, Okazaki, Toyoda, and Cecil, op. cit. Wendl.) Becc. <http://plants.udsa.gov/cgi_bin/plant_pro-
McClatchey, W., and P. A. Cox. 1992. Use of the sago palm file.cgi?symbol=MEAM4>.
Metroxylon warburgii in the Polynesian island, Rotuma. Walter, A., and C. Sam. 2002. Fruits of Oceania. ACIAR
Economic Botany 46: 305–309. Monograph 85. Australian Centre for International Agri-
Merlin, M., Jano, D., Raynor, W., Keene, T., Juvik, J., and cultural Research, Canberra, Australia.
Sebastian, B. 1992. Tuhke en Pohnpei. Plants of Pohnpei. Whitmore, T.C. 1966. Guide to the Forests of the British
East West Center, Honolulu. Solomon Islands. Forestry Department, British Solomon
Merlin, M., and J. Juvik. 1996. Ira me Neeniier non Chuuk. Islands Protectorate Government.
Plants and their Environments in Chuuk. East West Cen- Yen, D.E. 1991. Polynesian cultigens and cultivars: The ques-
ter, Honolulu. tions of origin. pp. 67–95. In: Cox, P.A., and S.A. Banack.
Mueller-Dombois, D., and F. R. Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of Islands, Plants and Polynesians: An Introduction to Poly-
the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer Verlag, New York. nesian Ethnobotany. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Or-
Ohtsuka, R. 1983. Oriomo Papuans: Ecology of Sago-Eaters egon.
in Lowland Papua. University of Tokyo Press.
Pursglove, J.W. 1968. Tropical Crops. Monocotyledons.
Longman Group, Ltd., London.
Rauwerdink, J.B. 1986. An essay on Metroxylon, the sago
palm. Principes 30(4): 165–180.
Schuiling, D.L. 1996. Metroxylon Rottboell. pp. 116–120. In:
Flach, M. and F. Rumawas (eds.). Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No. 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbo-
hydrates. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.
Schuiling, D.L., and F.S. Jong. 1996. Metroxylon sagu Rott-
boell. pp. 121–126. In: Flach, M. and F. Rumawas (eds.).
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 9. Plants yielding
non-seed carbohydrates. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indo-
nesia.
Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents. 2000. Rainforest
gifts. Sago and sago grubs. <http://www.szgdocent.org/ff/
f-sago.htm>.
Smith, A.C. 1979. Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of
Fiji (Spermatophytes Only). Volume 1. Pacific Tropical
Botanical Garden, Lāwa‘i, Kaua‘i, Hawai‘i.
Stone, B.C. 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesica 6: 1–659.
Thaman, R.R. 1993. Appendix. One hundred Pacific Island
agroforestry trees. pp. 216–266. In: Clarke, W.C. and R.R.
Thaman. Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands: Systems for
Sustainability. United Nations University Press, Tokyo.
Thaman, R.R., C.R. Elevitch, and K.M. Wilkinson. 2000.
Multipurpose trees for agroforestry in the Pacific Islands.
In: Elevitch, C.R. and K.M. Wilkinson. Agroforestry
Guides for Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture Re-
sources, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i.
Uhl, N.W., and J. Dransfield. 1987. Genera Palmarum. The
L.H. Bailey Hortorium and The International Palm Soci-
ety, Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
USDA. 1988. Wetland regions and indicator categories. In:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. National list of vascular
plant species that occur in wetlands. U.S. Fish and Wild-

22  Metroxylon species (sago palm)

 Traditional Tree Initiative—Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Metroxylon amicarum, M. paulcoxii, M. sagu,

M. salomonense, M. vitiense, and M. warburgii (sago palm)
Authors: Will McClatchey1, Harley I. Manner2, and Craig R. Elevitch3
1. University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Botany Department, St. John 405, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA; Tel:808-956-
6704; Fax: 808-956-3923; Web: <http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/mcclatchey/>.
2. University of Guam, College of Arts and Sciences, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923, USA; Tel: 671-735-2874; Fax: 671-734-
5255; E-mail: hmanner@uog9.uog.edu
3. Permanent Agriculture Resources, PO Box 428, Holualoa, HI 96725 USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-4129; E-mail: par@
agroforestry.net; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>.
Acknowledgments: The authors and publisher thank Ray Baker, Hiro Ehara, Dale Evans, and Bill Raynor for their input. Photo
contributions from Ray Baker, Eleanore Burson, and Deborah Ward are greatly appreciated.
Recommended citation: McClatchey, W., H.I. Manner, and C.R. Elevitch. 2006. Metroxylon amicarum, M. paulcoxii, M. sagu, 
M. salomonense, M. vitiense, and M. warburgii (sago palm), ver. 2.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island
Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. <http://www.traditionaltree.org>.
Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sus-
tainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program; SPC/GTZ Pacific-German Regional Forestry Project;
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); State of Hawai‘i Department of Land & Natural Resources Divi-
sion of Forestry & Wildlife; and the USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program. This material is based upon work
supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural
Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2002-47001-01327.
Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-
4129; E-mail: par@agroforestry.net; Web: <http://www.agroforestry.net>. This institution is an equal opportunity provider.
Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from <http://www.traditionaltree.org>. This publication may be repro-
duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. © 2006 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All
rights reserved.

   

     

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)  23